Title: A. ‘Urbanisme’ 1924 Le Corbusier B. ‘Freespace’ Venice Biennale 2018 Period : October 2017- August 2018 No of Pages : 49 Mayank Garg mayankgarg416@gmail.com +44-7466128168, +91-9410891257 Mentor Eamonn Canniffe MA Architecture + Urbanism 2017/2018 Manchester school of architecture Manchester, August 2018 Cover image by author
A
PArt a: ‘Urbanisme’ Le Corbusier * Comparison with Frank LLoyd Wright Broadacre scheme * Comparison with urban proposal of Philidelphia by Louis I kahn
‘The modern Spirit of Machine made cities for Humans’
Abstract There have been countless discussions on the urban planning abilities of the greatest inventor of Modernism: ‘Le Corbusier’. Therefore, this review of his major book: Urbanisme (1929) concentrates more on its reliability in the cities of the twenty-first Century. In the first part of this writing, the different theories of Le Corbusier are discussed, which were covered in the abovementioned book and his more clarified visions for ‘Radiant City, 1935’. In the second part, his ideas are analyzed through comparisons with the two other modern utopians , Frank Lloyd Wright (The Broadacre City, 1935) and Louis I. Kahn (Plan for the Center city of Philadelphia, 1946). The third part concludes with a discussion of some of the author’s image as a city for the future.
1 Part A: Urbanisme
Early Life Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, grew up in a family of watchmakers in a small town of La Chaux-de-Fonds in Switzerland. He was always influenced by the industrial development . and its effects on human lives. At one point, his first teacher: L’ Eplatenier introduced him to the existing art and at the other point, his other teacher ‘Auguste Perret’ (1908) taught him about industrial construction engineering and techniques. He was highly influenced by Perret lessons of construction employing a great deal of mathematics and exposed concrete experiments with clear geometry. These two contrasting learnings from different teachers evoked his senses to blend art and industrial construction in architecture. Later in 1918, he held a joint exhibition with Amedee Ozenfant and two years after that, they published their first issue of L’ Esprit Nouveau on urbanism. At this point he rejected the neo-classical practices going around the world to support the Cubism. Then in 1922, Corbusier was asked to do something for the urban section of the Salon d’ Automne. He decided to present a project of hypothetical city of tomorrow for three million inhabitants. This book ‘Urbanisme’ written 1924, is a straight extension of this project.
‘Decorative art is dead. Modern town planning comes to birth with a new architecture. By this immense step in evolution, so brutal and so overwhelming, we burn our bridges and break with the past.’ - Le Corbusier (The City of Tomorrow, 1929)
Part A: Urbanisme 2
1. ‘Relfecting the pure Geometry: Cubism’, Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau, Paris, 1924 /Foundation Le Corbusier (Oeuvre complète 1910-1929) (Online Image)
2. ‘Rotunda space added with proportioned cubical living space’, Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau, Paris, 1924 /Image by Hien, T. (Online Image)
3 Part A: Urbanisme
Part A: Urbanisme 4
Urbanism, 1924 ‘Urbanisme’ or ‘The City of Tomorrow’ is divided into three major sections which discuss the issues of the cities of the twentieth century and the requirement of major shift in planning, its solutions with detailed laboratory work; ‘A contemporary city for the three million inhabitants’, and lastly the practical implication of the idea through ‘Voisin Plan for Paris’. In the first section, Le Corbusier evokes the world by mentioning the destiny of existing cities in early twentieth century. In 1924, the situation of cities was like an organism suffering from the disease with little possibility of progressing towards any sort of order and balance. Le Corbusier describes the organic layout of the cities as a pack-donkey’s way and ordered rectilinear straight-line layout as a Man’s way. He proclaims the modern feeling as a spirit of geometry, a spirit of construction and destined to revolutionize the society and further explains the effect of the formulation of standards for the mechanical beauty of the modern city, which may control the permanence. He declares that the centers of the town are in a state of mental sickness and they need to be rebuilt (Fig. 3).
‘The city is crumbling, it cannot last much longer; its time is past. It is too old. It is something utterly abnormal grows day by day. Everything is changed, the norm of our existence is completely demolished and reversed.’ (The City of Tomorrow, 1929) Naturally, he was not the first individual to get distressed about the conditions of Cities. Camillo Sitte, the Viennese planner, promoted the reappearance of monumentality through organic methods to bring back the essence of the cities of modern world. Le Corbusier admires the right angles of Sitte but stands firmly against his organic layouts. Ebenezer Howard brought up his ideas to deal with the disease of urban cities by mixing the town country culture to develop the Garden or Satellite towns. Le Corbusier accepted the idea of Garden City; however, he was concerned with the scale of this model city. Tony Garnier from Lyon put forward his Cite Industrielle with a distinct zoning of various functions of the city. Garnier’s vision of fusion of practical and malleable solutions for utopian city was far ahead for his time and Le Corbusier admired it; but he was worried about the center of the city.
5 Part A: Urbanisme
In the Second section, Le Corbusier announced that decorative art is dead and new architecture with modern town planning has evolved and presented his proposal for a linear contemporary city plan for three million inhabitants. He proposed a few assumptions and guidelines for his ideal city with an aim to decongest the center, increasing its density along the networks of circulations and green spaces. The lungs of the city: the ‘Open Spaces’ must be maximized; therefore, the city centers must be built vertically to achieve the maximum density and locate urban dwellings away from streets with huge parks. The streets should act as workshops to cater various services related to daily life. Finally, he proposed the distribution of traffic in three levels: the heavy goods traffic in underground level, lighter goods traffic at ground level and fast traffic running east-west and north-south forming two axes of the city. These roads should be laid with lesser intersections for rapid movement and there would be one railway station at the center. All these positive moves were definitely highlighted his brilliance as a planner, however, this sort of complete reformation is identical to a human, who lost his memory and started his life from zero. Le Corbusier took the idea of zoning from Garnier city and develop his scheme in concentric rectangular rings to assign various functions of the city to distinct zones (Fig. 5). The city center was placed around the main central station with sixty storey high twenty-four skyscrapers followed by blocks of flats, which were six storey high in the system of elongated continuous walls with shifting orientation. In the next outer ring, garden flats were placed one above the other, the cellular units, providing with double height terraces pierced out at systematic intervals, gathered around internal courts as recreational areas. The next ring was reserved as a green belt following the idea in the Garden city of Howard and then the industrial ward, sports ground and suburban area in the outskirts. Adjacent to the city center on the left side, a zone was dedicated to Public services and a park afterward for the future extension of the Business district. Most of these ideas are implemented in our recent cities, but, the situation is not as imagined by Corbusier. I think this is the stage where capitalism overpowers the reality of the planning. The prices for the property near the city centers reach the sky and subsequently, results in the uncontrollable division of capital throughout the city. This city can never be meant for middle or lower-class families. Furthermore, there is no space left for future growth of the city. By using his mathematical skills, Corbusier given the calculations for the distribution of population and percentage of land distribution. The skyscrapers were catering to around four to six hundred thousand employees with a density of twelve hundred people per acre, the residential area catering six hundred thousand inhabitants with a density of about one hundred and twenty people per acre and the rest of the two million lower working-class people were accommodated in Garden city. Only the five percent area was covered in City Center and the rest was dedicated to parks, avenues, restaurants, cafĂŠ, luxury shops, theatres. Residential blocks with setbacks and those Part A: Urbanisme 6
on the cellular system had eighty-five and forty-eight percent of open spaces respectively. Le Corbusier had tried to segregate the working and leisure life. By reducing the working hours, his objective was to increase the leisure time for the proletarians. In the twenty-first century, I am uncertain if we hardly have anything even close to eight hours of leisure in a day in our modern urban life. Le Corbusier was trying to develop a city in an urban park where the skyscrapers were monumental pieces reflecting the importance of business. In our existing cities, the main magnets which creates an attractive field are not planned as per the need. These magnets are government building, or some historic landmarks. Therefore, as Le Corbusier suggest, we need to modify our magnetic fields which is the city center and ordered it for better urban spaces. Transport management and circulations are an important aspect of the contemporary city. Each skyscraper has been envisaged as a tube station at various levels below the ground to serve the main city and suburban areas with the idea of continuous rail service (Fig. 7). He has developed the one-way loop system which sometimes results the passenger to complete the unwanted loop, thus, the loss of time. Morever, there were no railway connections in industrial area which is strange to analyze the working of Industrial belt and there were no plans provided for that area. Grading of roads has been achieved by the scale of the speed of the vehicles served. All urban grids have been enclosed by one-way raised roads and pedestrians has been channeled through parks and gardens. This grid-iron pattern could be noticed to have been influenced from the American cities such as Chicago. The distribution of different connections at different levels is an excellent way to control the movements of people in our cities. Bringing the main station in the center of the city could surely avoid the congestions and save the time. In the Third section, Le Corbusier implemented his scheme on Paris north-east of the Louvre, the Marais and develops plans for it. The Voisin plan for Center of Paris was based on two elements, a commercial city in six hundred acres and a residential city by rebuilding the overcrowded areas. Only the heritage buildings were preserved, which became an extensive feature of the parks. Principal axis from east to west was provided with the four hundred feet wide arterial roads for heavy vehicular movement. Eighteen glass skyscrapers were proposed to cater a total of five to seven hundred thousand people betrothed into work. Triple tiered pedestrian shopping malls around these skyscrapers were giving the human scale to the vast urban land at Ground level. Residential city towards the west side of business district was planned along with the Government offices. The failure of Le Corbusier to convince the authorities for execution of his dream is legible as no one would have imagined that he actually wants to convert the historical city of Paris into a virgin city.
7 Part A: Urbanisme
3. ‘Le Corbusier explaining the effect on city centres dues to increase in traffic and railways’/Images from ‘The city of Tomorrow (1929)
4. ‘Overview of the city center; Le Corbusier proposal of city for three million inhabitants’, /Images from ‘The city of Tomorrow (1929)
Part A: Urbanisme 8
Skyscrapers
Industrial Zone
Public Services
Garden City
Main Arterial Roads & Central Station Housing Units Parklands and Green spaces Sports Arena 9 Part A: Urbanisme
5. ‘Site plan of City for three million inhabitants’/Image from ‘The city of tomorrow, 1929, Edited by author
Part A: Urbanisme 10
6. ‘Block model of the city highlighting the presence of business district as a major landmark of the urban city’, /Image from Archdaily (11 August 2013) (Online Image)
11 Part A: Urbanisme
Part A: Urbanisme 12
Upper level: The landing stage for taxi planes; 250,000 sq. Yards
First level below ground: the tubes (main crossing) serving city and main arteries
Mezzanine level: The crossing for fast motor traffic
Second level below ground: Local and suburban lines running on one way loop
Ground level: Showing the access to the various railway line, the booking levels etc.
Third level below ground: the main lines for continous traffic going north south, east west
7. ‘Transport planning in the urban city in various levels below the ground level at the centre’, Contemporary city for three million people /Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow’ (1929)
13 Part A: Urbanisme
8. ‘Sketch showing the green spaces at the human eye level and the geometrical skyscrapers standing in the midst of parks juxtaposing the organic property of nature’/Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow’ (1929)
9. ‘The central space as the main connecting point for the dwellers around the main and garden city to reduce the movements’, /Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow’ (1929)
Part A: Urbanisme 14
10. ‘Sketch showing the arterial roads in the midst of skyscrapers, where commercial activities are facing the pedestrain at the upper levels’/Image from ‘Cities’(27th May 2015) (Online Image)
15 Part A: Urbanisme
12. ‘Dwellings with set-backs to include the sports fields for the leisure’, Ville Contemporaine/Image by Lucey, N. (1972) (Online Image)
13. ‘Housings in garden city with staggered boxes of solids and voids’, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929)
11. (Left Page) ‘The terrace gardens reaches the every dwelling in the cellular system’/Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929)
Part A: Urbanisme 16
Skyscrapers Main Arterial Roads Housing Units Parklands and Green spaces 17 Part A: Urbanisme
14. ‘Voisin Plan proposed by Le Corbusier by rebuilding the centre of Paris and keeping the historical buildings in his scheme’/Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow’ (1929) and Edited by Author
Part A: Urbanisme 18
Radiant City, 1935 The scheme of a contemporary city was the starting point of Le Corbusier as an Urbanist. Therefore, there were a few shortcomings in it, which Le Corbusier realized in the following years. He received loads of criticism on locating the lower working class in garden cities away from the main cities; as he always thought that the city life is for well- off industrialist who can bring more development and capital to cities. In 1935, he published the concept for the Radiant city as a socialist and a space for all the inhabitants regardless of their class and creed. Le Corbusier got rid of the favorability for capitalism, which was there in his previous scheme and now he introduced himself as a revolutionary syndicalist, who deliberates for the rights of working class of the cities (Fishman, R, 1997, pp.230). He replaced the towers of administration from the center of cities to the residential districts in the Radiant City (Fig. 20). This time he envisaged high rise apartments called ‘Unites’, which represents his mass production technique, produced through his principles of Dom-Ino house. These Unites were the mastery creations with respect to the human scale (La- Modular), intricacy and superiority. The inhabitants would be accommodated as per the family size, unlike the Contemporary city where the distribution was based on the hierarchy of position in the factories.
Skyscrapers
Industrial Zone
Public Services Main Arterial Roads & Central Station Housing Units Parklands and Green spaces
15. (Right Page) ‘Proposed plan for Radiant City with linear arrangement of various facilities without any discrimination ’/Image from ‘Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century’ (1977)
19 Part A: Urbanisme
Part A: Urbanisme 20
Unites Unites were the residential towers for 2700 residents designed as a vertical city by Le Corbusier to bring together various social classes in one building. Le Corbusier followed his visions to develop a collective service which was a significant feature of residential units in Contemporary City. The idea was to build a cooperative society with shared leisure facilities in a single building. Various choices of apartments were designed in a staggered way to accommodate various sizes of the families. These Unites had a workshop facility for traditional handicrafts whose techniques were no more adept in industries dedicated to mass production. There were meeting rooms of many sizes for social activities along with cafes, restaurants, and shops. Major focus was given to physical activities with a full-scale gymnasium, tennis courts, swimming pools and sometimes a beach on the roof of the Unites. Only fifteen percent of the total site area was occupied as a built up, the rest of the space was devoted to playing fields and parklands. Each building of the Unites was provided with daycare facilities, nursery and primary schools, cooperative laundry and cleaning and food stores (Fig. 16). The first Unite was made in Marseille in 1952 with the quote of Le Corbusier: ‘a machine for live in’. (Fig. 17) While designing these Unites, Le Corbusier had some precedents in his mind which he did not discuss. Peter Serenyi compared the Unites with the phalanstery of Charles Fourier in the nineteenth century (Serenyi, P., Art Bulletin 49, Dec 1967, Ch.21). Fourier designed the phalanstery for 1600 inhabitants with lavish public rooms such as theatres, libraries, ballrooms, dining halls. Le Corbusier tries to combine his principle of a social community along with those of Saint- Simon, who was one of the biggest rivals of Charles Fourier, the principle of perfect industrial hierarchy.
@ Pinterest (No Date)
@ Ouest France (2013)
17a. Unite de Habitation, Marseille(1947-52) 17b. Unite de Habitation, Nantes (1953-55) Services: Terrace roof, shops, hotel, Services: Terrace roof, nursery school restaurant, nursery school, gymnasium and association offices 21 Part A: Urbanisme
17c. Unite de Habitation, Services: Convival space in store, laundary r
16. ‘Sketch by Le Corbusier explaning his vision for the Unites as Vertical city; where each mansions was facilitated with physical comfort through gymnasiums and and even swimming pools on the roofs and the storages and services at the first level. The corridors are treated as the streets and the space on ground for playing fields. By adding the layer of trees as a barrier between the elevated highways and the Unites tower, he was giving the convincing gist of the development’, /Image from Archidialog (No date) (Online Image)
17. ‘The five Unite de Habitation built during the lifetime of Le Corbusier with the few differences in terms of facilities’/ (Online Images)
@ CORBUSIERHAUS BERLIN (2018) FÖRDERVEREIN CORBUSIERHAUS BERLIN E.V.(No Date)
Berlin (1957-58) n the lobby, grocery room
@ mapio.net (No Date) 17d. Unite de Habitation, Briey (1959-61) Services: Terrace roof and nursery school
@ Pinterest (No Date) 17e. Unite de Habitation, Firminy (1965-67) Services: Terrace roof, nursery school and association offices Part A: Urbanisme 22
Realized schemes Le Corbusier would have never thought that his path as an Urbanist would be very challenging. He was highly criticized all over the world for his urban design philosophies. However, he was not the first person to visualize the concept of linear cities. Earliest linear city was designed by Leonardo da Vinci in his sketches with several-level city form (Fig. 19). This was followed by the Robert Adam proposal for Adelphi London in the eighteenth century (Fig. 18), Sorio Y Mata’s ‘La Ciudad Linea’ in 1882 (Fig. 20). I think the world was not prepared to understand the Urbanism at the scale, which Le Corbusier was explaining. He tried his best to implement his schemes, but he failed every single time. He prepared plans for Rio de Janeiro (Fig. 21), Sao Paulo, Antwerp, Stockholm, Algiers (Fig. 22) and the reconstruction plans for the St. Die in 1945 (Fig. 23), but then, all of them just remain on paper. At this stage, I would like to mention his unbuilt scheme for Bogota in Columbia (Fig. 24), which he used as a major guideline during the time he was invited to India to finally execute his big set of drawings (Fig. 25). The hierarchy of roads through seven V’s (Fig. 26) and the neighborhood planning in the linear city was originally designed for the Bogota city, which he tested in Chandigarh, India.
18. ‘Robert Adam linear plan for Adelphi in London with the idea of housing estate as a palace’/Retrieved from British Library (2015) (Online Image) 23 Part A: Urbanisme
19. ‘Earliest walled linear city plan of Imola by Leonardo Vinci (1502), showing the freespace at the centre of the city which is connected through arterial raods.’/Image from datadeluge (27th October 2011) (Online Image)
20. ‘The Ciudad Lineal in Madrid by Spanish architect Sorio Y. Mata (1882) with the detached dwellings along the modern transportation’/ Retrieved from Quadralectic Architecture(No date) (Online Image)
Part A: Urbanisme 24
21. (Above) ‘Sketch by Le Corbusier for Rio de Janeiro (1929) showing modern automobile connections for maximum habitation by contuinuity into nature’/Image from Foundation Le Corbusier (No date) (Online Image) 22. (Below) ‘The Obus plan for Algiers with the business district on the dock with the houses for one eighty thousand people following his idea of Radiant city (1935)’/Image from MOMA (2018) (Online Image)
25 Part A: Urbanisme
23. (Above) ‘Sketch by Le Corbusier for St. Die, France (1945) added eight Unite de habitation in the scheme which was rejected by everyone’/Image from Foundation Le Corbusier (No date) (Online Image) 24. (Below) ‘Proposal for Bogota City, where the neighbourhood planning was done by dividing the land into sectors through the grading of roads into seven V’s’, The Queen’s Stepwell in Gujarat/Image by Gomez, G. (7th June 2017) (Online Image)
Part A: Urbanisme 26
25. ‘Master Plan for Chandigarh (1950-65), India divided into thirty sectors designed as per human scale with the Government buildings at the head of the city’, /Image from Foundation Le Corbusier (No date) (Online Image)
26. ‘Dividing the city into sectors which was considered as the container of family life through the grading of roads. Also the sectors were bisected through the strip of parklands to bring nature close to human life’/Image from Foundation Le Corbusier (No date) (Online Image)
27 Part A: Urbanisme
Part A: Urbanisme 28
Frank LLoyd Wright ‘The Broadacre City’, 1935 The time when Le Corbusier was explaining his ideas for Radiant City, there was another modern master: Frank Lloyd Wright, discussing his ideal city in New York, called a Broadacre City. As the meaning suggests, Broadacre was a self-sufficient city, where the inhabitants were full of industrial production skills. The major principle of the city was ‘decentralization’, like the Howard garden city, but much broader in perspective. Frank Lloyd Wright was also worried, same as Le Corbusier, about the massive deformations happening in the urban American cities in the nineteenth century. Both were advocates of the machinery and industrial developments, but their approach was completely different as an advent of utopian cities. Le Corbusier was trying to centralize the major function, the district center, in the city and to seperate the main city from garden city, whereas, Wright was trying to dissolve the barriers between urban and rural cultures. The starting point of Broadacre city was basic dwelling with the benefits of machine age. Wright envisions the big city as a monstrous aberration built by greed, destructive both for efficient production and human values (Fishman, R., 1997, pp.92). Following the idea of decentralization, he sprinkled the various small-scale facilities such as factories, schools, stores, professional buildings and cultural centers around the farmlands within the access of homesteads imagined for the inhabitants (Fig. 27,28). He placed the office buildings beside quite lake and factories in the woods, which seems like everything coming out from nature and then dissolves into it. Nature and landscape were major carriers of city life in contrast to the big skyscrapers of the district centers in Le Corbusier Scheme. Wright main belief was individualism as a democracy, with inspiration from Jeffersonian tradition in American cities, followed by one-acre land for every man and woman facilitated with the technology of the future. The homesteads designed by him were distributed without any hierarchies, however, he slightly ranged the sizes from ‘one car house’ to ‘five car houses’. This appears like distribution according to the size of the family as done by Le Corbusier in his Radiant City. Each homestead was designed to be self- sufficient to fulfill the daily needs of the people living in it, as well as, to provide the leisure facilities within the landscape. With this vision, he was juxtaposing the thought of Le Corbusier, who wanted to segregate work and leisure. On a contrary, Wright wished to merge the two functions inside an organic Romantic landscape, which may have been influenced by the oak gardens of Illinois. It can be said that both these modernists were looking to reconcile their childhood memories in their utopian cities by supporting the importance of automobile in urban life. Le Corbusier tried to control the nature with his ordered planning, but Wright followed the nature and its organic order to add the facilities to survive in the city of the machine age. 29 Part A: Broadacre city
27. ‘Zoning Plan of Broadacre City showing the decentralization scheme with possible links to farmlands’/Image by Author 28. ‘Sketch by wright showing the flying automobiles in his broadacre city in contrast to the village like planning of the modern city. The cultural center in the foreground and the vertical tower for housings, which opposes his own vision’/ Image from ‘Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century’ (1977)
Part A: Broadacre city 30
29. ‘Arterial roads in Broadacre city for automobile designed inside the vast landscape’ /Image from ‘Urban Utopias in the Twenti-
eth Century’ (1977)
Staccato 30. ‘Circulations designed by Kahn as he felt that it was the critical step towards the reformation of the center of Philadelphia. He must be inspired from the Corbusier grading of the raods to better movement’ /Image from ‘Louis I. Kahn: Writings, Lectures, Interviews’ ; Latour, A.(1991)
31 Part A: Broadacre city
Go
Parking
Garage
Intersection
Center Plan for Philadelphia by Louis I Kahn
Louis Isadore Kahn, ‘Plan for the center city of Philadelphia’, 1946 Louis I. Kahn, known for his serenity in the field of architecture, also tried to contribute his bold vision towards the need of the modern city. However, I believe his ideas for the urban cities were not as widely discussed as other modern masters. But his unbuilt monumental plan for central Philadelphia received a huge attention at the time of Edmund Bacon as the planner of Philadelphia city. Lou was highly influenced by the monumental visions of Le Corbusier in architecture, therefore, the comparison between the urban designing skills of both the modernist is very fascinating and legible. His first attempt in Urbanism: ‘Housing design in the rational city plan’ (1939) was the extension of Le Corbusier ideas in Plan Voisin. After his proposal for the Mill Creek plan, Lou started to question the universality and monotony of the contemporary city, though he admires the hierarchy system adopted by Corbusier. At the city level, he started questioning the sense of small-scale spaces in the Corbusier big scale scheme. Subsequently, he developed the urban proposal for the Central Philadelphia: The Triangular Plan (1946-50) (Fig. 31), a revitalization of a two-hundred-acre parcel of land. This included the famous Traffic study for Philadelphia (1951-54) (Fig. 30,34), the Penn center (1951-58), Civic center (City Tower) project (1957-58), Market Street (1960-63), and Viaduct architecture (1959-62). At one time I thought the idea of towers with big open space around them was a wonderful thing, until I realized, ‘where is the bakery shop?’ And the park was not good enough. (Louis Kahn cited in Wurman, 1986, p. 230) ‘Le Corbusier was and still is my teacher though he has never been aware of it.’ (Louis I. Kahn, cited in Reed, 1989, p. 13) The city planning for Kahn was like a planning for a house. Following his two biggest tools, which were Order and Monumentality, he started looking after the major problems of historic Philadelphia city and notified that the lack of community and traffic were the biggest issues to crack in the city. He wanted to save the streets by controlling the movement for order and convenience, whereas, Corbusier wishes to order the streets to maximize the speed of automobiles. Kahn’s fundamental principle of served (Buildings and open spaces) and servant (the streets) was interpreted in his proposed movement diagram in which he controls the access the private automobiles in the center of the city by developing the multi-level car parks at the corners of the city center and the elevated highways (Fig. 32,33). His proposal for the civic center can be accrediated to his learnings from Le Corbusier, Wright and Sitte imagination, where he tried to blend the organic architecture into the monumental ordered layout with the pure platonic forms. There were circular parking towers following the order of movement, commercial centre following the order of business city with a monumental axis, halls
Part A: Louis I Kahn 32
following the order of institutions. Lastly, Lou developed the special vocabulary for Philadelphia, which was completely his own idea; ‘Viaduct Architecture’. Quite possibly, the precedents must have been the old historic cities of Europe which he visited. As a servant space, the Viaduct was developed as a porous arcade wall which was containing various facilities of transportation and physical infrastructure for the city. The was a unique system of controlling the edges of the cities with distinct architectural features. Developing a modern city with an efficient transport system inside an arcade wall had never been thought by any modernist. ‘Expressways are like Rivers, These Rivers frame the area to be served, Rivers have Harbors, Harbors are the municipal Parking Towers, from the Harbors branch a system of Canals that serve the interior, the Canals are the go streets, from the Canals branch Cul-de-sac Docks, the Docks serve as entrance halls to the buildings.’ - Louis I Kahn (Latour, A.,1991)
31. ‘The triangular plan by Kahn for the mid Philadelphia; showing various towers at monumental scale with desired order and balance’, /Image from ‘Kahn’; Raza, J. (2006)
33 Part A: Louis I kahn
32. ‘Civic center with the parking tower at the edge in the central Philadelphia scheme’/ Photo by Ippoliti, F. (No date) (Online Image)
33. ‘Composition of Pure geometries in the city center with exposed structures’/Photo by Wang, H. (30 September 2015) (Online Image)
34. (Below) ‘Traffic study plan (1952) of Mid-Philadelphia showing main road with speedy vehicles around the pheriphery of the city center and connected to inside spaces through public transportation’/Retrieved from MOMA (No date) (Online Image)
Part A: Louis I Kahn 34
Conclusion To me, Le Corbusier has always been known to me as the master of detailing the architectural elements, with the spiritual notions and meanings. His architectural projects are extreme sublime of distinct elements and he used them by juxtaposing them in a proportioned manner. The same is reflected in his urban theories, in various cases; such as organization and individuality, mechanization and craftsmanship, planning and spontaneity, primordial and salvation and the authority and freedom. He always wanted to merge the difference between spirit of the temple and the living cells through the connections of various cosmological axis to the heaven employing the tools of nature. The residences designed by him in his schemes were again a reflection of his memories from the houses of the monks or primitive huts which lies somewhere amid nature. His desire for making the city itself as a garden for eternal salvation is an effort to bring the charm of rural green into the main city. He was yet again juxtaposing the grid layout of the cities with the huge green parks to take its own organic shape. However, I didn’t notice this in his scheme of Chandigarh, except in the Capitol Center, which is highly nourished with green spaces and blend into nature. The project at Pushkar City, is also an experiment to bring the mystical preservation in the life of humans through architecture and Urbanism. The intention is to understand the leisure life and its connection with living beings to get the eternal satisfaction. Le Corbusier used the past imaginaries of Tuscany monasteries to depict the modern urban living, which is also the fundamental of the project in Pushkar. Every facility added in the city sublimes into the deserts of Pushkar with the symbols of past traditions of India. By comparing the ideas of Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. Kahn, I realized that all these modernists were trying to divide the land as per the number of inhabitants, which helps them to derive the ideal cases. But the population is growing in our cities, therefore, I am uncertain if we need to design our cities for three million or thirty million inhabitants. In the coming future, I think there will not be any space left in the main cities for houses, as our city centres are growing at an unprecedented pace. Therefore, main cities will be the places of business and trade, whereas, inhabitants will make their houses in the Garden or Satellite Towns with a boundless connection to the main cities through the public transport as suggested by Le Corbusier. The principles of order and monumentality of Kahn will help to activate the architecture of different centers of the main city and give them a unique identity. Maybe the road width get decreased as the number of cars on the ground might get reduced with the growing technology. I believe that each house may own a flying cars or some powerful technology, where they could travel nearer to the speed of light. The potential of submerged spaces, which was realized by Le Corbusier in his futuristic city, may also be 35 Part A: Urbanisme
utilized more than the circulations to get the more open spaces on the ground and the scale of the city would be malleable in nature. To conclude, technology has the immense role to play in realizing the dream life of the human beings without destroying the nature. It may be possible that Urban designers will be working in science laboratories with the scientist in the upcoming decades to find the solutions for Rural living and Urban business districts. The ‘City of bits’ by William Mitchell is a fairly genuine city model, which elaborates the role of cyberspace and internet to shape cities. I think Le Corbusier ideas can be re-evaluated with the possible futuristic technology to develop an ideal futuristic city. Having said that, I still believe that none of the manifestations in urban cities can be a permanent solution. Therefore, we should also focus on temporary solutions for bigger issues of the cities with the use of the required technology to save capital and time. The success rate of the ephemeral cities being formed all around the world is far better than our permanent ones.
Part A: Urbanisme 36
B
PArt B: The Existential ‘Freespace’ at Venice Biennale 2018
The sixteenth International Architectural Biennale (2018) at Venice settled around the theme: ‘Freespace’, curated by the Yvonne Farrell and Shelley McNamara from Grafton Architects, Dublin. Freespace is described as the generosity of spirit and a sense of humanity with the fundamental issues of architecture by focusing on the spaces itself. The idea of the curators is to conceive the ability to derive the free and additional special gift to the unspoken wishes of the strangers. The manifestations of the theme are extremely diverse in various national pavilions in the form of displays, model making and the art installations. The term ‘free’ is sometimes interpreted in the form of open social spaces or sometimes in the political buildings. The pavilions of the Czech Republic, Britain and Belgium highlighted the political issues related to their countries and elaborated the Freespace as a medium to resolve them. However, most of the exhibitions try to bring the connection with the natural resources as they are always considered as free. The Argentina Pavilion and the Nordic pavilion (Fig. 35) are featured to identify the relationship between nature, place and architecture to form a generous space. Freespace can be a space with endless boundaries such as presented in the France Pavilion, space for social and spiritual connections such as the Chapels designed in The Vatican Pavilion at San Giorgio Maggiore, subspaces in between the transitional spaces, or an enclosed multifunctional space for an individual, such as the Swiss pavilion, which exhibit the tour of Svizzera 240, highlighted with the restless variations in the scale of the interiors. In the national pavilions, curators are very curious to dictate the spaces for future cities and narrate them as a free and a protected space in the world of harmony and peace with nature. At the same time, many pavilions maintain the balance with the futuristic approach through the past interpretations. Indonesian pavilion is the valid example of this, 37 Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
where the curator displays the concept of Emptiness to create the spatial experience, which is rooted in the traditional Indonesian architecture. The star architects around the world responded more technically in comparison to the curators of national pavilions. They portray their built/unbuilt projects with the extra sensitivity of spiritual notions and generosity. Connection with nature or the Earth as the main client was again highlighted in most of the exhibitions in Arsenale. The sketches of Peter Rich are one of the major attractions, which is malleable and sublime into the earth with the vibrant curves, rich lines and natural light. The essence of life and the potion of purity depicted through the traditional architecture by freeing up the secrets of landscape around it. The metabolic freespace in the rural areas of China are exploited by the DNA Design and architects, where they portray the stories of upbringing of public spaces in different villages of China. The Bamboo theatre in Hengkeng Village is the interesting traditional opera space around the bamboo trees with the use of local craftsmanship. The installation Lines of movement by Weiss/Manfredi also examine the spaces which extend the boundaries of landscape and buildings to give the new public architecture. Their concerns for environmental and social abnormalities are successfully described through the scale models of famous historic projects such as Stepwell, New Delhi, Sydney Opera House and the Gaudi structures in Barcelona. Spanish Architect, Parades Pedrosa evolved the archeological stereotomic structures to dream the freespace in the true forms. Marusa Zorec and associates along with the Arrea Architecture explores the submerged or the hidden spaces with the mission of architecture which opens the space.
35. Nordic Pavilion showing the generosity between the nature and the humans . Also the inflated memebranes filled with air and water respond to the external order or disorders reflecting the changing nature of the earth /Image by author 38 Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
36. Installation by Aires Mateus in the form of suspended enclosed space in black metal. The idea of creating a generous space with peace and harmony in the protected envelope accessed through trap door. / Image by author
The exhibition of Peter Zumthor is the magic in the land. His atelier responded in the most positive way where the built objects were placed in the vast open free spaces with serenity, like the manifestations of the Frank Lloyd Wright in the Broadacre City. The internal and the external relationship is also exploited by David Chipperfield architects in their exhibition by preserving the past stories and to develop a dialogue between the past and the new view of modernity. The installations of Aires Mateus and Marina Tabassum should also be highlighted as their approach is different from other exhibits. Both try to imagine the free space as the more enclosed and secure place whose experiences are not new to the people. Aires Mateus brings the single interactive object in black metal suspended in the air gives the entrance with the trap door to the enclosed protected space (Fig. 36), this is reminiscent of the architecture of the classical age where peace and harmony, smells and flavors were derived in the protective euphoria. Always known for the structural fantasy of solids and voids, Mateus response is again towards the establishment of a paradise which separates the space itself from the happenings in the world and gives the spaces for meditation and enlightenment. Marina Tabassum responded with the traditional Bengali experiences of the enclosed courtyards and their multi-uses in the lives of people. It is always believed that the courtyard in the houses of India or Bangladesh doubles the usable area as the South Asians perform a large number of household activities in the open spaces and these courtyards provide the free space to do transitional activities during the time of the day. Tabassum utilized this idea of mentioning the courtyards as the empty space for promoting the community while preserving the individuality of the users. 39 Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
The newest exhibition of the Vatican City, curated by Francesco Dal Co, is the best demonstration of the general spaces in our life that are the most substantial medium for bonding with the universe and reminds us the objective of existence. The ten architects were invited to design the prototypes for ten tribalized churches with sitting space, the lectern and altar in an area of sixty square meters as a recreation of the churches (Woodland) by Gunnar Asplund, a Swedish architect, in 1920. However, all the designs are melodic, but a few are simply overwhelming and should be discussed in detail. The first is the Chapel with the roadside shrine (Fig. 37(a)) by Smiljan Radic with Moretti (Chile). The Chilean architect uses the memories of roadside temples and small churches which traps the soul of the humans. These small religious spaces are also present on every street in traditional India in the form of small tombs, temples or the Sikh Gurudwara. Therefore, it is easy for me to connect with the essence of his design towards the spiritual connections with the sky and the enclosed space for the meditation. Here the perceiver will get free from his daily life and get the pause to his life. The architect designed the conical chapel with a transparent roof with glass cover to control the scale of the church with the thin walls in plastered lath. The opening as a slit with a wooden door gives the way to reach the altar, which is simply the wooden stem on a concrete block. This seems domestic in nature and reminds me of ‘Peepal tree’ in the houses in India, which is always considered holy and used to perform rituals. The chapel by Eduardo Souto De Moura (Fig. 37(b)) is architecturally the horizontal spread enclosed in four rough stone walls that suggests to the altar. The sitting ledge out of the stone walls suggests the impression of a pavilion-like enclosure for relaxation. The morning Chapel (Fig. 37(c)) by Ricardo Flores and Eva Prats (Spain), is also similar to the approach of the roadside churches which gives the small shelter for ritual and social activity as well as defined the boundaries in the existing context. In a way, this morning chapel acts as a transitional space which takes the perceiver from the water to the forest through a sacred path. At the same time, it borrows the natural qualities to entertain the users. The idea of Brazilian architect, Carla Juacaba, to build the disappearing chapel (Fig. 37(d)) gives the notion of green forest or nature itself as the main Idol to worship. The reflections of green on steel beams forming the cross symbol is making the place around it spiritual and bring surplus free land for human activities in accordance to nature. At last, the first attempt of Norman Foster for designing a chapel (Fig. 37(e)) results from his all-time desire for construction detailing in architecture. He chooses the bamboo structure to develop a sanctuary like space with three symbolic crosses as the main support to the structure. The structure seems to be the intermix of two thoughts of providing the deck like space facing the river as well as adding the next layer of spirituality through cross symbol at the threshold. To cap it all, these designs were trying to convert the whole environment into a holistic space which is free from any division, where people can experience the whisper of the dense forest which is as quiet as a galactic temple. Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
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RAVASI, D. SAID: “IT IS A PATH FOR ALL WHO WISH TO REDISCOVER BEAUTY, SILENCE, THE INTERIOR AND TRANSCENDENT VOICE, THE HUMAN FRATERNITY OF BEING TOGETHER IN THE ASSEMBLY OF PEOPLE AND THE LONELINESS OF THE WOODLAND, WHERE ONE CAN EXPERIENCE THE RUSTLE OF NATURE, WHICH IS LIKE A COSMIC TEMPLE”
41 Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
37 (a). Chapel with the roadside shrine by Smiljan Radic /Image by author
37 (b). Chapel as a waiting space by Eduardo Souto De Moura /Image by author
37 (c). The morning Chapel by Ricardo Flores & Eva Prats /Image by author
37 (d). The Disappearing chapel by Carla Jaucaba /Image by author
37 (e). Bamboo deck as a chapel by Norman Foster architects /Image by author
37 (f). Chapel as a dynamic entity by Sean Godsell with Maeg Zintek /Image by author 37. The Vatican Pavilion in the forest of San Giorgio Maggiore displaying the prototypes of tribalized churches following the theme of ‘Free space’
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38. The speakers, Paolo Marcoaldi (Top right) and Stefano Tornieri, Massimo Triches (right), delivering their thoughts on free space at the central hall of giardini Biennale /Image by author
39. Influential Precedents by Paolo Marcoaldi for the vision of urban staircase for setting up the paradise
43 Part B: Freespace, Venice Biennale 2018
The symposium of Manchester School of Architecture; Action Field, with the speakers Stefano Tornieri and Massimo Triches from Babau Bureau and the Paolo Marcoaldi from Studio Dismisura, hold a discussion about the validity of the space which is actually free. According to Stefano: ‘Design kills freedom’ but I think design is the only medium to give freedom to the users. However, this is very conditional as free space does not always mean an open physical space or a multi-functional space. There could be many perspectives in support of it. For illustration, the churches or the religious buildings which are densely enclosed to follow a certain movement, allows the perceivers to break the boundaries of their minds and reach the heaven through the symbolic meanings of space. These spaces allow the people to rest and calm, which is actually the desire, and this is the most important prospect of freedom. The dream of Le Corbusier to convert the houses of the cities like the restrooms of monks, which he had noticed in the monasteries of Tuscany, through the vast green enclosures and well-scaled structures was actually a process to generate the freedom among the minds of the people through the layers of satisfaction and peaceful environment. The presentation by Paolo about the urban staircase as the free-space raised the questions about the diverse perspectives in architectural spaces. There are sub-spaces in the form of corridors, staircases and terraces which are often neglected to be used as space. Freespace can also be a space left after from the space occupied by the main function, and this is the point where the architect plays his role and develop these remaining spaces in a most dramatic manner so that it could not be conventional mundane. So, there is the longing for spaces which actually nourish the mind of the users, which is actually called the universal freespace. Staircases also plays a role towards the ‘free’ space, but it needs to well address. For instance, the stepwells, where the staircases play a major role in the development of the experiences in the form of episodes so that when one reaches his destination, gets nourished and attains peace. These transitions in the staircases have the ability to control the souls of the human body through cosmological axis binding the past, present and future and this is the stage of freedom of mind as the perceiver forgot everything about his daily life. If these experiences can be reinterpreted in the different situations at Urban scale, the mundane transitions can become the foremost free spaces in our cities. The genius loci of the spaces are the main tool which can bring any enclosed space into the freest space and generous space and this is the gift which we professionals can deliver to the people of our cities. The exhibitions of Aires Mateus, Alvaro Siza, Sanaa and Peter Zumthor definitely reflecting this perspective in their projects at different scales. To conclude, the overall theme of ‘Freespace’ by Grafton Architects gives the extraordinary diverse pictures to interpret the idea of the space for the spiritual attainment of the people through different mediums such as landscape, geometry, architecture and mental connections.
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List of Figures Figure 1: Foundation Le Corbusier (No date) ‘Reflecting the pure Geometry: Cubism’, Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau, Paris, 1924. Retrieved from Official Website [Online Image] [Accessed on 12th October 2017] http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjetId=5061&sys Language=en-en&itemPos=44&itemCount=78&sysParentId=64
Figure 2: Hien, T. (No date) ‘Rotunda Space added with proportioned cubical living space’ Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau, Paris, 1924. Retrieved from Pinterest [Online Image] [Accessed on 12th October 2017] https://eaadiproyectos.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/lc_25_esprit_nouveau_dwg_01.jpg
Figure 3: ‘Le Corbusier explaining the effect on city centres due to increase in traffic and railways’/ Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow (1929) Figure 4: ‘Overview of the city center; Le Corbusier proposal of city for three million inhabitants’, /Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow (1929) Figure 5: ‘Site Plan of City for three million inhabitants’, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929), Edited by Author Figure 6: Gili, M. (August, 2013)‘Block model of the city highlighting the presence of business district as a major landmark of the urban city’, /Image from Archdaily [Online Image] [Accessed on 08th October 2017] https://www.archdaily.com/411878/ad-classics-ville-radieuse-le-corbusier
Figure 7:Transport planning in the urban city in various levels below the ground level at the centre’, Contemporary city for three million people, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929) Figure 8:‘Sketch showing the green spaces at the human eye level and the geometrical skyscrapers standing in the midst of parks juxtaposing the organic property of nature’, Contemporary city for three million people, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929) Figure 9: ‘The central space as the main connecting point for the dwellers around the main and garden city to reduce the movements’, Contemporary city for three million people, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929) Figure 10: (May 2015)‘Sketch showing the arterial roads in the midst of skyscrapers, where commercial activities are facing the pedestrain at the upper levels’, /Image from ‘Cities’ [Online Image] [Accessed on 05th October 2017] http://cityplanningcasestudies.tumblr.com/post/120038621620/ville-contemporaine-le-cor busier-the-predecessor
Figure 11: ‘The terrace gardens reaches the every dwelling in the cellular system’, Contemporary city for three million people, /Image from ‘The city of Tomorrow’ (1929) 45
Figure 12: Lucey, N. (1972)‘Dwellings with set-backs to include the sports fields for the leisure’, Ville Contemporaine. [Online Image] [Accessed on 04th October 2017] https://www.lucey.net/corbusier.htm
Figure 13: ‘Housings in garden city with staggered boxes of solids and voids’/ Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow (1929) Figure 14: ‘Voisin Plan proposed by Le Corbusier by rebuilding the centre of Paris and keeping the historical buildings in his scheme’ /Image from ‘The City of Tomorrow (1929) and Edited by Author Figure 15: ‘Proposed plan for Radiant City with linear arrangement of various facilities without any discrimination’ /Image from ‘Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century’; Fishman, R. (1977) Figure 16: Inbar, E. (No date)‘Sketch by Le Corbusier explaning his vision for the Unites as Vertical city; where each mansions was facilitated with physical comfort through gymnasiums and and even swimming pools on the roofs and the storages and services at the first level. The corridors are treated as the streets and the space on ground for playing fields. By adding the layer of trees as a barrier between the elevated highways and the Unites tower, he was giving the convincing gist of the development’, /Retrieved from Archidialog [Online Image] [Accessed on 12th October 2017] https://archidialog.com/tag/unite-dhabitation-in-marseille/
Figure 17: ‘The five Unite de Habitation built during the lifetime of Le Corbusier with the few differences in terms of facilities’ [Online Images] [Accessed on 12th January 2018] Figure 18: London through artist’s eye (2015) ‘Robert Adam linear plan for Adelphi in London with the idea of housing estate as a palace’/ Retrieved from British Library [Online Image] [Accessed on 14th October 2017] http://blogs.bl.uk/magnificentmaps/2015/03/index.html
Figure 19: A Town plan of Imola (27th October 2011) ‘Earliest walled linear city plan of Imola by Leonardo Vinci (1502), showing the freespace at the centre of the city which is connected through arterial raods.’ /Retrieved from datadeluge [Online Image] [Accessed on 14th October 2017] http://www.datadeluge.com/2011/10/town-plan-of-imola.html
Figure 20: The Ideal City (No date) ‘The Ciudad Lineal in Madrid by Spanish architect Sorio Y. Mata (1882) with the detached dwellings along the modern transportation’ /Retrieved from Quadralectic Architecture [Online Image] [Accessed on 14th October 2017] https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4-representation/4-1-form/4-1-4-cities-in-the-mind/4-14-1-the-ideal-city/ 46
Figure 21: ‘Sketch by Le Corbusier for Rio de Janeiro (1929) showing modern automobile connections for maximum habitation by contuinuity into nature’ / Retrieved from Foundation Le Corbusier [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjec tId=6330&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=184&itemSort=en-en_sort_string1%20&item Count=215&sysParentName=&sysParentId=65
Figure 22: Jacobs, R. (2018)‘ The Obus plan with the business district on the dock with the houses for one eighty thousand people following his idea of Radiant city (1935)’ / Retrieved from MOMA [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] https://www.moma.org/collection/works/961
Figure 23: ‘Sketch by Le Corbusier for St. Die, France (1945) added eight Unite de habitation in the scheme which was rejected by everyone’ /Retrieved from Foundation Le Corbusier [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] http://fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjectId=6332&sysLan guage=en-en&itemPos=185&itemSort=en-en_sort_string1%20&itemCount=215&sysParent Name=&sysParentId=65
Figure 24: Gomez, G. (7th June 2017)‘Proposal for Bogota City, where the neighbourhood planning was done by dividing the land into sectors through the grading of roads into seven V’s’ / ‘A Utopia by Le Corbusier called Bogota’; Retrieved from Archdaily [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] https://www.archdaily.co/co/872193/una-utopia-de-le-corbusier-llamada-bogota
Figure 25: ‘Master Plan for Chandigarh (1950-65), India divided into thirty sectors designed as per human scale with the Government buildings at the head of the city’ /Retrieved from Foundation Le Corbusier [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjec tId=6286&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=179&itemSort=en-en_sort_string1%20&item Count=215&sysParentName=&sysParentId=65
Figure 26: ‘Dividing the city into sectors which was considered as the container of family life through the grading of roads. Also the sectors were bisected through the strip of parklands to bring nature close to human life’ /Retrieved from Foundation Le Corbusier [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjec tId=6286&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=179&itemSort=en-en_sort_string1%20&item Count=215&sysParentName=&sysParentId=65
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Figure 27: ‘Zoning Plan of Broadacre City showing the decentralization scheme with possible links to farmlands’/ Image by Author Figure 28: ‘Sketch by wright showing the flying automobiles in his broadacre city in contrast to the village like planning of the modern city. The cultural center in the foreground and the vertical tower for housings, which opposes his own vision’ /Image from ‘Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century’; Fishman, R. (1977) Figure 29: ‘Circulations designed by Kahn as he felt that it was the critical step towards the reformation of the center of Philadelphia. He must be inspired from the Corbusier grading of the raods to better movement’/Image from ‘Louis I. Kahn: Writings, Lectures, Interviews’; Latour, A. (1991) Figure 30: ‘The triangular plan by Kahn for the mid Philadelphia; showing various towers at monumental scale with desired order and balance’/ Image from ‘Kahn’; Raza, J. (2006) Figure 31: ‘The triangular plan by Kahn for the mid Philadelphia; showing various towers at monumental scale with desired order and balance’/ Image from ‘Kahn’; Raza, J. (2006) Figure 32: Ippoliti, F. (No Date)‘Civic center with the parking tower at the edge in the central Philadelphia scheme’ /Retrieved from Pinterest [Online Image] [Accessed on 17th October 2017] https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/321233385904273826/
Figure 33: Wang, H. (30 September 2015)‘Composition of Pure geometries in the city center with exposed structures’ / Image from ‘Order of Archi Composition’ [Online Image] [Accessed on 19th October 2017] http://thesis.arch.hku.hk/2015/2015/09/30/order-of-archi-composition/
Figure 34: ‘Traffic study plan (1952) of Mid-Philadelphia showing main road with speedy vehicles around the pheriphery of the city center and connected to inside spaces through public transportation’ /Retrieved from MOMA [Online Image] [Accessed on 18th October 2017] https://www.moma.org/collection/works/488
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Bibliography
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Fishman, R. (1977), ‘Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century ’, New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers Foundation Le Corbusier
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Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation
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Latour, A. (1991), ‘Louis I. Kahn: Writings, Lectures, Interviews’, New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. Le Corbusier, Etchells, F. (1929), ‘The City of Tomorrow ’, London: The Architectural Press. Morris, ES (1997), ‘British Town Planning and Urban Design ’,England: Addison Wesley Longman Limited Ramirez, JA (2000), ‘The Beehive Metaphor: From Gaudi to Le Corbusier ’, London: Reaktion Books Ltd Raza, J. (2006), ‘Kahn’, Germany: Taschen Reed, PS (1989) ‘Toward form: Louis I. Kahn’s urban designs for Philadelphia, 1939--1962’ (Online) (Accessed on 12th October 2017)
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http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysName=home&sysLanguage= fr-fr&sysInfos=1 http://franklloydwright.org/
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https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI8922590/
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Whyte, IB (2003), ‘Moderism and the spirit of the city ’, London: Routledge Serenyi, P. (1967), ‘Le Corbusier, Fourier and the Monastery at Ema’, Art Bulletin 49 Wright, FL (1932), ‘The Disappearing City ’, New York: William Farquhar Payson Wurman, RS. (1986), ‘What Will Be Has Always Been: The Words of Louis I. Kahn’, New York: Rizzoli Books, Inc., Publishers