Anatomical Architecture: Exploring the Relations Beteen Human Anatomy and Design by Matt Jarosz

Matt Jarosz

Anatomical Architecture Exploring Relations of Human Anatomy and Design

Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Architecture Department in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Architecture at Savannah College of Art and Design

Matt Jarosz Savannah May, 2015

Hsu-Jen Huang: Committee chair Timothy Woods: Committee member Andreas Luescher: Committee member

Contents

List of Figures

Abstract

1 Perspective Values and Human Relation in Architecture 1.1 Re-analyzing Relations 1.2 Anatomical Investigations 1.3 Straying Methodologies

10 14 16 20

2 Theoretical Context 2.1 Architectural Principles Evolving from Anatomical Inquiry 2.1.1 The Practice of Order 2.1.2 Illustrating Geometry through Man 2.1.3 Recognizing Body Types 2.2 Human Relationship with Style Development 2.2.1 Traditions of Mimicry 2.2.2 Construction Develops as an Extension of Human Characteristics 2.2.3 Renaissance Dissect the True Meaning of Perfection 2.2.4 Scientific Revolution Promotes New Ideals of Human Relation 2.2.5 Innovative Expressionism Applied to Architecture 2.2.6 New Representation of the Human Form in Architecture 2.2.7 New Models of Design

24 28 28 31 33 36 36 38 40 40 43 44 46

2.3 Advancement of Anatomical Studies through History 2.3.1 Evolution of the Anatomical Sciences and Art 2.3.2 Generating New Technologies 2.3.3 Biological Components at Different Scales 2.3.4 Designers Exploit of Anatomical Studies 2.4 Design Principles Revealed through the Human Body 2.4.1 The Architects' Fixation on Imagery 2.4.2 Lost Dialogue between Theory and Design 2.4.3 Architecture Conjures Body Movement and Function

3 Theoretical Context 3.1 Understanding Limits of The Body 3.1.1 Understanding Limits of The Body 3.1.2 Allowing for Peak Performance 3.2 Mechanics Extracted from Biological Design 3.2.1 Significance of The Thoracic Cage

64 68 68 69 72 72

4 Advancing Exploration of Program 4.1 Programmatic Relations Developed 4.1.1 Relating Program to Biological Design

78 82 82

5 Site Analysis 5.1 Defining the Site and Current Conditions 5.1.1 Site Selection and Characteristics 5.2 Addressing Climate Conditions 5.2.1 Developing in an Unpredictable Climate

88 94 94 100 100

6 Schematic Design 6.1 Human Anatomy Inspires Design 6.1.1 An Experimental Archetype

106 110 110

48 51 53 56 58 58 59 61

7 Design Development 7.1 Human Anatomy Inspires Design 7.1.1 Enriching the Experience

114 118 118

Conclusion

136

Bibliography

140

List of Figures

Chapter 1 Fig. 1.01

Cellular to Mechanical Anatomy

Fig. 1.02

Revolutionary Anatomical Illustration

Fig. 1.03

Alteration of Proportional Values

Book

By Author

pg.15

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historica lanatomies/vesalius_home.html

pg. 17

By Author

pg. 21

http://library.calvin.edu/hda/node/2306

pg. 29

Chapter 2 Fig. 2.01

Human Relations with the Universe

Fig. 2.02

Vitruvain Man Drawing: Vinci

Fig. 2.03

Human Interaction with Space: Oskar Schlemmer

http://principieprincipi.blogspot.com/2012/ 06/oskar−schlemmer−il−balletto− triadico.html

pg. 35

Fig. 2.04

Geometries Through Man

http://www.world− mysteries.com/sci_17_vm.htm

pg. 37

Fig. 2.05

Flap Anatomy of the Shoulder: da Vinci

Leonardo http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/2013082 8−leonardo−da−vinci−the−anatomist

pg. 41

Fig. 2.06

Structural Ornamentation

Fig. 2.07

Representation of Man Changing Technology

Fig. 2.08

Biological Design to Mechanical Design

http://www.heatinc.ca/body−mechanics− the−science−of−moving−safely/

pg. 57

Fig. 2.09

Atmospheric Affects on the Body

By Author

pg. 60

Fig. 2.10

Mechanical Bio−mimicry

http://www.lostateminor.com/2012/12/26/ aleksandr−kuskovs−vision−of−a−mechanical− heart/

pg. 63

Leonardo da http://www.leonardoda−vinci.org/

http://oneeyeland.com/image.php?imgid= 96444 with By Author

Human

pg. 32

pg. 45 pg. 47

Chapter 3 Fig. 3.01

Oxygen Conversion Process

Original image by http://www.oxygenplus.com/oxygen− research/ edited By Author

pg. 71

Fig. 3.02

Expansion and Contraction

By Author

pg. 73

Fig. 3.03

Thoracic Cage Massing

By Author

pg. 74

Fig. 3.04

Vertebrae Connectivity

By Author

pg. 74

Fig. 3.05

True Ribs vs. False Ribs

By Author

pg. 75

Fig. 3.06

Thoracic Cage Stabalizing Muscle

By Author

pg. 75

Fig. 3.07

Layers Dependent on Thoracic Structure

By Author

pg. 76

Fig. 3.08

Thoracic Cage Overview

By Author

pg. 76

Cage

Fig. 3.05

True Ribs vs. False Ribs

By Author

pg. 75

Fig. 3.06

Thoracic Cage Stabalizing Muscle

By Author

pg. 75

Fig. 3.07

Layers Dependent on Thoracic Structure

By Author

pg. 76

Fig. 3.08

Thoracic Cage Overview

By Author

pg. 76

Fig. 3.09

Skeletal Reveal

Original image by Visible Body−3D Muscle Premium Muscle Prime Image Edit By Author

pg. 77

Cage

Chapter 4 Fig. 4.01

Programatic Figures

Original Image by http://analyticalfiguresp08.blogspot.com/ edited By Author

pg. 83

Fig. 4.02

Zoning Requirements

Stadia: The Populous Design and Development Guide

pg. 84

Fig. 4.03

Application of Zones in the Stadium

By Author

pg. 84

Fig. 4.04

Stadium User Groups

Stadia: The Populous Design and Development Guide

pg. 85

Fig. 4.05

Spectator and Staff Circulation Diagram

By Author

pg. 85

Fig. 4.06

Player and Media Circulation Diagram

By Author

pg. 85

Fig. 4.07

Application of Program in the Stadium

By Author

pg. 86

Fig. 4.08

Soccer Cleats

By Author

pg. 87

Chapter 5 Fig. 5.01

Cleveland Figure Ground

By Author

pg. 92

Fig. 5.02

Proposed site and Designated Areas

By Author

pg. 96

Fig. 5.03

Building Heights

By Author

pg. 97

Fig. 5.04

Building Use

By Author

pg. 97

Fig. 5.05

Extension of Districts

By Author

pg. 97

Fig. 5.06

Vehicle Interaction

By Author

pg. 97

Fig. 5.07

Public Transportation

By Author

pg. 98

Fig. 5.08

Pedestrian Interaction

By Author

pg. 98

Fig. 5.09

Field Orientation

By Author

pg. 98

Fig. 5.10

Optimum View Range

By Author

pg. 99

Fig. 5.11

Weather Fluxuation of Cleveland

http://clecityhall.com/2015/01/07/city−of− clevelands−winter−weather−plan−january−7− 2015−at−1030−am/

pg. 99

Fig. 5.12

Daily Sunrise and Sunset

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 101

Fig. 5.08

Pedestrian Interaction

By Author

pg. 98

Fig. 5.09

Field Orientation

By Author

pg. 98

Fig. 5.10

Optimum View Range

By Author

pg. 99

Fig. 5.11

Weather Fluxuation of Cleveland

http://clecityhall.com/2015/01/07/city−of− clevelands−winter−weather−plan−january−7− 2015−at−1030−am/

pg. 99

Fig. 5.12

Daily Sunrise and Sunset

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 101

Fig. 5.13

Daily Hours of Daylight and Twilight

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 102

Fig. 5.14

Daily Temperatures

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 102

Fig. 5.15

Periods of Temperature

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 102

Fig. 5.16

Types Percipitation

pg. 102

Fig. 5.17

Probability of Percipitation

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

Fig. 5.18

Probability of Snowfall

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 103

Fig. 5.19

Wind Direction

pg. 103

Fig. 5.20

Cloud Coverage

Fig. 5.21

Air Quality

pg. 103

pg. 104

Original by https://weatherspark.com/averages/29769 /Cleveland−Ohio−United−States edited By Author

pg. 104

Chapter 6 Fig. 6.01

Paper Model #1

By Author

pg. 111

Fig. 6.02

Paper Model #2

By Author

pg. 111

Fig. 6.03

Paper Model #3

By Author

pg. 111

Fig. 6.04

Clay Model #1

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.05

Clay Model #2

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.06

Combination of Form and Sysems

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.07

Curvilinear Line Work

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.08

Linearity applied to Curvilinear

By Author

pg. 113

Mechanical

Line

Fig. 6.02

Paper Model #2

By Author

pg. 111

Fig. 6.03

Paper Model #3

By Author

pg. 111

Fig. 6.04

Clay Model #1

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.05

Clay Model #2

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.06

Combination of Form and Sysems

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.07

Curvilinear Line Work

By Author

pg. 112

Fig. 6.08

Linearity applied to Curvilinear Work

By Author

pg. 113

Fig. 6.09

Rendering Elevation Study #1

By Author

pg. 113

Fig. 6.10

Rendering Elevation Study #2

By Author

pg. 113

Fig. 6.11

Transformation from Curvilinear Rigid Forms

By Author

pg. 113

Mechanical

Line

Chapter 7 Fig. 7.01

Design Developement Process Model

By Author

pg. 119

Fig. 7.02

Aerial Perspective

By Author

pg. 120

Fig. 7.03

Longitudinal Section

By Author

pg. 122

Fig. 7.04

Aerial Perspective Sketch

By Author

pg. 123

Fig. 7.05

South Entry Perspective Sketch

By Author

pg. 123

Fig. 7.06

Stadium Opening Section Sketch

By Author

pg. 123

Fig. 7.07

Stadium Entrance

By Author

pg. 124

Fig. 7.08

East Elevation

By Author

pg. 125

Fig. 7.09

South End of Stadium Perspective

By Author

pg. 125

Fig. 7.10

Stadium Floor Plans

By Author

pg. 126

Fig. 7.11

Main Concourse Perspective

By Author

pg. 127

Fig. 7.12

North Stand Perspective

By Author

pg. 127

Fig. 7.13

South Stadium Entry Point

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.14

South Elevation

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.15

Corss Section

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.16

Event Transitions

By Author

pg. 129

4Fig. 7.17

Materiality Diagrams

By Author

pg. 129

Fig. 7.18

Hybrid Composition

By Author

pg. 130

Fig. 7.12

North Stand Perspective

By Author

pg. 127

Fig. 7.13

South Stadium Entry Point

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.14

South Elevation

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.15

Corss Section

By Author

pg. 128

Fig. 7.16

Event Transitions

By Author

pg. 129

Fig. 7.17

Materiality Diagrams

By Author

pg. 129

Fig. 7.18

Hybrid Composition

By Author

pg. 130

Fig. 7.19

City Model Elevation

By Author

pg. 131

Fig. 7.20

City Model Close竏置p

By Author

pg. 131

Fig. 7.21

City Model Perspective #1

By Author

pg. 131

Fig. 7.22

City Model Perspective #2

By Author

pg. 131

Fig. 7.23

Gallery Display: Hybrid Composition Combined with City Model

By Author

pg. 131

Fig. 7.24

Introductory Representation Board

By Author

pg. 132

Fig. 7.25

Site Analysis Representational Board

By Author

pg. 133

Fig. 7.26

Third Representational Board

By Author

pg. 134

Fig. 7.27

Fourth Representational Board

By Author

pg. 134

Anatomical Architecture

Exploring Relations of Human Anatomy and Design

As time unfolds, the ideals of serving the human body throughout the contemporary architectural practices have vanished. Without the consideration or understanding of the human figure and anatomy, there has been a promotion of purely aesthetic and 'awe inspiring' architectural design. The relationship of human anatomy and current global architecture trends need to be reanalyzed throughout the design profession to better the functionality of future structures as well as response toward 21st century occupants of the space.

Perspective Values and Human Relation in Architecture

Human anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body; it also provides

foundational information for understanding physiology, also known as the study of function. The investigation of human anatomy is perhaps one of the most historically explored studies which lend its knowledge to the public to promote a better well-being throughout the world. As the knowledge progressed through the Greeks, through those in the Renaissance, and throughout Modernism, it can be determined that comprehension of the human body and anatomical research allowed for alternative design solutions, conforming stronger human interaction and relative design principles.

As architectural values and methodologies develop through the centuries, along

with scientific discoveries, the principles once present in architectural design philosophies have diminished. The essence of architecture, which is designed to respond to human behavior and diversity, is failing to relate or provide relationships conveying highly functional spaces. Designers now understand how industry inhabits a space better than how the human occupies the space. In order to create stronger human relations through architecture, designers must reinvest in anatomical studies in order to truly understand human response and functionality.

1.1

Re-Analyzing Relations

The interrelationships and dependencies among different disciplines have seem-

ingly developed numerous practices through the evolution of progressive societies. As new means of learning continually transforms the way in which individuals practice different professions of the 21st century, there is a loss of comparative studies. Due to the lack of comparative studies, the advanced scientific research that continues to evolve is not being exploited to produce applicable solutions. In particular, anatomical sciences have produced vast amounts of knowledge on how human beings function, both mechanically and through the different systems of the body. Throughout history, philosophers and physiologists established relations of human anatomy and the human body with architecture and used anatomical discoveries to transform the principals of functionality and aesthetics of design. These principals were instilled in the practice through centuries, and as time unfolds, the ideals of serving the human body throughout the contemporary architectural practices have vanished. Without the consideration or

understanding of the human figure and anatomy, there has been a promotion of purely aesthetic and 'awe inspiring' architectural design. The relationship of human anatomy and current architecture trends at a global level need to be re-analyzed throughout the design profession to better the functionality of future structures as well as response toward 21st century occupants of architectural space. Fig. 1.01 Cellular to Mechanical Anatomy

1.2

Anatomical Investigations

1.2 Anatomical Investigations

History provides numerous examples of architectural trends and design techniques

that have continually advanced through the understanding of human anatomical studies. The anatomical sciences throughout several centuries have built on one another to provide new perspective values and relations between multitudes of scientific studies. Anatomical studies are not only performed to better understand the structure of the human body, but the functionality of bodily systems such as: the skeletal system, the muscular system, and the internal organ system. All made up of complexly structured cellular matrices, performing in union to allow for greater functionality. The investigation of human anatomy is perhaps one of the most historically explored studies.

Kenneth Saladin, a celebrated professor of biology and author of several

anatomical studies, states that "anatomy is an ancient human interest, undoubtedly older than any written language we know (Saladin, 8)." One of the first individuals

Fig. 1.02 Revolutionary Anatomical Illustration Book

documenting anatomical studies was the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.). Aristotle explored the relations of different anatomies (whether they are human or animal) and exemplified ideals of human structure being composed of smaller more complex elements. Further complimenting Aristotle's studies was Herophilus (335-280 B.C.E.), who was considered the most experienced anatomist of Antiquity and up to the Renaissance. Herophilus's research involved the dissection of human cadavers and highly descriptive analysis. To further educate and interest individuals of this science, Herophilus held public demonstrations to help individuals understand the components that make up a human body. With well-established research to build upon, Greek physician Claudius Galen (129-199 C.E.) began his studies throughout the battlefields of Greece and composed a medical textbook that would be followed for centuries. He has become most successful due to his simplistic illustrations and dialogs referencing known objects as means of measurement or shape; these descriptions gave him the ability to communicate with any given audience.

The ability to illustrate scientific findings and describe them with meaningful

instruction allowed one to excel in their publicized research, furthermore expanding the knowledge of a human beings anatomical foundation. This was also known as the birth of modern anatomy. A pioneer of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, fused this notion of art and science and illustrated several anatomical dissections. Though he was not a physician, he understood the complexities of the inner body and expressed them through drawings. He also made numerous observational diagrams supporting ideals of symmetry throughout the human body and its relation to nature. Excelling in anatomical science throughout the Renaissance and capitalizing on the ideas of diagrammatic representations was Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). With realistic art, Andreas Vesalius published the first atlas of anatomy. This publication also clarified the inaccurate texts of human anatomy publicized by physiologist prior to this time. Not only was he praised within the physiology

community, he also influenced and urged other disciplines to understand the mechanisms of the human body in order to better everyday life.

1.3

Straying Methodologies

1.3 Straying Methodologies

Inspired by the anatomical studies and research performed by philosophers and

physiologists were new means of design, not only for the innovators, but for architects as well. Anatomical research allowed for alternative design solutions, conforming stronger human interaction and relative design principles.

With the progression into the technologically advanced architectural era, relative

design principles established through history began to dissipate. Many architects urged that expressionism should assist functionality; this is still seen in the twenty first century with the common debate of 'form versus function.' The ideals of humanism were minimally instilled into design, and methodologies in addition to techniques transformed quickly with the advancing global societies. Not only were there new methods of design and construction, there were new industries demanding appropriately supporting architecture, which ultimately brought about new materials to support a designers' goal of expression.

Alteration of Proportional Values Through Time

15th Century

19th Century

21st Century

Fig. 1.03 Alteration of Proportional Values

As the society and the economy continued to grow exponentially designers began to understanding the industry inhabiting the space better than the human that is occupying the space; design had no regard to proportions of the human body or golden ratios.

Contemporary architecture constructed throughout the twenty first century fails

to address proportional values developed through the practice. Architectural values are now being articulated through sculptural designs guided by technologically advanced features. The essence of architecture, which is designed to respond to human behavior and diversity, is failing to relate or provide relationships conveying highly functional spaces. Historical advancements in architecture can be related to the developments of anatomical sciences, and understanding functionality of the human body. With such great understanding of the human body, why are these mechanisms not applied through contemporary architecture? Without the consideration or understanding of the human figure and anatomy, there has been a promotion of purely aesthetic and 'awe inspiring' architectural design. Currently, the relationship of human anatomy and architecture around the world needs to be reanalyzed by the design professions to better the functionality of future structures. As the diversity of anatomical studies advances, designers can also choose the most appropriate research to best configure architectural components and apply them to create highly functional spaces.

Theoretical Context

The philosophers and designers throughout human history have intricately studied

the relation of man and nature, and the harmonious unity throughout each. Man is celebrated as the most perfect form of life and is exemplified throughout many practices. The translation of man in architecture came through the form of Euclidean Geometry; through measure, number and weight. Furthermore each major era in architectural history has created systems to exploit the ideals of human relation; these systems then acted as the spine of architectural design.

The scientific revolution brought about many questions regarding functionality of

the human body and its relation to the universe. This prompted philosophers as well as physicians to take a closer look at the complexities of the human body. Through the combination of art and science, intricate systems of the body were able to be realized and portrayed to the public. Taking advantage of these studies were designers who wanted to create a stronger link between the built environment and the human body; reflecting human symmetry and functionality in design led to the description of a 'perfect building.'

With the great advancement in sciences, particularly anatomical studies, vast

amounts of information have become readily available to the public.

Unfortunately

numerous fields fail to create a link with progressing studies that may provoke positive changes in design, or ways of life. Through history one can observe the evolution of anatomical sciences and the astounding correlations through various disciplines. As architects and designers of the past had taken this information to set fundamental principles, the designers of this century need to do the same.

2.1

Architectural Systems Evolving from Anatomical Inquiry 2.1.1 The Practice of Order

Leading the path for evolving societies throughout history, many centuries ago, were

the cosmic orders, the sophistication of nature, alongside the relationships communities built with the gods. Within Greek philosophy many sought out the relation of man in nature and the conditions of existence. Philosophers became critical of the human body and its representation; particularly Aristotle and Plato. "The body for Plato is not given something that can be isolated or defined as an entity; rather, it is part of a process of ordering within the domain of necessity (Vesely, 29)." Continuation of philosophical inquiry within first century studies resulted with the appearance of the human figure becoming a structured order of reality. Philosophers then acknowledged discussions on how the physical body is assisted by one's soul.

Plato explains in his dialogue 'Timaeus' that "the revolution which are two and are

bound within a sphere, shaping the body in imitation of the spherical form of the all, which

Fig. 2.01 Human Relations with the Universe

body we now call head, it being the most Devin part and reining over all the parts within us. To it the gods delivered over the whole of the body, which they assembled to be its servant, having formed the notion that it should partake in all the motions which were to be (Zeyl, 20)." Explanations of mediation and unity were then brought about through order of the mind and body and proportional elements within the human figure. Further evolving from these ideals of soul and body connections and proportion were measures of the human body and how these ratios should be translated through common practices or environments; particularly in the spaces that society defines as their habitat.

"Architecture represents the most elementary mode of embodiment that enables

the more articulated levels of culture, including numbers and ideas, to be situated in reality as a whole (Vesely, 41)." The translation of man in architecture came through the form of mathematics; through measure, number, and weight. To create a structure for man, the architect needed to understand the characteristics of those individuals taking shelter within the building. The conditions of these humans would then be embodied into the formation of the building; this was done through the multiplicity of the particular inhabitants' proportions, along with the portrayal certain characteristics through different building materials. Also conditions of the users were to be analyzed, because the architecture was to reveal harmonic relations between the universe or the built environment and the human being. Pluto argues once again that when we sense something 'harmonic' our souls recognize the fundamental order of the universe (leach, 211).

As theory and representation progressed through Ancient Greek society, so did the

ideal of proportioning; ultimately leading to a diagram that demonstrated how to construct for harmonious human interaction. The Golden Ratio in geometry is a revolutionary diagram that consists of simple mathematics defining relations of unique and ordinary geometry. This approach to proportioning, which has been applied through numerous generation of architectural design, took ratios of different geometries and balanced both

separations within an object or lines on an object. In architectural practice, proportion may be considered a precise study that gives order to a building design, visually as well as functionally: this particular proportioning system became the foundation of advancing proportional systems throughout history as well.

2.1.2 Illustrating Geometry through Man

Vitruvius, also a Renaissance philosopher, translated historical references and

searched for the deeper meaning of fundamental principles. "Vitruvius's project was a normative one, motivated by the desire for rational systemization; not with a view to establishing a systematic handbook for practitioners, nor entirely with the aim of dignifying the architectural profession by making architecture a proper liberal art (McEwen, 3)." Vitruvius had become a strong link between the architects and the practitioners in Greece and Rome. He explored the strong approaches to nature and the Greeks ability to recreate the human form accurately. Additionally Vitruvius urged other philosophers to recognize the basic ideals of symmetry and balance throughout the Greek societies; he had concluded that it was through observation of the human body and characteristics that these Ancient Greek philosophers designed. Vitruvius States: "It was from the members of the body that (the ancients) derived the fundamental ideals of the measure which are obviously necessary in all works, as he finger, palm, foot and cubis (Morgan, 50)."

Recognizing the strong use of human proportions throughout architecture led to

another proportioning devise. The diagram demonstrated ideals of symmetry through an object or space with perspective of human interaction, and was called the Vitruvian Man. The Vitruvian Man, created by Leonardo da Vinci in 1490, also portrayed anatomical observations of the human body and the sense of structure with corresponding movement of extremities. Though the drawing entails two superimposed men, it illustrates sixteen different body positions Leonardo observed; the diagram allows for identifying points to be

Fig. 2.02 Vitruvain Man Drawing: Leonardo da Vinci

established throughout the human figure, demonstrating proportional measurements. This diagram depicted symmetrical human movements and tried to give man an understanding of the relationships between human form and geometry; "the Vitruvian Man is geometries source (Morgan, 63)"states Vitruvius.

Through further anatomic exploration and representation of the human figure

within geometrical shapes, Leonardo devised a system of measurement. This new standard unit of length was carried through progressing anatomical sciences and through architectural design; leading to a novel rational that provided new relationships between man and architecture. Architects of the Late Renaissance then professed the ideals of architecture being beautiful only if it possesses symmetrical attributes similar to those of a human figure. As beauty of a building's exterior became a notion of value, Leonardo worked diligently to uncover the beauty of the human bodies' interior complexities and functionality. Leonardo helped architects and designers progressively understand the complexities of man which provoked new architectural components that simulated the structure of a human being. Anatomical and architectural studies continued to progress simultaneously until the modernist movement occurred, suggesting new ideals of analysis and methods of inquiry. As evaluation of architectural history still presumes, observations of transitions between architectural styles become more apparent.

2.1.3 Recognizing Body Types

As twentieth century architecture developed, an architect's attempt to understand

the human body and the intricacies were replaced by systems of mathematics once seen through Ancient Greek tradition. The Renaissance period and centuries to follow delve into the sciences of life, particularly anatomy and collaborated with diverse practices to develop functional yet aesthetically pleasing design. The fundamental principles practiced throughout numerous centuries seemed to have transformed as new archetypes were

created. The architectural profession uttered interest in the theory of expressing body language through architecture but professed "we have inherited scientific theories and rational methodologies that tend to disregard values other than efficiency and economy. Values involving speculative language or historical experience cannot be understood as mathematical variable and therefor have been derided as subjective opinion (perezgomez,166)." Though some individuals express their concern in directionality of modern architectural design, many felt that the lack of human interaction and proportional value interrupting relationships of the users and the built environment.

"If proportions are to achieve their objective, they must offer a framework for a

creative engagement with the world (leach, 223)." Oskar Schlemmer, modern designer and artist, re-emphasizes the need for human anatomical research throughout the design profession. "Schlemmer's principles of the human body amplified the very notion of the human being, recharacterizing the body as a space-making being (leach, 231)." With the basic skeletal framework and knowledge of human anatomical systems, he applied different statures and shapes to both two and three dimensional models. Schlemmer was able to recognize the diversity in the human form and the transformation of the body through changing time and situations; he was able to represent particular movement of that individual through space. With prior knowledge of proportional value and bodily measurement systems, he has created "functional laws of the human body in their relation to space (Semper, 22)."Furthering his discoveries and passion for how a body functions, Schlemmer generated interactive programs of engagement amongst the inhabitant of the spaces and the building.

Attempting to transform the ideals of diverse body types in architecture throughout

the world, a new proportioning system following Leonardo's historical diagrams was fashioned. This new device sought to produce a visual connection between two scales, the metric and imperial, ultimately improving the aesthetics functional performance of

architecture globally. The diagram was also formatted distinctively with intentions of both architects and engineers referencing it for all building design matters. Through modern design methods along with minute anatomical reference, the Modular Man was generated in 1940 by Le Corbusier. Unlike Leonardo's Vitruvian Man, Le Corbusier does not seek to represent a perfectly symmetrical human figure; he seeks to link mathematics and design. The Modular Man was meant to create relationships between proportions of the human body and architecture, more specifically ratios of the human body to the home. Le Corbusier altered the modern ideals of proportioning and provided greater instances of architectural beauty and human interaction.

Fig. 2.03 Human Interaction with Space: Oskar Schlemmer

2.2

Human Relationship with Style Development 2.2.1 Traditions of Mimicry

It can be seen that the three proportional devices through the architectural practice

has been influenced by order and display of the human figure. Additionally, one can observe that generations have progressively incorporated research from advanced anatomical studies into design philosophy. It is in the era of Modernity that design methods and techniques fail to do so, resulting in the promotion of new styles in which human interaction is not emphasized. Instilling studies of human anatomy through architecture enhances the quality of the users experience along performance within a space. Portrayal of the human body has transformed greatly through history, from sculptures of men and women throughout buildings, to the display of newly engineered mechanisms adopted from knowledge of the skeletal system.

In the effort to articulate this world as a whole, a terminology of 'analogia' was

created. 'Analogia' was a common phrase that demonstrated resemblances, similarities,

Fig. 2.04 Geometries Through Man

and balance. This tradition of 'analogia' is a "symbolic structure that has nothing to do with numbers (Vesely, 37)." In order to create visible phenomena and aesthetically pleasing design, certain ratios in design needed to be investigated; these ideals of proportioning were brought about prior to the development of fundamental mathematics. Exemplifying properties of human form throughout architecture consumed the Greeks and Romans; particularly the characteristics of strong yet proportionally built soldier. Architectural desires of this era provided reassuring properties of a Greek or Roman soldier; comfort then evolved from these attributes of so-called protectors.

Portraying military characteristics within architecture came through formation of

the building; this included the dimensions, ornamentation, and materiality. As phalanx of armies became an image of comfort and reassurance of safety, many buildings mimicked this simple formation. Temples were then constructed through visual effectiveness, columns of a temple signified brave soldiers within the military; additional columns would also be erected to convey the characteristic of an army's strength. As these standing warriors protected the inhabitants of the building, it was devised that new materiality was reminiscent of armor which created advantages of durability. Soon to follow were human sculptures used as columns; allowing the Greeks and Romans to materialize and identify heroic figures as well as enemies of the past. Exemplifying the identity of heroes specifically were the Temple of Zeus and the Parthenon, "the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and the Parthenon were erected to commemorate victories over the Persians (Vesely, 53)." The Greek and Roman Empires further investigated the human figure and continued to pursue such relations and symbolism within architecture.

2.2.2 Construction Develops as an Extension of Human Characteristics

As architectural techniques within the practice evolved, substantial progress

was also made in the mathematics. Many then looked for underlying variables which

demonstrated mathematical responses to human organization; this stemmed to questions of mimicry and unity of human characteristics bestowed in architectural elements. Prominent figures once sculpted in architectural elements were mathematically analyzed, and as a result suggestive links between proportion and the human bodies were able to be made. The assimilation of numeric values through proportioning ideals were then established.

Throughout numerous decades, mathematics became a reliable factor that

momentously contributed to society.

Additionally informing society and progressive

economies were the studies of art which encapsulated beauty of the period, accompanied by sciences exploring the unknowns of the world. Most important to society at this time was religion and one's connection with God. Though these practices established different goals, major contribution were made through collaborative research of the human body. Mathematical equations and proportions of the human body were assessed and the outcome was the conception of a perfectly symmetrical body. Closer relations between architecture and the human body were then established; understanding measurements of a human and proportional value allowed for greater mediation and unity in design. Also 'perfection' at this time was only idealized through the body of Christ; Saint Augustine professed: "His body was a microcosm of heavenly perfection. God had provided it for human salvation as he had Noah's ark for the Flood that symbolized and the design of which was based on the overall proportions of the human body (Tavernor, 81)." Anthony Visco, an architectural historian writes: "we the human, seek unity with the ideal, the divine, just as God has revealed the humanity of Christ to all Creation (Visco, 3)." With this idealization, the human body further played an important role in architecture; which was portraying perfection of the human body conceived through mathematics and diagrams.

2.2.3 Renaissance Dissect the True Meaning of Perfection

Through the decades following the discovery of 'perfect' human form, great inquiries

of the universe and the functionality of the human body arose. Human anatomical studies soon advanced at a rapid pace uncovering the complexities of bodily systems, which mathematicians to further explore human anatomy and proportion. After gaining an understanding of basic human biomechanics, societies then began expressing human relations through symbolic sculpting and architectural elements. "Thus the ancients, having taken into consideration the rigorous structure of the human body, constructed all their works and above all their sacred temples according to these proportions (Pacioli, 113)." Column heights and shapes represented the occupants of each building, materialization came through the inhabitants values and characteristics, formations of the building evolved from geometries within the body, human sculpting's and ornamentation provided scale and demonstrated 'perfect' human form along with setting an emotional tone for the building. Representing humanistic values throughout design further advanced as the scientific revolution of the Renaissance developed knowledge of anatomy.

2.2.4 Scientific Revolution Promotes New Ideals of Human Relation

As studies of human anatomy and the relationship with the built environment

continued through the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci revolutionized means of thinking and exploring values of the human body. His conception of the Vitruvian Man exemplified entities of geometry with a perfectly symmetrical man; this proportioning diagram was then portrayed as a foundational component of design. Following the creation of the Vitruvian Man, Leonardo was once again at the forefront of correlating the human body with the universe.

Though Leonardo da Vinci was not creating medical- anatomical studies, he was

creating philosophical- anatomical studies that tried to explore the symmetries of the

whole human body. Not only do realizations of complexities come from his Vitruvian Man diagram, but from additional highly detailed drawings of the inner body. These drawings consist of the skeletal system, the muscular system, and the organ system, accompanied by very descriptive narratives; Leonardo was the first artist to carry out a full autopsy, which made his working knowledge far more superior to any of his contemporaries. As his studies continued to explore the body on both macro and micro levels, there was a realization that a new language of harmonic proportions and ratios went beyond anatomy. His life's work represents a synthesis of art, engineering, architecture, anatomy, and geometry, and influenced many philosophers and architects that followed such revolutionary thinking.

Fig. 2.05 Flap Anatomy of the Shoulder: Leonardo da Vinci

Along with strong visual aids, Leonardo da Vinci generated new units of

measurement reminiscent of extremities and other lengths within the body.

This

designing mechanism sought to strengthen the relations between the perfect body form, architecture, engineered components, along with relationships in a harmonious universe. "We do not merely have a body, we are our bodies, inextricably woven with our world. Trying to think in a totally dark room for more than a few minutes is enough to convince us of the reality of this unarticulated, preconception ground of being that includes the legacy of architecture as its external, visible order (Perez-Gomez, 165)." Influential values soon evolved through the analogy of the human body and mechanics. Innovative philosophers relied on mechanisms and complexities once seen in diagrams of human body; scientists, architects, and engineers also thrived on this concept and allowing certain ideals to inform design or functional qualities. This ideology of functionality and movement, along with interactive capabilities of man and nature became a science later known as 'bio-mimicry.' Adaptation of design elements through the renaissance came through diagrams or images referencing the human body to living organisms. A prominent figure through history, Alberti, "linked columns, beams, and arches with bones and ligaments, the wall with flesh found grounds to suggest that the torus represented a muscle under stress, like the chest of a straining horse (Payne, 113)." In the centuries following, this ideology persisted through diverse professions allowing for revolutionary design, but development stalled as greater anatomical inquiries emerged. Progressions in architecture and engineering were derived from information of the human body systems and without continual research or new discoveries, human relations within architecture began to dissipate. Advancement within anatomical sciences needed to occur in order to transform fundamental principles of design that once existed.

2.2.5 Innovative Expressionism Applied to Architecture

The path in which architecture and anatomical science professions had taken were

distinctly different as the world's society and economy evolved. The scientific and industrial revolution of the eighteenth century allowed advanced architectural and engineering designs to explore tectonics of a building; ultimately enhancing the functionality of a space, dynamics of structure, and the experience that the occupant or visitor has. As innovative techniques helped create new styles of architecture, it consequently reduced human relation through the architectural practice. Also during the Modern architectural era, the fields of architecture and engineering remained one entity; it was not until late Modernism that these practices became dependent of one another. "The artist-architect of the nineteenth century was to give way to an organizer who worked entirely rationally, like an engineer, giving reason and objectivity greater weight than subjective feelings. The focus on construction aspects was also associated with a desire to bring art and science closer together, as they had before 1800 (Flury, 35)." Teams of architects and engineers therefor emphasized greatly on the structural identities of buildings, and supported them with decorative elements. Unexpectedly, there was still mention of human body mimicry in early Modernism engineering; Richard Lucae states "the purely mathematical structure is no more a finished product of are than the human body with its exposed ligaments, no more that the human skeleton alone is a living creature of nature (Mallgrave, 433)." Teams of architects and engineers continued to express new forms with structural elements based on knowledge of engineering and materiality; many precedence were created in this era and designers took great advantage of new design techniques. Architects then revealed qualities of an artist whom explored revolutionary notions and ideologies to express certain characteristics through building form. This stress to emphasize expressional values ultimately brought about the separation of the practice architecture and engineering.

Innovative expressionism through the modern architectural era has additionally

contributed to the disuse of bio-mimicry and other examples of complexities within the human body. This new language has supported individuality and often allowed for new exploratory methods. Philosopher-historian, Johann Gottfried Herder, states: "expressionism claims that all works of men are above all voices speaking, are not objects detached from their makers, and are part of a living process of communication between persons and not independently existing entities (Abel, 40)." Supporting these new means of design, were the engagements certain global economies had with industrialization. This in turn brought the architectural practice new methods of research and means of construction; how building components may be assembled and how they will impact the mass production lifestyle.

2.2.6 New Representation of the Human Form in Architecture

The attempt to instill the ideology of 'human relation' back in architecture during

modernism was conducted by Le Corbusier; his Modular Man provided proportional values of man to modern architectural design, through mathematics. "This exciting new instrumentality, however, is based on mathematical models and often becomes a self-referential exercise in structural determinism (Peres-Gomez, 165)." This can be compared to the Vitruvian Man in the sense that designers are uncovering geometries of the body to instill into certain design, but there is still a lacking investment of Modernists designers on how the inhabitants will interpret or interact with architecture. Few Modern designers sought to understand the impact of human form in design representation; they ignored the variances of human form, function, and value around the world. Additionally, many influential architectural practices observed the human body in reductive terms and regarded it as an object with stationary measurable extremities. Consequently the image of a human was only transcribed on drawings to give scale and inform the

viewer of proportional values. This also prompted designers to become less concerned of characteristics portrayed by the end user and the building type; the end users became similar instances for nearly all projects. Henri Lefebvre, a philosopher within Modernism refuses to portray characters within representations as other practitioners do, and further notes: "bodies resemble each other, but the differences between them are more striking than the similarities (Lefebvre, 194)." Production continued and the architectural design endured without existential meaning or humanistic value. An increasingly problematic reproduction of lifeless human form is also conveyed through an influential publication of this time, it is the 'Metric Handbook.' This publication offers illustrations of a human figure through specific instances and deems dimensions appropriate for user functionality, but these instances of design manuals do not include bodily identification or performance capabilities. The connection between people and place were becoming lost and ultimately conjured up new models of deign education.

Fig. 2.06 Structural Ornamentation

2.2.7 New Models of Design

Teaching soon failed to incorporate aspects of the human body or balance and

symmetry principles once applied throughout the architectural practice. Architecture was soon portrayed as "a process of the geometrisation of lived space, in which things became numbers to be understood as objects and intelligible forms. Increasingly, the task of architecture was the creation of special order and the search for a universal theory of standards (Imri,50)." The aesthetic endeavors encroached on students minds as many enrolled into architectural universities, therefor further disconnecting the notions of form and function, along with human relations within a space. An additional factor separating the designer and qualities of the end user along with the true symbolism of a space was technology. Technology allowed for increased production and manipulation of schematic design, but did not allow for instances of embodiment and human relation awareness through the project.

Technological advancements transpired to control the design strategies of

postmodern and contemporary architecture. A new computer based science evolved quickly and focused on controlling and decision-making algorithms that characterized specifications through the architectural field. These revolutionary systems altered the way in which architecture is conceived and built. "The very description 'machine like' conjures up threatening images of something unbending and essentially unhuman and unnatural. To a degree computerization represents a loss of human control and thus a regression from the craft-oriented model of design and production (Abel,49)."Without the knowledge or sense of how human beings interact with one another along with how individuals may function, one cannot construct the most appropriate design that defines the particular use of the building. Within these contemporary designs, the human body then becomes a point of orientation, instead a referencing point in representational matters; expressing

certain perspective, emotions, or performance capabilities.

Continual exploration

into diverse scientific fields were also provoked through technological advancements. The sciences involved in altering design methodologies failed to explore interactive opportunities that would further enhance the ideals of human relation. Collaboration with anatomical sciences, much like architects and engineers of the Renaissance once did, may significantly change the role in which architects are currently playing.

Fig. 2.07 Representation of Man Changing with Technology

2.3

Advancement of Anatomical Studies through History 2.3.1 Evolution of the Anatomical Sciences and Art

The cooperation between architects and engineers can be traced back to the fifteenth

century, just as the connection of artists and architects, anatomists and artists, along with philosophers and anatomists can be. This unique assembly of philosophers, anatomist, and artists has expedited innovative, yet foundational studies which contemporary societies still reference. Powerful networks between these diverse fields have brought about great advancement in anatomical studies; which progressed to influence numerous practices such as architecture and engineering to instill the ideals of embodiment and anthropomorphism.

The history of anatomy can often be defined through visual artifacts replicating the

human body and its complex systems; this includes diverse entities inter-wound among one another and spanning all throughout the body. Though there were many inquiries and representations of the human body, it was not until the renaissance that investigations of

human complexities were translated onto paper. A true "Renaissance man" who was first noted to passionately explore and express human complexities was Leonardo da Vinci. His artistic portrayal of the human body demonstrated a clear understanding of biological design; many contemporaries sought to replicate human form best as possible and create human relations through craft, but the only way to do so was by creating relationships with anatomists. These artists would then observe and artistically represent intricacies of the body as anatomists performed dissections. In order to create publications of the anatomist's accomplishments, the drawings along with descriptive narratives would then be carved in wood blocks and run through a print press publication procedure. This then became the process for compiling anatomical knowledge for many centuries; the aspect that significantly altered methodologies within this science was the ways in which artists conveyed the human body. Drawings of certain isometric views provoked questions of functionality along with conversations of biological construction.

The artists' and anatomists techniques of production progressed from cadavers on

dissection table, to mounting and displaying skeletons in unique positions. Practitioners "understood the appeal of pictures, embracing the humanist conception of an image as something that could embody an idea (Rifkin, 19)." The anatomist who further adopted the idea of new representation of the body, ultimately informing students of layers within the body and the complex nature of man, was Vesalius (1514- 1564). His innovative process employed the use of 'flap anatomy;' as the reader progressed through narratives, sequential layers of the body would be removed; the reader would move from illustrations of a human beings skin, to the muscle tissue, through the digestive and reproductive organs, until he made contact with the bone. "Far from a mere amusement, these flaps serve as a pragmatic instruction, aping on paper the progress of a dissection. It is science with a twist, as the user becomes an agent of time, meting out sequence of disintegration of these figures (Rifkin, 25)." This complex technique soon became a model of how

the field of anatomy would progress and become informed of the complex human body. Emerging from new techniques was the use of planes and reference points within the human body, which differentiated bodily regions; these sectioning strategies then developed analogous language throughout the practice, and contrived eleven different bodily systems. Publications further provoked inquiries of artists and anatomists, which lead to more delicate and intricate dissection procedures. Further research involved isolating body parts including bones, muscles, nerves, arteries, organs, and the brain, and attempted to recognize dependencies amongst one another.

In order to most accurately portray these systems and support the learning

process of biological design for students at medical universities, technologies needed to be advanced. In mid-seventeenth century, the advancement in technology refers to the use of copper-plate engravings, which allowed for greater detail to be portrayed within medical journals and for a more efficient publication process. Advancement in anatomical studies followed the creation of this new technology as well. Anatomist Govaert Bidloo challenged bodily representations of the time and revealed detailed studies, diagrams, and drawings of anatomical form and structure. This revolutionary interpretation of the human body allowed for innovative ideologies to further compare the human body to engineering instances. These illustrations represented knowledge of skeletal anatomy and its relationships to elements which work in conjunction in order to produce movement. Additionally, through these illustrated demonstrations, there were strong correlations between an artist, an architect, and engineers. There are further suggestions that the styles in which anatomy was being portrayed may have led to the building mechanisms instilled in the emergence of particular architectural styles.

With the continual unveiling of new information on how the human body works,

biologist and mathematician, D'Arcy Thompson, hypothesized many correlations between the evolving architectural and engineering realm and biological design. D'Arcy was

able to link diagrams of human structure and the stresses created throughout a skeletal system to the man-made structures like trusses and frames of buildings. He worked very diligently to provide examples of harmonious connections between nature, life forms and engineering achievements: he observed engineers constructing such great feats through bodily diagrams and proclaimed that these instances of structure can be found within the most minuscule portions of a human body. "The 'mechanical body' of the past is now giving way to more complex ways of viewing how we are built and what we are made of (Werth, 11)."

An innovative figure bestowing great interest in biological design, and was

responsible for revolutionizing design capabilities throughout architectural history, was Buckminster Fuller. Along with D'Arcy Thompson, he analyzed the structure of the human body as well as tensile and compressional forces distributed throughout; as his sciences continued they were able to assess factors of stability and flexibility of numerous components, and dependencies among the different bodily systems. Buckminster Fuller suggests that bones: "Act as spacers, sustaining the proper degree of tension in the structure as a whole by keeping the compressional elements at the proper distances from each other (Heller, 50)." Through this key observation and ideals of connective tissues throughout the body, he was able to engineer new stabilizing mechanisms for architectural purposes. A new precedent of comparative studies evolved and numerous connections between the human body and built environment were generated, but in order to further enhance these ideologies further technological advancements needed to be made.

2.3.2 Generating New Technologies

Anatomical practices slowly continued to advance through processes of dissection

and means of artistic representation of the subject. Artists had begun to demand technical

training in the field of anatomy and dissection to fully understand the human body and the instances they will be drawing. While acquiring further knowledge, John Bell wrote "each drawing of his is but a mere plan, resembling no individual body: it is such a view as never is to be seen in a dissection (Bell, 229)." As anatomical sciences became common knowledge of an artist, photographic technologies evolved. "Anatomical illustrations came under control of machines rather than the subjective human hand and eye. In the nineteenth century as a first step in this evolution, atlases based on photographs taken during cadaver dissections were introduced (Rifkin, 320)." Photographs became the preferable imagery to anatomist and students, and due to efficient production and level of detail obtained, more information was being produced of the human bodies' interior and exterior. This new methodology of obtaining bodily information was a turning point in the field of anatomy. Modern instruments guided this profession from a less 'hands on' research to a more technical, data driven profession; and will continue to change as technology advances.

In 1896, German physicists discovered the X-ray and invented X-ray photography.

This technological advancement allowed a physician or anatomist to peer into the human body noninvasive. This invention was considered revolutionary for its time, but was discarded in some anatomists' sciences. "Because the brightness of an object in an X-ray is determined by its physical density, not its relationship to a light source, X-rays don't even present the special relationships of objects as we are accustomed to seeing them (Ackerman, 323)." As the relationship of technology and the human body continued to be investigated, the invention of the computer increasingly brought the two entities together. In 1967, a full body scanner was invented and had capabilities of creating cross sectional images of the human body. With continual innovation to computers and software, scientists were able to collect scanned images and compile them in such a way that three-dimensional imagery was able to be generated. The representation of this data

was then uniquely altered and displayed in a fashion most suitable for students to learn. "The art of the past is combined with the technology of the present to provide a way to study and understand the full complexity of human anatomy in the future (Ackerman, 326)."

2.3.3 Biological Components at Different Scales

The art in anatomical studies now lies in the observation of cellular constructions

throughout the body which assist functionality in more ways than technology and scientists can fathom. Anatomical studies of the past were informed through the survey of the human bodies and the dependencies of intricate systems. Technological developments have allowed present day anatomists to microscopically research cellular data to better understand the human body and certain attributes that exist. With knowledge of cellular matrices, its attributes, and interactive abilities, one can infer the particular animations of the body and mechanics of different systems. "The most important revolution in the history of medicine was the realization that all bodily functions result from cellular activity (Saladin, 48)." Assisting these microscopic abilities are scanners that are capable of producing three dimensional imagery of a bodily component or system; these instruments available to scientists can now peer deep inside any bodily tissue, observe sections of bones, or organs, and asses certain functionalities or lack of. With microscopic analysis capabilities along with three-dimensional scanning, twenty first century anatomical sciences have drastically changed. It has also informed specialized disciplines of anthropomorphism and biomechanics, which further observes the involvements of different entities within the body and the functionality of each element in motion. With all of the cooperative studies supporting the practices of biological design, great achievements have been made and more information of the human body is readily available; contemporary sciences in comparison to historic studies also promote the ideals

of quantifying research by conducted numerous clinical studies. History also provides narratives of human bodies being observed as static entities, or possible positioned in various settings, but with developed technology, the dynamisms of the human body functioning can be captured. These opportunities to observe matrices or functionalities within the body raise inquiry, and this usually leads to further scientific studies. Technology allows for numerous forms of research to be conducted on various topics, all which are derive from fundamental knowledge obtained throughout history. As particular studies advance, results then become more relatable to a variety of diverse disciplines, along with the technical instruments involved in the investigation process. With the ability to observe biological components at different scales, stronger correlations between bodily systems and building components can be made. Human anatomical studies have become an instrument for solving complex building challenges, and have helped develop simple construction systems; systems which are continually upgraded as anatomical sciences advance. The eleven bodily systems have been observed and have become applicable to architecture, but the most common connections include the bodiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; skin, nervous system, circulatory system, muscular system, and the skeletal system. The skin is very important protective layer that envelopes the human body; it is recognized as the facade in architectural language. This system protects the body from a multitude of invasive entities and is lined with microscopic sensors that produce responsive actions that better protect the human body. Contemporary architectural technologies are advancing facade treatments to respond better to exterior components, and respond by activating particular building systems that provide comfort to interior spaces. As new means of design transpire "a key architectural challenge is to create mechanisms that mesh and overlap with other systems (Werth, 49);" the nervous system along with circulatory system has created a significant precedent for these functional issues throughout the build environment. All of the bodily systems work in conjunction with the heart and brain;

the heart is controlling the blood flow throughout the body and ultimately to the brain. With this power being generated by the heart the brain then is able to retrieve signals the body is producing throughout the nervous system. High performance buildings are now equipped with mechanical systems that respond quickly to change in structural components, movement of the building, humidity and temperature, air quality, exterior threats, and other mechanical or electrical problems. Protecting all of these entities within the human body are bones, also considered structural framework of a building. Bones have been observed as "twice as tough as granite for withstanding compression forces, four times more resilient that concrete in standing up to stretching, about five times as light as steel (Werth, 76)." The use of concrete and steel materials continues to grow following the introduction of microscopic bone research and construction methods. The structural matrix of bone con be compared to concrete with rebar; bone is made up of protein and mineral strands laid out in efficient grid systems and are arrayed with precise angles to provide optimal strength and stability. The science of how our body is structured with connective tissue, joints, tendons, and ligaments also produces many new techniques of architectural support; these entities act as levers that create balance through the body as forces are exerted through different regions. The muscular system acts in correlation to these forces too, skeletal muscles are fused with the bone and assists in cooperative movements; further generating forces to set the body in motion. "Muscles are organized according to the type and amount of pulling they will do and their architecture is defined by the arrangement of muscle fibers relative to the force generating axis (Werth, 105)." Engineers have adopted these anatomical mechanisms when assembling structural systems for large buildings that endure great tension or bear large loads. Construction technologies will continually exploit medical accomplishments as they emerge, but it is the designers that need to pay closer attention to how the human body is reacting to the dynamic built environments.

2.3.4 Designers Exploit Anatomical Studies

The numerous professions that are taking advantage of these new anatomical

studies and transforming the given data are most often looking to increase human interactive opportunities; opportunities in which elements conform to particular characteristics of the end users. Along with designers or manufacturers, various scientific disciplines are exploring or perpetuating the foundational studies delivered through anatomical research. Disciplines such as kinesiology and biomechanics predominantly use these studies to improve knowledge of the human body. "Kinesiology originated when anatomist attempt to describe musculoskeletal actions and the resulting body function (Chaffin, 4)." Also, a general definition of biomechanics is: "using laws of physics and engineering concepts to describe motion undergone by the various body segments and the forces acting on these body parts during normal daily activities (Frankel, 7)." The progression and continual application of these results through comparative studies continue to alter strategies of design, but numerous relationships with design disciplines, such as architecture, seize to exist.

To best design for human beings, it is imperative that designers and architects

become informed on the performance abilities of the body and factors that may impact functionality. Another aspect of design understands the way in which the brain responds to an object; a human may unconsciously react differently to the way in which an object interrupts or assists certain identities or daily functions. Becoming informed of instances before a product or particular design is constructed or manufactured is essential; these studies are usually implied in prototypical stages of design and look to maximize human relation qualities. Regardless to which profession is taking advantage of comparative studies, it is important that the designer is keeping the end user in mind and that functionality ultimately conforms to the human body.

Fig. 2.08 Biological Design to Mechanical Design

2.4

Design Principles Revealed through the Human Body 2.4.1 The Architects' Fixation on Imagery

Throughout the twenty first century, aspirations and design orientations have been

fixated on conveying the most contemporary architectural elements. The philosophies that have been fabricated throughout centuries of experimentation have seemingly disappeared to conform to an abundance of technological advancements. "The architecture of our time is turning into the retinal art of the eye. Architecture at large has become an art of the printed image fixed by the hurried eye of a camera (Pallasmaa,41)." Without the dynamism's of the human body present, architectural development ceases to relate with the end user.

An excessive amount of data on the human body along with a thorough understanding

of body functionality has been collected and has seemingly evolved. Though the fields of anatomy, along with kinesiology and biomechanics have made revolutionary findings, contemporary design fails to reference them when conceptualizing architectural designs.

It can be seen that through Greek, Roman, and even Renaissance architecture, portrayal of human figures and anatomy were active in numerous elements; at this time very little was known about the human body. With a staggering amount of knowledge about the human body, which has become readily available to the public, why haven't the ideals of embodiment been employed

2.4.2 Lost Dialogue between Theory and Design

The breaking point in which the architectural practice has seemingly lost human

relation aspects was with the evolution of technological representation along with ideals of expressionism. The practice and education of the past employed human figures within the process of design; the incorporation of figures then mediated scale relations within particular elements of architecture and transpired to control certain aspects of design. This in turn produced greater instances of human interaction within the built environment; often habits or characteristics of the end user was observed and helped regulate the planning of building layouts or material assignments. As architects and designers developed further knowledge of basic human being functions, the study of anthropometrics was applied to create stronger symbolism and relationships with the inhabitant. Often this study is considered a "theory that cannot be verbalized but that communicates by means of the dialogue between the drawn line and the surface that is its vehicle, an entire process of construction (Frascari, 127)." Also due to an architect's talent of drawing and further inquiry of human body functionality, the anthropometrics theory was sustained through the portrayal of human anatomical elements. Through this formal representation, the correlation between architectural language and anatomy can be seen, and at this point in time artists were becoming more involved in the architectural field. Architects and artists also demanded the technical training in the anatomical field to further replicate natural formations to mimic biological design; once again improving human relations in the built

environment. Anatomical notion of 'function' was also used by architects to express the way building segments related to one another and how the structure portrayed a certain function within the whole. Architect Frank Lloyd Wright advocated 'organic architecture' as "buildings in which all parts are related to each other and their site (Werth, 6)," he has also produced many iconic building influenced by shapes seen through living organisms. Timeless architecture embodies theoretical metaphors reiterating a humans' role in this universe. Dictating rationalism within contemporary design practices and education have now trumped these means of design. The opportunity to incorporate embodiment back into design through rationalist ideologies, is with twenty first century medical sciences. Informing architectural practitioners and students of these modern anatomical studies

Fig. 2.09 Atmospheric Affects on the Human Body

that prolifically analyze the human body, both physically and metaphysically, will provoke designers to reincorporate and refurbish methods of embodiment and create stronger relations between the user and building.

2.4.3 Architecture Conjures Body Movement and Function

The experience in which humans encounter and interact with architecture has

most recently been questioned by numerous designers. Technologies used through the architectural practice are allowing for static design methods and employing graphic standards to portray emotions of a space. Many professionals have started to challenge the standards that have been created and developed through time; as modern sciences

produce great deals of analytical work, they need to be replicated and reproduced throughout the field. "With the loss of tactility and the scale and details crafted for the human body and hand, our structures become repulsively flat, sharpened, immaterial and unreal (Pallasmaa,41)." The portrayals of figures in the architectural practice have only grown to adapt to concerns of each era and have not been established as stable references. This then promotes design to relate to one particular aspect of figures, subconsciously asserting particular body motion onto the end user; creating an uncomfortable condition and lose of human relation.

Effort to observe the body in a different manner has been put forward by a minimal

amount of designers; instead of designing from anatomical dimension of the human body, architects are looking at biological affects produced by the environment an individual is in. Within the body there are numerous dependencies among intricate systems, becoming aware of effects of architectural features effect on anatomy and how internal functions transpire to conjure movement of the body is imperative. Anatomical studies can do more than assists bio-mimicry, they can drastically inform the ways in which one thinks about design, and how it may convey stronger relationships with the end users and promote greater instances of functionality.

Fig. 2.10 Mechanical Bio-mimicry

Theoretical Context

Replicating building systems and architectural design from anatomical studies

will promote greater functionality and human relation within a certain space.

The

human body is a vastly complex system that adapts well to various functions presented before it. Tailoring design and developing program to advance human performance is the fundamental key. Case studies of existing programs will allow one to observe the essentials of certain spaces and advance the process of design in many forms. Not only will case studies provide essential information for architectural design, but this will also create the opportunity to assess development of certain buildings and how anatomical studies can assist in redeveloping design goals, concepts, or possibly design of certain systems and their dependencies on one another.

Hypothesizing certain combinations

of anatomical research along with program analysis will provide new links of architecture and the human body. Furthermore it will provide instances of how certain qualities and functions of a building will change as architects are equipped with fundamental knowledge of the human body.

3.1

Analyzing Complexities of the Body and Building 3.1.1 Understanding Limits of The Body

The limits of functionality throughout the human body are truly tested through the

activity of sports and are continually studies to advance the knowledge of biomechanics and application towards comparative studies. With this further knowledge of the human body and the perceived limits, outcomes may be applicable to numerous practices, including design, and reaching new levels of user functionality. Particular studies or anatomical features of the human body may also inspire the development of architectural elements, which in turn act as a further connection between the end user and the proposed building. This thesis applies concepts observed through biomechanical features, and applies them to building design; the basic ideals of these features are then implemented through development of the building and the systems in place.

3.1.2 Allowing for Peak Performance

The body of an athlete is one that is constantly under excessive amounts of stress

and exerts a great deal of energy to perform at a maximum level. In order to exert a great deal of stress, systems throughout the human body must be in union in order for the athlete to achieve a peak performance. Through extensive anatomical studies of an athlete's body, it can be found that one of the most intricate and important systems starting the cycle of energy and recovery is the respiratory system.

The respiratory system allows for the intake of oxygen; which is essentially the

most critical step in any performance scenario. The oxygen that an athlete breathes in becomes absorbed into the blood stream and combines with several key nutrients already present in the body. As this new compound forms, it becomes distributed to different cells throughout the body. The process of creating ATP then occurs, which it the base building blocks to any bodily protein, and gets distributed along with a multitude of cells as well. These key nutrients and ATP then create energy and are further distributed to any part of the athletes' body that is under stress or experiencing fatigue.

For the athlete, the most important task is to produce a maximum amount of energy

which continually aids recovery. With the lack of oxygen, the body then resorts to other compounds in the body to produce a sufficient amount of energy. Resorting to additional compounds produces a substance commonly referred to as lactic acid, which builds up between muscle fibers and hinders maximum expansion and contraction of the muscle.

Throughout the human body, numerous systems are protected by significant

elements and further permit certain relationships and dependencies to exist throughout the body. Housing the respiratory system and acting as the structural system for the upper body, is the thoracic cage. The thoracic cage is unique in the way that it connects to different vertebrae's of the spine and the flexibility it offers to the upper body and its extremities. Most importantly, the thoracic cage is a structure which numerous layers

of muscles are connected to, and work in union to allows for expansion and contraction of the respiratory system. With each expansion and contraction the pectoral, shoulder, and back muscles are allowing for the thoracic cage to move and slide along multiple vertebrae.

In addition to the elements which act as platforms for the connection of muscle

fibers, there are also different categories of ribs that make up the system structure. Among the twenty ribs, there are six ribs classified as 'false ribs;' they have achieved this name because there is no direct connection to the sternum at the top of the thoracic cage. Though no significant muscle connection is made to these ribs, it acts as a protective element and boundary for the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a protective partition between the abdominal muscles and the respiratory system; this partition also expands and contracts with the thoracic cage.

The conceptual approach to this thesis takes advantage of the studies that explore

the mechanisms that allow for maximum functionality of the thoracic cage and respiratory system. The biological design of man, particularly the thoracic cage, stands as a case study to explore how multitudes of components layer upon one another and work in union to offer fluid movement and functionality. These mechanisms will provide the structural framework for conceptual design and further assist design development, where there is the incorporation of layout strategies and the use of numerous architectural systems.







Fig. 3.01 Oxygen Conversion Process

3.2

Mechanics Extracted from Biological Design 3.2.1 Significant of the Thoracic Cage

The Informing the basic principles for schematic and design development

were the ideals instilled in the mechanisms of the thoracic cage. With analysis of the thoracic cage came comprehension of certain mechanisms that allowed for functionality. These mechanisms then informed conceptual ideas on how the building may function mechanically. With the precedence of retractable technology in stadiums and computerized robotics, systems were developed and drove the schematics of this design. Due to the main concentration of structure with a stadium archetype, the thoracic cage offered numerous solutions on how mechanisms could be dependent on one another and still hold their structural integrity.

Another specific concept driven by the organization of the thoracic cage was the

classification of ribs and connections. Among the twenty ribs, there are six ribs that are considered to be 'false' ribs; this classification came about due to the ribs not directly

connecting to the sternum. The relation this classification has with architecture is through the creation of ornamental structure, or over designing the support of a building. Many architects design this way to carry a certain rhythm or style throughout the building; this means that there is no practical use for the structure and ultimately affects the construction and material cost. The six ribs with the 'false' classification carry significance within the thoracic cage and act as structure for smaller abdominal muscle connections and the diaphragm. The structure of the proposed stadium will consist of the necessary structure that will stabilize each architectural component and offer as strong connection points for the mechanisms that allow this building to breathe as well as perform at high levels.

Fig. 3.02 Expansion and Contraction

Fig. 3.03 Thoracic Cage Massing

Fig. 3.04 Vertebrae Connectivity

Fig. 3.05 True Ribs vs. False Ribs





Fig. 3.06 Thoracic Cage Stabalizing Muscle

Fig. 3.07 Layers Dependent on Thoracic Cage Structure

Fig. 3.08 Thoracic Cage Overview

Fig. 3.09 Skeletal Reveal

Advancing Exploration of Program

The development of this program will be highly dependent on specifications of

similar building types and functionality presented though certain guidelines or codes. Assessing the program's needs, certain advancement processes will take place and ultimately lead to innovative design. The research conducted will set fundamental criteria for particular spaces, but it is in this stage that functionality and systems within a body, exposed through anatomical research, will be taken advantage of. The exploration into appropriate anatomical studies will provoke highly functional arrangements and inform schematic design.

4.1

Programmatic Relations Developed 4.1.1 Relating Program to Biological Design

The programming and layout of a building is very similar to the dependencies seen

throughout biological design and cellular matrices. The body becomes a precedence of how relationships can be made throughout a certain building type and the maximum efficiency it exudes. When planning for a large scale archetype such as a stadium, there needs to be a preliminary layout of the site. The transition from macro to micro soon pursues and involves a much more detailed organization of spaces and assumptions on how a certain space will be used. Once again this particular designing technique can be compared to the early explorations of the body; initially the exterior layers are examined, and with progression comes a dissection and analysis of smaller attributes.

The first step was to establish zones within the city plat and address the codes and

regulations of Cleveland. Subsequent to this initial step came diagramming of each zone; which included the site as a whole, and the stadium. Following the establishment of each

Fig. 4.01 Programatic Figures

zone was the exploration of circulation patterns of the different user groups that will be using this venue. This consisted of the athlete, the spectator, the staff, the media, the V.I.P., and game officials. Once this was established, vertical circulation was organized along with certain code restrictions. The circulation patterns were then finalized and program was better established and structural elements were defined.

Explorations into how anatomical studies transpire, lead to a significant process

of establishing programmatic layout and overall building functionality. In order to create a signification connection between the user and the building, the architect shall learn to understand the relations of the human body and how each action of the user is inspired by form and layout design.

Zone One: Playing field Zone Two: Spectator seating and standing zones

 

Zone Three: The internal concourse

 

Zone Four: Circulation area between the stadium





Zone Five: Open space outside the perimeter

 

Fig. 4.02 Zoning Requirements

   

Fig. 4.03 Application of Zones in the Stadium

and site perimeter

Execution of stadium planning starts with the 



specification of each potential user and the necessities needed in order to ensure maximum  



efficiency





 



Fig. 4.04 Stadium User Groups

 























 

Fig. 4.05 Spectator and Staff Circulation Diagram

  























 



 



Fig. 4.06 Player and Media Circulation Diagram

Stadium Programmatic Layout Diagram









































 





 









 

 



Fig. 4.07 Application of Program in the Stadium

 

   

    

 

Fig. 4.08 Soccer Cleats

Site Analysis

The development of this program will be highly dependent on specifications of

Fig. 5.01 Cleveland Figure Ground

5.1

Defining the Site and Current Conditions 5.1.1 Site Selection and Characteristics

The site for this proposal will be located on the outskirts of downtown Cleveland,

Ohio. The site is situated near other open air stadiums and arenas and a plethora of other entertainment venues. The stadium is an archetype that proves to be an impactful element which has the ability to impact cities on a major scale. Stadiums are able to create identities for cities, enhance revenue abilities for local businesses, strengthen communal relations throughout the city, and allow for the experimentation of new technology and construction techniques.

Placing this new stadium in the proposed site will further build upon the gateway

district of downtown Cleveland, and make a strong connection between the entertainment destinations: Cleveland Cavaliers, Indians, and the CSU arena. The adjacent district consists of theaters that complement the rejuvenating effort for this city and provide for an excellent experience in the city.

Site Area

Designated Parking Area 50%

Existing Fig. 5.02 Proposed site and Designated Areas

Buildings 21%

Site Area:563,100 sq. ft.

Abandoned

Designated Parking Area: 252,370 sq. ft.

Buildings 8%

Existing Buildings: 120,325 sq. ft. Abandoned Buildings: 43,490 sq. ft. Additional Space: 146,100 sq. ft.

Additional Space 21%

Additional analysis has been performed on the city and the particular quadrant of

the city in which this proposal will sit. Due to the volume of this archetype, many studies have been performed to demonstrate the appropriateness of the site. After the existing site conditions were accounted for, data of surrounding context was collected, which helped shade several elements. Site analysis further included the observation of through traffic and the affects on public transportation, and how one may travel to this venue. It included the building types and heights of the downtown quadrant. It took into account, the prior studies on how to position the playing field, or how optimum viewing throughout the stadium can shape the form and structure. And finally, there was a large concentration on how pedestrians interacted with this site. The stadium design strived to build upon certain relations formed throughout the city and make a clear connection between the site, the building and the spectator.

Fig. 5.03 Building Heights

Fig. 5.05 Extension of Districts

Tall Moderate Low

Fig. 5.04 Building Use

Educational Entertainment Residential Business Retail Mixed Use Parking Structures

Gateway Theater







 

Fig. 5.06 Vehicle Interaction

Heavy Moderate

Fig. 5.07 Public Transportation

Route A Route B

Heavy Moderate

Fig. 5.08 Pedestrian Interaction













Fig. 5.09 Field Orientation

Fig. 5.10 Optimum View Range

5.2

Addressing Climate Conditions 5.2.1 Developing in an Unpredictabe Climate

Further determining the development of design and general makeup of the proposal

is the analytical information about climate conditions and certain weather. Cleveland, Ohio experiences a plethora of weather conditions year round due to its geological location and the surrounding context.

The city of Cleveland continually experiences a diverse range of atmospheric

conditions throughout the year and offers a plethora of unique environments. The amount of daylight and temperature throughout the year varies significantly; the shortest day of the year, which is December twenty first, consists of nine hours of daylight, and the longest day, June twentieth, consist of fifteen hours of daylight. Within this range of exposure to daylight also comes a fluctuation of temperatures. Throughout the year the average temperatures of the city is between nineteen and eighty two degrees Fahrenheit. The average low can reach to three degrees Fahrenheit and the average high can accumulate

100

Fig. 5.11 Weather Fluxuation of Cleveland



to ninety degrees Fahrenheit.

With

the

accounted



averages

of the warm and cold seasons, the warmest period occurs between May and September, and the coldest period



      

occurs between December and March.

  



  

  

 

Fig. 5.12 Daily Sunrise and Sunset

Between these two periods Cleveland holds a similar average for precipitation, the only difference is its ability to turn into

  





snowfall in the cold months.

Between

May and September, the average chance of precipitation is forty seven percent, and the chance for thunderstorms is thirty six percent. As the atmosphere changes to

  







  

  

of precipitation drastically increases to seventy four percent. From this significant

    

becomes a fifty six percent chance that



it turns into snowfall. A large part of this



cycle is due to 'lake effect;' which is the

Fig. 5.14 Daily Temperatures

encounter of weather sweeping across



the nation and tide depth patterns of Lake



    







  



  





 





Erie.



With temperatures and percentages

of humidity varying throughout the year,

   

  

  

Fig. 5.15 Periods of Temperature

102







percentage of precipitation, there then

 

 

the winter months, the average chance

  

Fig. 5.13 Daily Hours of Daylight and Twilight

  

 



precipitation is very common; of three



hundred and sixty five days, precipitation

 

occurs one hundred fifty six days. The most common forms are light rain, thunderstorms, and light snowfall. The peak rainfall, in terms of water collection is in May, and the most accumulation of snow occurs most often in January. Due to

 

 

 



   

 

   

 

Fig. 5.16 Types Percipitation

 











 

the geographic location, and Cleveland's proximity to different elements, air quality

  

and conditions alter significantly as well.



In terms of humidity and human comfort





 

levels, an average of forty five percent

  

  

  

 

Fig. 5.17 Probability of Percipitation

is comfortable and an average of eighty to ninety is considered uncomfortable.

 

Between the months of May and August



there is fluctuation of humidity which



ultimately affect the precipitation levels;



the highest amount of humidity occurs in August with eighty percent humidity, and



  



  



  

 

Fig. 5.18 Probability of Snowfall

the driest air of this period comes in May, at fifty five percent.

Wind

speed

and

directionality

of the South-West oriented jet stream are also typically affected by the tide depth of the Great Lakes; cities that are

103

situated near bodies of water typically

 

experience windier conditions. Cleveland can potentially experience winds speeds as high as twenty seven miles per hour, but the average usually consists of zero to eighteen miles per hour. A large portion





of these winds sweep across the lakes and approach the city at a multitude of directions, but measured patterns suggest that wind primarily enters the city from the south-west direction.

Another

key

factor

the

atmospheric conditions through Cleveland

     

Fig. 5.19 Wind Direction

is the amount of cloud coverage that



accumulates. Cloud coverage is broken



down into two different classifications: partly cloudy and overcast. For this NorthEastern location in Ohio, sixty five percent of cloud coverage is considered to be partly cloudy, and one hundred percent coverage is referred to as overcast. The trend of significant cloud coverage starts in the month of October and increases till



         



  

  

Fig. 5.20 Cloud Coverage   

January, where the largest amount can be seen. This is due to the altitude of the



sun its particular orientation as the earth

  

   

Fig. 5.21 Air Quality

104





  

  

 

rotates.

The amount of pollutants throughout the Cleveland air is considerably low and

the quality of the air is labeled as 'good.' From three hundred and six days of air quality measurements, two hundred and seventeen days were considered as 'good air quality,' seventy nine were consider 'moderate air quality,' and 10 were labeled as 'poor air quality.'

105

Schematic Design

Further taking advantage of inquiries throughout program development, will be

schematic design. Throughout schematic design, functionality of space represented through different anatomical studies will start to take place.

Relationships and

configurations will starts to take place providing intricate design exemplifying highly functional spaces defined by interaction and human relation. As a strong concepts starts to emerge, developmental processes will be exposed, furthermore promoting the ideals of the human body informing architectural design. Relationships among the human body and architectural elements can then be linked, providing stronger emphasis on how and why 21st century architects need to pay attention to the functions of the human body and advancing anatomical studies uncovering bodily performance data.

6.1

Human Anatomy Inspires Design

6.1.1 An Experimental Archetype

The stadium archetype is one that suggests innovation in the practice of

architectural design and construction. Often stadiums are the basis of experimentation of new technologies or construction techniques that have the ability to be applied to any building type. Form and structure are exuding experimentation greatly and designers of future stadiums are pushing the boundaries immensely.

Through the observation of functionality in the thoracic cage, and the mechanisms

that allow for flexibility, experimentations with robotics ensued. These test involved motors that would allow for intricate pieces move in union, therefor allowing for a large range of motion. In addition to the assembly of these machines, retractable technology readily available was studies and implemented into the different iterations. These mechanical systems worked on a large scale, and needed to be scaled down to further relate to the user and create an intimate and interactive setting. The solution for this was to

110

create a series of smaller systems that work in union so that the impact on the spectator and athlete was larger. Once again, this concept can be related back to biological design and the ideals of smaller components working together to produce a single action or function.

There were many iterations of

Fig. 6.01 Paper Model #1

schematic design for this proposal; all in which encompassed similar aspects and strives to make a connection with the surrounding context. With the ideals found in the main concept, both curvilinear and rigid physical models were experimented with. In addition to expressive forming of the physical model, materiality was tested, either through clay, paper, foam, and other objects which represented materiality

Fig. 6.02 Paper Model #2

very well. The first iteration of schematic design experimented with the ideals of layering and how certain properties may be able to exist among the desired form. The second iteration dealt with the sculpting of a form and investigating how curvilinear stadiums site among very rectilinear and large cities. The form also Fig. 6.03 Paper Model #3

111

expressed new ideals of how mechanism, program, and site interaction may come about. Following this exploration into sculpture, it became apparent that there

Fig. 6.04 Clay Model #1

was a lack of connection between the site, building, and the pedestrians among the site. Elevation studies then pursued and very rigid formations came about. As the

Fig. 6.05 Clay Model #2

schematic design stage came to a close the impactful form expressed by structure became the driving force behind design development.

Fig. 6.06 Combination of Form and Mechanical Systems

Fig. 6.07 Curvilinear Line Work

Fig. 6.08 Linearity Applied to Curvilinear Line Work

Fig. 6.09 Rendered Elevation Study #1

Fig. 6.10 Rendered Elevation Study #2

112

Fig. 6.11 Transformation from Curvilinear to Rigid Forms

113

Design Development

The thesis and hypothesis being created and transformed through schematic

design start to become more apparent through the developed architectural design. Featured throughout design development are drawing exemplifying architectural uses of anatomical studies. It becomes apparent how the understanding of the human body promoted innovative techniques of design. These representations will provide instances for how the future architects can design as they adopt anatomical sciences as design associates.

7.1

Human Anatomy Inspires Design

7.1.1 Enriching the Experience

Design development is a stage which further drove the ideals of site, city, and

spectator connectivity. Within the process of designing with anatomical inferences in mind, instead of designing from anatomical dimension of the human body, architects need to look at biological affects produced by the environment an individual is in. Within the body there are numerous dependencies among intricate systems, becoming aware of certain architectural features and the effect on anatomy and how internal functions transpire to conjure movement of the body is imperative. Anatomical studies can do more than assists bio-mimicry, they can drastically inform the ways in which one thinks about design, and how it may convey stronger relationships with the end users and promote greater instances of functionality.

118

7.01 Design Developement Process Model

Fig. 7.02 Aerial Perspective

Due to the desire to enrich the intimate atmosphere, certain site conditions, and

the surrounding context, the stadium bowl and pitch is dropped down below ground level and the surrounding landscape is raised; this is to achieve a low profile and transparent qualities into the city. With the implementation of a transparent identity, the stadium will hold a lighter profile and not seem too overwhelming for the location, and being able to see or hear the events promotes individuals to inspect the venue. A sloping site condition is also formed to lead down to the pitch and offers a second entry point into the facility. This condition also acts as a powerful urban planning tool which provides a communal assembly space where one can partake in activities or witness a variety of venues held in the stadium. At the south entry point the spectator is able to interact with the building as well. The large steel mega trusses spans over the length of the field and is anchored in the middle of the sloped lawn which is covered and acts as a viewing space for those who aren't able to get into the event.

More specifically, this multi-use stadium which converts from soccer games to rugby

matches, concerts, and other large events, has an initial capacity of sixteen thousand; with

Fig. 7.03 Longitudinal Section

retractable elements in place, the capacity increases significantly. With the additional seating sections the venue holds its integrity of being intimate and truly expresses the strong relationships between mechanisms of

Fig. 7.04 Aerial Perspective Sketch

the human body and architectural elements.

The exterior walls of the stadium

consist of reinforced precast concrete walls; which act as the anchor points for bracing trusses connect to it. The side also gently sloped along the exterior facades to promote the aesthetics of a low profile stadium, along

Fig. 7.05 South Entry Perspective Sketch

with acting as an element absorbing forces the roof is exerting on the walls. The roof structure consists of a series of structural

Fig. 7.06 Stadium Opening Section Sketch

steel box trusses that span the length of the stadium and are braced throughout to better distribute the weight of the massive trusses. Also acting as a structural component are a series of space frame sections running between the mega-trusses.

This particular system was chosen Due to its light weight attributes, its abilities to

distribute loads throughout the frames, and its abilities to span great lengths. The roof material that is spanning across the space frames are series of extremely light weight and long span Kalwall panels. These particular panels are made up of spun insulation with matrices of minuscule aluminum coils. Additional to that are I-beams within the panel, which act for further support; this is crucial for the alteration of seasons and the weather that Cleveland experiences throughout the year. Another attribute these panels hold are the translucent capabilities, and its abilities to evenly diffuse light to the area below. As these panels become tiled on the roof, the percentage of translucency alters. This is due to the sometime overwhelming sun and intensive rays that may easily illuminate

Fig. 7.07 Stadium Entrance

the whole stadium. In addition to the trusses extending into the site, the Kalwall Panels partially extend, creating a covered area, but has brackets and channels built into them so that there is the ability to close off the stadium.

Anatomical studies have guided the transformation of this archetype through

conceptual design, schematic design, and design development, and are clearly present as one partakes in any event this venue offers. The mechanisms employed throughout uniquely shape the form and structural components end enrich the experience of the spectator and the athlete.

Fig. 7.08 East Elevation 1

East Elevation NO GLASS 1" = 20'-0"

Fig. 7.09 South End of Stadium Perspective



                               

    







 







 



 

   



   



 



  

 



 

 

  







 

 

 







  







 



























 



 









 



 





 





 









   

 







 

  

  

  

 

   



     



Fig. 7.10 Stadium Floor Plans

Fig. 7.11 Main Concourse Perspective

Fig. 7.12 Northern Stand Perspective

Fig. 7.13 South Stadium Entry Point

Fig. 7.14 South Elevation

128 Fig. 7.15 Cross Section

Fig. 7.16 Event Transitions

Fig. 7.17 Materiality Diagrams

Fig. 7.18 Hybrid Composition (72"x48")

Fig. 7.19 City Model Elevation

Fig. 7.21 City Model Perspective #1

Fig. 7.20 City Model Close-up

Fig. 7.22 City ModelPerspective #2

This conceptual site model is representative of a

CT Scan, of the city Cleveland, Ohio. From a computer massing model of the city, several section cuts were made and representative linework was printed onto plexiglass to then be laster cut. Similar to a CT Scan of a human body, several plates are then combined and aranged to represent a physical massing of Cleveland.

With transparent properties of the plexiglass,

an anatomical drawing along with a strong sourse of light was placed undernearth to further refract light and colors; ultimately highlighting the edges of each plate, which captured the city skyline well.

Fig. 7.23 Gallery Display: Hybrid Composition Combined with City Model

Fig. 7.19 Hybrid Composition

Fig. 7.24 Introductory Representational Board

Fig. 7.25 Site Analysis Representational Board

Fig. 7.26 Third Representational Board

Fig. 7.27 Fourth Representational Board

131

Design Defense

This stadium stands as a model of how this particular archetype, and other building

types can employ the ideals of observing the human body and the ultimate effects a space or architectural element has on ones' body. Through further understanding of how the body relates to the building, a new type of experience is able to be formed and allow for better functionality and maximizing proficiency of the space. Throughout the centuries, the ideals of serving the human body through design have vanished, in order to provide relationships once found between the two, designers must better understand the complexities of man instead of how industry inhabits a space.

The process of designing a large scaled building type, and bringing a sense of

closer relation between the site, spectator and athlete was rather involved and included the use of cooperative studies. The observation of mechanisms throughout the body and the performance the human body portrays, generates many new values and ideals which inform design.

In conclusion, the observation of the human body can bring about numerous

conceptual outlines, ultimately changing the overall integrity of design; design that conforms to the needs of the occupant and delivers a strong relationship between the body and the building. To better design for maximum functionality and stronger user relationships, designers must start to understand how the human body works and how it is affected by certain atmospheres along with how a designer can build upon greater user functionality.

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