Peace Corps Senegal Gardening Manual 2013

Gardening in Senegal PC Senegal Gardening Manual

2013 Edition

Contributors APCD-Agriculture, Famara Massaly PTA-Agriculture, Youssoupha Boye PTA-Agriculture, Afrang Sadio Contributing authors to the 2013 edition PCVL-UAg, Austin Peterson PCV-CED, Gregory Porter PCV-CED, Anthony Scavone Contributing illustrators to the 2013 edition PCV-SusAg, Mary Cadwallender PCV-SusAg, Miranda Currie PCV-SusAg, Sam Hoeffler PCV-CED, Stacey Chen Editor to the 2013 edition PCVL-UAg, Austin Peterson Contributing editor to the 2013 edition PCV-SusAg, Mary Cadwallender

Contributors to the 1997, 2009 editions RPCV, Allison Arnold RPCV, Whitney Brim-DeForest PCV, Heather Cole RPCV, William Conquest RPCV-Mali, Jennifer Neves

Table of Contents 1

Agriculture in Senegal ........................................................................................................................... 5 Gardening in Senegal ................................................................................................................................................ 5 Agriculture and the Environment ............................................................................................................................. 5 Agro-Ecological Zones in Senegal ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Natural Resources and Environmental Changes ..................................................................................................................... 5 Socio-Economic Impacts of Environmental Change ................................................................................................................ 6 Possible Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Seasonal Changes ................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Commonly Grown Vegetables and Cultural Cuisine ................................................................................................. 7

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The Science behind the Garden ............................................................................................................. 8 Soil ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8 Soil Texture.............................................................................................................................................................................. 8 The Shake Test ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8 Soil Formation, Soil Fertility, and Humus ................................................................................................................................ 9 Soil Structure .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Soil Profile ............................................................................................................................................................................. 10 Soils in Senegal...................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Soil Salinity ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11 Topsoil loss in Senegalese Agriculture .................................................................................................................................. 11

Vegetable Growth and Development ..................................................................................................................... 11 Types of Seed Plants ............................................................................................................................................................. 12 Parts of a plant ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Plant Reproduction: .............................................................................................................................................................. 13 Typical Plant Lifecycles: ......................................................................................................................................................... 13

Plant Nutrition ........................................................................................................................................................ 13 Macro nutrients .................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Micro nutrients ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13

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Gardening Basics ....................................................................................................................... 14 Observation and Recording .................................................................................................................................... 14 Recording Methods ............................................................................................................................................................... 14 Project Notebook .................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Service Journal ...................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Compost ................................................................................................................................................................. 15 Compost – The Key to Soil Health ......................................................................................................................................... 15 How Compost Works ............................................................................................................................................................ 15 Materials Needed for Compost............................................................................................................................................. 16 How to Make Compost ......................................................................................................................................................... 16 Factors that Influence the Speed of Composting .................................................................................................................. 17 Compost - Trouble Shooting ................................................................................................................................................. 17 The Four-Pile System ............................................................................................................................................................ 18 Using Compost ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Tips on Promoting Composting ............................................................................................................................................. 19

Soil Amendments ................................................................................................................................................... 19 Starting the Garden ................................................................................................................................................ 20 Traditional Soil Cultivation Practices..................................................................................................................................... 20 Improved Cultivation Practices ............................................................................................................................................. 20 The Double-Digging Process ................................................................................................................................................. 20 Less than Ideal Soils and Situations ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Maintaining the Benefits of Double-Digging ......................................................................................................................... 21

Vegetable Propagation ........................................................................................................................................... 22 What is Propagation?............................................................................................................................................................ 22 The Nursery and Transplant System ..................................................................................................................................... 22 The Nursery Process ............................................................................................................................................................. 23 Common Nursery Troubles ................................................................................................................................................... 23 Nursery Protection................................................................................................................................................................ 23

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Nursery Maintenance ........................................................................................................................................................... 24 Transplanting ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24 Direct Seeding ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25 Benefits of Direct Seeding ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 Drawbacks of Direct Seeding ................................................................................................................................................ 25 Seeding in Pockets ................................................................................................................................................................ 25 Seeding in Lines..................................................................................................................................................................... 25 Steps to Direct Seeding ......................................................................................................................................................... 26 Vegetative Propagation ........................................................................................................................................................ 26 Dividing Plants with Rhizomes and Tubers ........................................................................................................................... 26 Dividing Plants with Offsets .................................................................................................................................................. 26 Dividing Plants with Bulbs ..................................................................................................................................................... 27 .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Propagation by Cuttings ........................................................................................................................................................ 27

Plant Spacing .......................................................................................................................................................... 28 Row Spacing .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Hexagonal Spacing ................................................................................................................................................................ 28 Convenient Spacing Tools ..................................................................................................................................................... 28

General Garden Maintenance ................................................................................................................................ 29 Daily Observation .................................................................................................................................................................. 29 Watering ............................................................................................................................................................................... 29 Thinning ................................................................................................................................................................................ 29 Weeding ................................................................................................................................................................................ 30 Mulching ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Avoiding Soil Compaction ..................................................................................................................................................... 31 Tool Maintenance ................................................................................................................................................................. 31

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Advanced Gardening.................................................................................................................. 32 Maximizing Bed Efficiency ...................................................................................................................................... 32 Monocropping ...................................................................................................................................................................... 32 Benefits of Monocropping .................................................................................................................................................... 32 Drawbacks of Monocropping ................................................................................................................................................ 32 Intercropping ........................................................................................................................................................................ 32 Benefits of Intercropping ...................................................................................................................................................... 33 Drawbacks of Intercropping .................................................................................................................................................. 34 General Rules for Intercropping ............................................................................................................................................ 34 Taking Advantage of 3-Dimensional Space ........................................................................................................................... 34

Building Soil and Maintaining Soil Fertility ............................................................................................................. 35 Permanent Garden Beds ....................................................................................................................................................... 35 Shape of Garden Beds ........................................................................................................................................................... 35 Crop Rotation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 36 Cover Cropping and Green Manure ...................................................................................................................................... 37 Water Harvesting and Soil Erosion Control ........................................................................................................................... 37 Why Build Earthworks? ......................................................................................................................................................... 38 Berms and Swales ................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Basins .................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 Terraces ................................................................................................................................................................................ 39 Erosion Channel Mitigation.................................................................................................................................................. 39 Stabilizing Earthworks ........................................................................................................................................................... 40 Useful Earthworks Tools ....................................................................................................................................................... 40 Principles of Successful Earthworks ...................................................................................................................................... 40 Integrated Agroforestry Techniques ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Appropriate Agroforestry Techniques for the Garden .......................................................................................................... 41 Appropriate Tree Species for the Garden ............................................................................................................................. 42

Vegetable Care and Maintenance .......................................................................................................................... 42 Vegetable Support ................................................................................................................................................................ 42 Integrated Pest Management ............................................................................................................................................... 43

Fertilizers ................................................................................................................................................................ 43 Organic Fertilizer ................................................................................................................................................................... 43

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Compost and Manure Tea .................................................................................................................................................... 43 Using Compost and Manure Tea........................................................................................................................................... 44 Seaweed Tea ......................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Chemical Fertilizer ................................................................................................................................................................ 45 Benefits of Chemical Fertilizer .............................................................................................................................................. 45 Drawbacks of Chemical Fertilizers ........................................................................................................................................ 45

Vegetable Breeding and Seed Saving ..................................................................................................................... 46 Why Save Vegetable Seed and Breed Vegetable Varieties? ................................................................................................. 46 Seed Selection....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Botanical Classifications ........................................................................................................................................................ 47 Types of Flowers ................................................................................................................................................................... 47 Pollination ............................................................................................................................................................................. 48 Varietal Purity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Hybrid Seed ........................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Seed Processing and Storage ................................................................................................................................................ 49 Extending Vegetable Breeding and Seed Saving in Senegal.................................................................................................. 49

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Urban Gardening ................................................................................................................................ 51 Microgardening and Urban Populations ................................................................................................................ 51 Appropriate Situations for Container Gardening .................................................................................................................. 51 The Qualities of a Good Growing Container ......................................................................................................................... 51 Types of Containers .............................................................................................................................................................. 52 Soil Mixes and Substratum ................................................................................................................................................... 52 Plants for Container Gardens ................................................................................................................................................ 53

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Permaculture...................................................................................................................................... 54 What is Permaculture? ........................................................................................................................................... 54 Functions and Elements ......................................................................................................................................... 54 The Permaculture Toolbox.................................................................................................................................................... 55

The Design Process ................................................................................................................................................. 56 Design Principles ................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Observation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Vision .................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Planning ................................................................................................................................................................................ 58 Implementation .................................................................................................................................................................... 60

Permaculture Guilds ............................................................................................................................................... 60 Guilds for the Garden ........................................................................................................................................................... 60 Guilds for the Field ................................................................................................................................................................ 61 Guilds for the Orchard .......................................................................................................................................................... 61

Pros and Cons of Permaculture .............................................................................................................................. 61 Cons of Permaculture ........................................................................................................................................................... 61 Pros of Permaculture ............................................................................................................................................................ 62

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Agribusiness: ....................................................................................................................................... 64

Production Planning and Produce Marketing............................................................................................... 64 Production Planning .............................................................................................................................................. 64 Developing an Agricultural Calendar ................................................................................................................................... 64 Estimating Water Inputs ...................................................................................................................................................... 64 Estimating Time Inputs ........................................................................................................................................................ 64 Estimating Seed and Transplant Requirements .................................................................................................................. 65 Anticipating Yields................................................................................................................................................................ 65 The Importance of Recordkeeping ...................................................................................................................................... 65 Tracking and Recording Inputs............................................................................................................................................. 66 Tracking and Recording Outputs.......................................................................................................................................... 67 The Benefits of Recordkeeping ............................................................................................................................................ 68 Calculating Material and Tool Needs ................................................................................................................................... 68 Calculating Pest Management Costs.................................................................................................................................... 68 Assessing Feasible Workloads ............................................................................................................................................. 68 Yield Documentation ........................................................................................................................................................... 68

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Cost/Benefit Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................... 69 Talking About Profitability while Encouraging Crop Diversification ................................................................................... 69 The Uses of Recordkeeping .................................................................................................................................................. 69

Produce Marketing ................................................................................................................................................ 70 How to Anticipate Seasonal Price Fluctuations ................................................................................................................... 70 Understanding Local Markets .............................................................................................................................................. 71 Producing for Local Markets ................................................................................................................................................ 72 Selling to Local Markets ....................................................................................................................................................... 73 The 4 P’s of Marketing ......................................................................................................................................................... 73 Feasibility Study ................................................................................................................................................................... 74 Export Potential.................................................................................................................................................................... 74

Vegetable Pages ............................................................................................................................................ 75 Bean, Green ............................................................................................................................................................ 76 Bitter Tomato (US: Tomato Fruited Eggplant) ........................................................................................................ 78 Cabbage .................................................................................................................................................................. 80 Carrot ...................................................................................................................................................................... 83 Cauliflower.............................................................................................................................................................. 85 Cucumber ............................................................................................................................................................... 88 Eggplant (Gambia: Garden Egg) .............................................................................................................................. 91 Hibiscus/Roselle (The Gambia: Sorrel) ................................................................................................................... 94 Lettuce .................................................................................................................................................................... 96 Mint ........................................................................................................................................................................ 99 Moringa (Horseradish/Drumstick Tree) ............................................................................................................... 101 Okra ...................................................................................................................................................................... 103 Onion, Bulb ........................................................................................................................................................... 105 Onion, Green (Bunching Onion, Spring Onion, or Scallion) .................................................................................. 108 Pepper, Green (US: Bell Pepper, The Gambia: Sweet Pepper) ............................................................................. 110 Pepper, Hot........................................................................................................................................................... 113 Daikon Radish (Chinese Turnip) ............................................................................................................................ 116 Sweet Potato (The Gambia: Potato) ..................................................................................................................... 118 Turnip ................................................................................................................................................................... 123

GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................................... 125 Print References/Suggested Readings ........................................................................................................ 128 Online resources ......................................................................................................................................... 128 Appendix A: Observation and Recording……………………………………………………………………………………………………I Appendix B: Project Logistics……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………V Appendix C: Agribusiness Logs…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………XX

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Agriculture in Senegal

Gardening in Senegal Gardeners in every corner of Senegal grow a variety of vegetables for use in the lunch bowl, raw salads, and a variety other dishes. On a local level, production takes place in small scale market gardens for sale in local markets, and in small home-gardens for personal consumption. Most people engage in some kind of agricultural activity, or have farmers or gardeners in the immediate family. However, almost 80% of the vegetables grown in Senegal are produced on a narrow strip of land between Dakar and Saint-Louis known as the Niayes. The food is then shipped east, loosing freshness, and quality with each stop. With the exception of a relatively few, large-scale industrial agricultural operations, the vast majority of gardening activities employ manual labor and rely on relatively underdeveloped techniques and practices.

As a Peace Corps volunteer working in agrarian communities, you will be able to use gardening to extend a wide variety of best practices no matter what your sector. From basic agricultural extension to health and nutrition education, to small-scale economic development, everything always comes back to food.

Agriculture and the Environment Agro-Ecological Zones in Senegal The Ferlo – The Ferlo (rangeland zone) is located in the Northeastern part of the country. This area, more savannah than forest, is used mainly by nomadic herders during the rainy season. The livestock feed off of the grasses and trees in this area creating what is known as a silvo-pastoral land use system. In this system, the livestock and trees are incorporated into the landscape.

The Peanut Basin (Kaolack/Thiés) – This eco-region is located in the western and central part of the country. As the name suggests, this is where much of the peanut crops is grown in Senegal as well as other crops such as millet, sorghum, and corn. Vegetables are grown in this area. If water is available, they can be continually grown in the dry season. Most of this region is rain-fed but some irrigated production does occur. The Peanut Basin is an agro-silvicultural system where crops and trees are combined on the landscape. Nomadic herders exist in the area but not as extensively as in the Ferlo.

Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral (Kolda/ Tambacounda/ Kedougou) – Located in the southeastern corner of the country, this eco-region incorporates all three systems (livestock, trees, crops). Parklands exist here, which promote livestock and agricultural production. Large areas of land are structured on a rotational system (livestock/crops) over a number of years. This region normally receives the most rain and has the most elevation difference in the country.

Senegal River Valley (St. Louis, Richard Toll, Matam, Bakel) – This area only incorporates the very northern part of the country. The Senegal river valley is the fertile zone that buffers the Senegal River from the Ferlo. This area has many irrigation projects and engages heavily in orchards, rice, and sugar production.

Niayes (Dakar, Mboro, St. Louis) – This region begins in the Dakar area and runs up the coast buffering the Peanut Basin from the Atlantic Ocean. In this eco-region, one can find wetlands, sand dunes, and some grassland. This area is important for fishing, vegetable growing, and some livestock production. It produces nearly 80% of vegetables grown in Senegal.

Casamance (Kolda, Ziguinchor) - The Casamance river valley receives more rainfall than much of the country and is an ideal growing climate for rice and fruit trees. Currently 80% of the mango produced in Senegal comes from the Casamance. While the growing climate is also suitable for many vegetables, vegetable production is low due to traditional unfamiliarity.

Natural Resources and Environmental Changes The three major natural resources in Senegal are vegetation, arable land, and surface water.

Vegetation – In the last 60 years, Senegal has seen a significant decrease in standing biomass. Several factors can account for this change. o Deforestation for agricultural production - Expanding agricultural activities put pressure on natural vegetation as forests are cleared to make way for cultivation.

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Deforestation for fuel wood and charcoal production - Over the last 40 years, forests have slowly been cleared for use in charcoal production. In many parts of Senegal charcoal is the primary fuel source for food preparation. o Climate change - Desertification and drought result in decreased standing biomass.

Surface Water – Senegal has seen a large reduction in surface water over the past thirty years. o Drinking water and irrigation demands - A large freshwater lake in northwest Senegal, Lac du Guiere supplies much of the area’s drinking water. Since the mid-1960s the volume of the lake has shrunk significantly due to a lack of rainfall and an increase in drinking water and irrigation demands. o Deforestation, desertification, and climate change - As little as 50 years ago there were yearround streams and small rivers throughout Senegal. With the exception of the Kedougou and Casamance regions of Senegal, smaller streams and rivers have either become seasonal or have disappeared completely. Droughts related to deforestation, desertification, and climate change are primarily responsible. o Agricultural pollution - To date, the Senegal, Gambia, and Casamance rivers make up the vast majority of year-round surface water in Senegal and are used for transportation, fishing, and agricultural irrigation. Increased agricultural activities along the banks of these rivers run the risk of damaging local fish populations and human health through chemical fertilizer misuse.

Arable Land – There is an extremely small amount of arable land in Senegal that has direct access to year-round surface water. As such, most agricultural operations rely on wells that access ground water. In many places the water table is extremely deep (as much as 60-70m; 195-230ft) and without electric pumps pulling adequate water to conduct agricultural activities is both labor intensive and time consuming. For areas with shallower water tables, there are a variety of applicable devices that can be used to reduce labor and time demands.

Socio-Economic Impacts of Environmental Change The socio-economic impacts of these environmental changes are widespread and many.

Increased poverty and a decrease in well-being.

Reduced agricultural production.

Decrease in overall health of the population.

Increased reliance on development organizations and international aid programs.

Increased migration from rural areas to large cities already dealing with population pressures.

Possible Solutions There are several possible solutions to the region’s natural resource problems. Institutional changes, legislation and regulation, popular participation, and sound natural resource management practices can be a good start in reversing some of the factors that are causing a decrease in natural resource sustainability. Already, much work is being done to reverse environmental degradation, such as designating protected areas, establishing national parks, and instituting sound natural resources practices, such as dune stabilization efforts in the area of the Niayes, mangrove reforestation in the Fatick delta, and charcoal prohibition in certain protected areas. Assisted natural regeneration of soil-improving trees, such as Faidherbia albida is improving soil fertility in cropland, cashew plantations have been established contributing significant earnings to orchard owners, field-composting techniques have been adopted in areas designated for cereal production, and windbreaks are being established.

In spite of these improvements, much more must be done. Areas of cultivable land are projected to decrease from .6 hectare/farmer in 1990 to 0.3 hectare/farmer in 2050 – a 50% reduction in farmland with a significant decrease in overall agricultural production. It is imperative that agricultural development in Senegal focuses on the following goals.

Soil creation, protection, and management – The soil is the foundation of all agricultural endeavors and must be the primary focus of any agricultural extension.

Water conservation – As stated above, water has become increasingly scarce in Senegal over the last 50 years and will continue to do so into the future. Agricultural methods that improve water conservation need to be promoted as part of any extension or education work.

The extension of organic methods – Chemical-industrial agriculture is linked to a global system that may become increasingly inaccessible to rural populations in generations to come. Additionally, 6

chemical agricultural methods have an economic, environmental, and ecological cost that will become increasingly difficult for local populations and ecosystems to account for in the face of dwindling natural resources. Organic agricultural methods allow for clean, sustainable, low-cost production and should be prioritized above any forms of chemical agriculture, especially when working with individuals or communities who have not yet begun to use chemical agricultural methods. NOTE: Peace Corps Senegal recognizes that many work partners in the field currently use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Behavior change is slow and requires patience. If working with partners who already use these products and practices volunteer emphasis needs to be on proper usage rather than total practice change.

Integrated agroforestry systems – Trees help create, protect, and stabilize soil. They provide many of the materials required for the implementation of organic gardening methods, and if applied properly, form the physical frame-work of any successful agricultural system.

Seasonal Changes The seasons in Senegal change dramatically throughout the year. Although the intensity and duration of various seasons vary from region to region it is possible to make rough generalizations. In general, the Rainy season lasts from the end of June to the end of September. The Cool Dry season lasts from the beginning of October to the middle of March, and the Hot Dry season lasts from the middle of March to the middle of June. The types of vegetables that gardeners grow change from season to season.

Sometimes this is simply because of traditional practice, and sometimes it is because some species are difficult to grow during certain seasons due to pest and disease problems. See the vegetable specific pages for further details on seasonal preferences.

Commonly Grown Vegetables and Cultural Cuisine Every culture and region of Senegal has its own array of specific dishes and preparation practices. In general, food is boiled, deep fried, or grilled, and consist of some combination of one of the staple grains (peanut, millet, rice, sorghum, or corn), vegetables, and meat or fish. There is a wide variance in food quality and protein and vitamin availability between city populations with access to markets and subsistence rural populations. The most commonly grown vegetables in Senegal are Eggplant, Bitter Tomato, Tomato, Hot Pepper, Green Pepper, Onion, Lettuce, Carrot, Turnip, Sweet Potato, Cabbage, Cassava, Hibiscus, Moringa, and Okra.

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The Science behind the Garden

Soil Soil is a dynamic natural medium made up of mineral and organic materials as well as living forms. At its simplest, soil is a mixture of mineral and organic matter that is capable of supporting life. In fact, soil is the foundation of all non-aquatic life on earth. It is the connection point between the mineral and biological world, and common ground for a wide variety of scientific schools, including geology, biology, chemistry, physics, and botany. Soil in its self is an ecosystem infinitely more complex than any desert, plain or forest. It is home and host to a wide array of organisms representing all taxonomical kingdoms – plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, bacteria – who work collectively to decompose and recycle dead organic matter into the nutrients that are essential to the survival of living plants and their dependent organisms.

Healthy soil supports healthy plants which in turn support healthy animals and healthy people. Everything starts with the soil.

Soil Texture While the actual chemical make-up of the mineral components of soil varies widely from sample to sample, the basic structural components remain the same. The three basic components of soil are SAND, SILT, and CLAY. SAND is the largest of particle groupings, representing particles between 0.05mm and 2.00mm in diameter; SILT is the second largest, representing particles between 0.002mm and 0.05mm in diameter; and CLAY is the smallest particle grouping, representing particles less than 0.002mm in diameter, as seen in the diagram below.

A soil’s texture can best be described by the way it feels. If a soil is primarily composed of SAND, it will have a coarse or gritty texture; if it is primarily composed of SILT, it will have a silky or powdery texture; and if it is primarily composed of CLAY, it will have a sticky texture. When a soil has a roughly equal mix of SAND, SILT, and CLAY, it is known as LOAM. LOAM is the most coveted of garden soils as it has the most beneficial combination of water and air holding capacity, and ability to drain. All other soil textures such as loamy sand, sandy clay, or silty clay loam, lay somewhere in between pure particle soil and LOAM, as seen in the following diagram.

The Shake Test The shake test is a simple diagnostic test that allows a gardener to determine the texture of a given soil.

1. Locate a glass jar or clear water bottle with a tight fitting lid (a glass jar is preferable) 2. Fill the container 1/3 full with your soil sample 3. Add water until the container is 2/3 full 4. Screw on the lid and shake vigorously 5. Let the container sit for one hour 6. Shake it again and let it sit for one minute 7. Use a marker or a piece of tape to mark the level of the settled soil, this is the SAND layer 8. Let the container sit for an additional 30 minutes 9. Mark the second layer of settled soil, this is the SILT layer 10. Let the container sit for an additional 24 hours 11. Mark the third layer of settled soil, this is the CLAY layer

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Once you have marked all three layers, calculate the percentages of SAND, SILT, and CLAY in the mixture. You can then refer to the soil texture diagram above to determine what kind of soil you have. The following chart is an easy way to document what kind of soil you have at a particular site. When starting agricultural activities at a new site, it is a good idea to perform the shake test in order to better understand the conditions in which you’re working. Remember to write down any findings in your field notebook.

SITE Tamba Soce School Garden Karang Women’s Garden St. Luis Demo Garden Kolda Master Farmer Site

% SAND 10 60 100 20

% SILT 40 10 0 70

% CLAY 50 30 0 10

SOIL CLASS Silty Clay Sandy Clay Loam Sand Silt Loam

Soil Formation, Soil Fertility, and Humus Healthy soil is formed through the contribution of five major factors, climate, topography, parent materials, time, and living organisms. Mineral soils (soils that are free of organic matter) form over time, when rock is slowly eaten away by chemical reactions with air and water, and the resulting particles are carried away and deposited by the physical movement of wind and water. However, mineral soils lack the most important nutrient to plant growth, nitrogen (N). Only with the presence of certain pioneer organisms such as blue-green algae, lichens (a partnership between algae and fungi), nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and micorrhizal fungi, can life supporting soil form. Some of these organisms existed for nearly one and a half billion years, slowly forming soil, before evolving into more and more complex organisms, and then finally into the flora and fauna that we know today.

Over the last billion years or so, these more complex plants and soil animals have become increasingly specialized (carbon dioxide producers, oxygen producers, more efficient N-fixers, etc.) and have been able to form increasingly complex ecosystems. In an undisturbed ecosystem, soil forms when plant materials, such as leaves, twigs, and branches (carbon rich materials) fall to the soil surface, and are then mixed with animal droppings and animal carcasses (nitrogen rich materials), and rain water. This combination forms the perfect environment for soil creatures such as beetles, earthworms, and microbes, to digest and refine organic material into a substance known as HUMUS. Humus is the most refined form of organic matter. It is the last stage of organic material before it fully breaks down and returns to mineral particles.

Humus is the foundation of soil fertility and the substance that gives healthy soil its rich color, crumbly structure, and sweet, earthy smell. It greatly increases water retention and aeration, improves soil structure, makes nutrients available from the surrounding mineral, buffers soil pH, and increases germination rates and times. There is more information on this in the composting section.

Soil Structure Soil structure is the way in which soil particles including SAND, SILT, CLAY, and HUMUS, aggregate (join together). A soil with poor soil structure is a soil that is either so compact that water and air have difficulty penetrating, and roots have difficulty growing to optimal size; or a soil that is so lose that it has difficulty retaining water, and is prone to erosion. A soil that has good soil structure is a soil that is well formed to the point that it is resistant to erosion, and simultaneously porous enough to retain water and air. Good soil structure is generally recognized as a soil that is soft, crumbly, and difficult to form into hard, compact balls. The DOUBLE-DIGGING process is one of the fastest and most efficient ways of forming good soil structure in garden beds. When garden beds are watered too roughly, or walked in, good soil structure and the benefits therein are quickly eliminated.

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Soil Profile The soil profile is the lateral composition of the soil. Each layer is known as a HORIZON. In normal conditions, the uppermost layer is called the O (organic) horizon, and is composed of plant and animal materials that have not yet decomposed. The next layer is the A horizon and is the layer in which the majority of animal and microbial life, plant root systems, and humus are contained. The A horizon is generally referred to as TOPSOIL. Beneath the A horizon is a layer called the E Horizon that is almost entirely free of organic material.

As rain water passes through this layer it leaches out the organic material creating a horizon that is typified by being lighter in color and prone to compaction. One of the purposes of DOUBLE-DIGGING is to break through this layer to allow roots and water to penetrate all the way through to the next layer, the B Horizon. The B Horizon, generally referred to as SUBSOIL, contains some organic matter, and is capable of supplying deep sources of water and some mineral nutrients to a plant’s tap root and sinker roots. In fertile areas with deep soil, a gardener will rarely dig deep enough to come into contact with the C horizon (parent material) or the bedrock beneath, however in Senegal, it is common for this layer to be anywhere from 20cm to 150cm beneath the surface.

Soils in Senegal Soils in Senegal are extremely diverse, ranging from silt rich flood plains along the banks of the Senegal River in the North, to the sandy peanut basin in central Senegal, and heavier clay and rocky soils of the East and South. Despite the differing soil textures, soil in Senegal tends to be extremely low in organic matter relative to the soils of temperate zones or those of the humid tropics. A wide variety of soil improvement and soil conservation practices can help bring the soil organic matter content up to a level sufficient for agricultural production. Some of these techniques include green manure, soil erosion control, alley cropping, wind breaks, and conservation farming methods (more on these practices in later sections). For use in the garden, the most immediately beneficial practice is the application of soil amendments.

Sandy Soil, Water table is less than 1m from the surface Flood plains with heavy silt deposits Heavier c l ay soils, often very rocky Tidal flats, large salt deposits, submerged for most of the year Sandy soil, low organic matter content, prone to erosion, area referred to as the “Peanut Basin�

Heavier c l ay soils, slightly acidic, large iron content Extremely sandy soil, extremely low in organic matter content, not suitable for agriculture

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Soil Salinity Salinity levels build in the soil when rainfall or irrigation is not sufficient to leach accumulated salts out of the root zone. It can also be caused by the intrusion of salt water into low-lying areas near coast lines or deltas. High salinity levels reduce a plants ability to absorb water via its roots. If salinity occurs in high enough concentrations, it may actually pull water out of the plant resulting in wilting and die-off. In lower concentrations, plants suffer from leaf burn, defoliation, stunting, and lowered productivity. Young seedlings are the most susceptible to the effects of salinity. There are a number of ways to combat soil salinity: Leach salt from the soil - Prior to planting, water garden beds heavily to leach salt from the soil prior to adding soil amendments.

Gypsum or Sulfur - Add gypsum or sulfur to the soil to displace salt ions. Both of these amendments are mined in the coastal areas of Senegal but are challenging to find in small quantities. Further research must be done to locate reliable sources.

Carbon - Add large quantities of compost and charcoal powder to mitigate the effects of saline soils.

Topsoil loss in Senegalese Agriculture Throughout tropical climatic zones, healthy mineral topsoil is found in significantly lower quantities than in temperate zones. In rainforest zones, high quantities of standing biomass protect and recharge nutrient rich humus layers. In Senegal, low standing biomass, the combination of high average temperatures, sandy soils, extreme seasonal variation, and the presence of hyper-active termite populations have kept naturally occurring humus layers from forming in any appreciable quantity. The following poor agricultural practices compound these issues.

1. Crop residues are not left in the fields or composted. Instead they are burned to clear fields, used for fuel, for roofing materials, or used as livestock fodder.

2. Manure isn't used in compost but is left exposed to the elements and applied directly to growing areas.

3. Rubbish piles of peanut shells, millet chaff, etc. aren't turned into compost, but are mixed with garbage and exposed to the elements. Over time this decomposes, but the resulting compost is often contaminated with toxic, inorganic material.

4. Fields are left in fallow less often and for fewer years than in the past.

5. Little leaf litter is incorporated into the soil because there are few trees left in fields. What leaves there are, are often eaten by animals or burnt.

6. Peanut production leaves the soil bare after harvest, exposing it to photo-degradation, desiccation, and wind erosion.

7. Because there are low levels of standing biomass, there are few roots to hold topsoil in place during the first heavy rains of the Rainy Season.

Vegetable Growth and Development The majority of vegetables grown in Senegal are propagated by seeds. In effect, viable seeds can be thought of as fertilized eggs. As the fertilized egg within the ovule develops into an embryo, the ovule walls convert to a seed coat, turning the ovule into a seed (ripened ovule). The seed coat protects the inside of the seed from injury and drying and is used as nourishment until the seedling can feed itself.

The germination of a seed depends on the temperature and moisture of the environment. Very low or very high temperatures can inhibit seed germination. Vegetable varieties that have been bread to produce in the tropics germinate best between 26 and 35 degrees Celsius (80-95 F). In the process of germination, the seed takes in water; a root pushes through the seed coating; and finally a shoot pushes up through the soil and forms a tiny leaf (cotyledon) that generally does not resemble the plant’s true leaves.

Energy for germination is contained within the seed, but energy for growth after germination comes from soil nutrient content and photosynthesis. Plant growth primarily depends on water, soil, light, and temperature conditions. Other factors like erosion, spacing, competition, wind strength, and slope also effect plant growth.

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Types of Seed Plants Gymnosperms - Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants with naked seeds that include most conebearing conifers such as pine, cedar, fir, larch, casaurina, and many others.

Angiosperms – Angiosperms are flowering and fruiting plants with enclosed seeds and represent the broadest form of terrestrial plant life. This group is further broken into 2 groups: Monocotyledons or monocots for short have narrow leaves with parallel veins, including grasses such as corn, millet, sorghum, rice, and banana; palms; and bulbs such as garlic, onion, leek, and ginger; and Dicotyledons or dicots for short which have multiple-shaped leaves with veins, including most garden vegetables and broad-leaved trees.

Parts of a plant Stem: The stem produces and supports new leaves, branches and flowers so that they are in a position to receive light and water. The stem transports water and nutrients to and from roots. It may also aid in reproduction and storage of food, as well as help in photosynthesis.

Root: Roots anchor the plant in the soil and absorb nutrients and water. Roots can store water, food, and energy for the plant making them more resistant to drought and nutrient loss. Plant roots include lateral roots – the roots that help stabilize the plant while absorbing the majority of the plants nutrients, and tap and sinker roots – the roots that anchor the plant in the ground and absorb low-lying ground water.

Leaf: leaves absorb light, obtain and store water and food, and exchange gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. Leaves are the primary site for photosynthesis.

Flower: Flowers are the sexual reproduction unit of the plant. Depending on the type of plant, flowers attract pollinators such as insects and birds to aid in reproduction.

Fruit: After fertilization the ovary begins to develop into fruit, and the ovules into seeds.

Seeds are stored inside the fruit until they are disseminated by wind, animals, or people.

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Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction: Seeds are the focus of sexual reproduction in plants. When the plant matures, the egg is fertilized by sperm (pollen) from itself or another plant. Fertilization from other plants usually takes place by transfer of pollen by wind, insects, animals, or people. Pollen consists of rough, sticky grains that cling to the carrier. The fertilized egg (zygote) remains in the plant and eventually becomes a seed ready to produce another plant.

Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction requires only one organism. New plants that have propagated asexually have the same genetic structure as the parent plant. Plants that reproduce asexually include plants with bulbs such as garlic and lilies; plants with runners such as mint and sweet potato; plants with rhizomes such as ginger, and plants that have easily rooting stems such as cassava. A piece of vegetative material that is used for asexual reproduction is referred to as a propagule.

Typical Plant Lifecycles: Annual: Annual plants go through their entire life cycle from seed germination to seed generation in a single growing season.

Biennial: Biennial plants require two growing seasons to complete their entire life cycle.

Perennial: Perennial plants survive for three or more years, setting seed each year. Many plants that are considered annuals in temperate climates are actually perennials in the tropics. Examples include: Eggplant, pepper, okra, hibiscus, and others.

Plant Nutrition Plants need a variety of chemicals, often referred to as nutrients, in order to be healthy and productive.

These nutrients are generally broken into two categories, macro nutrients (N, P, K), and micro nutrients.

Macro nutrients are the elements that are needed in the largest quantities and which facilitate the most primary functions of plant growth. Micro nutrients aid in secondary processes and contribute to overall plant health. You can think of the macro nutrients as the meat and potatoes of plant nutrition, and the micro nutrients as the vitamin supplements. There are many more micro nutrients than what are listed here, but the most significant of the micro nutrients are calcium, sulfur, and magnesium.

Macro nutrients Nitrogen (N) – A key element in proteins; facilitates green growth in plants and is often the main element added to soils in amendments and fertilizers Phosphorous (P) – Primarily responsible for the development of flowers, fruits, and seeds; required in the photosynthetic process Potassium (K) – Aids in the translocation of carbohydrates to strengthen stems, and increases drought tolerance Micro nutrients Calcium – Regulates the transport of other nutrients Sulfur – A structural component, and a player in the creation of chloroplasts Magnesium – An important part of chlorophyll, and key element in the photosynthesis process

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3

Gardening Basics

Observation and Recording Observation is the single most important activity for a gardener. Without prolonged, thoughtful, and close observation, use of an agricultural space will be implemented poorly, and minor issues will become catastrophes. Gardeners must continuously observe plant health, soil moisture, pest populations, sun and shade levels, and the effects of their own activities. But even in-depth observation is worth little without proper record keeping.

Recordkeeping is vital to your service as a Peace Corps volunteer. Good notation allows you to see seasonal trends which can help you anticipate ideal planting times, harvest times, preparation times, and maintenance schedules. Over your two year service, you will need to keep records of your daily activities in the garden; track yield data from your extension activities, help counterparts keep costing and sales records, and record specific training events. All of this information will be used by you as benchmarks of your service, shared with work partners to validate the hard work they have done, submitted to Peace Corps administration through the volunteer reporting form (VRF), and shared with future volunteers so they may learn from your experiences.

Recording Methods Record keeping is simple. Write everything down! PC Senegal recommends that you keep two types of logs, or journals. The first type of log is the Project notebook. A Project notebook is a journal you will keep to log daily activities in a specific work site. The second type of log is the service journal. Your service journal is the notebook you carry around with you at all times and use to record information, data, new vocabulary, etc.

Project Notebook Within your project notebook, you will keep track of information in a number of ways.

Project log – Within the project notebook, you will keep ongoing documentation of the project itself, including information on work partners, project goals, infrastructure improvements, physical plans, and grant information if applicable.

Completed observation checklist – The observation check list will help you make sure that you are looking at everything you need to prior to starting the design phase of a project.

Site map – Create a well-drawn, to-scale map of the existing area prior to implementation of the project. Create a map of the space that represents the planned work. After implementation create another map that accurately represents the work that was done there. See Chapter 6 – Permaculture for more details on the mapping and design process.

Daily entry log – Each day when you visit the particular project keep track of the observations and activities that occurred on that day. Typical activities and observations to note in the daily entries include watering, weeding, pest populations, IPM application, meetings with work partners, the purchase of materials, general maintenance on infrastructure, and composting.

Planting log – On days that you seed a nursery, direct seed beds, or plant transplants, you will need to keep a planting log. A planting log will include the date of seeding, reseeding, transplanting, and retransplanting. The log will also include any observations you have such as varietal compatibility with the climate, pest problems, germination issues, etc.

Planned activity log – Whenever you have a meeting with your work partners, update your planned activity log. Whenever you do something on the planned activity log, cross it off the list, and add it to the daily entry log.

Service Journal Your service journal is the notebook that you keep with you at all times. In this notebook you will keep track of the people you meet and their contact information, new words you have learned, proposed dates

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for events, as well as activity entries. It is particularly important to keep detailed activity entries when it is time to submit your volunteer reporting form (VRF), and your food security quarterly report. In general, the service journal can be a smaller notebook that can be carried easily in a notebook, purse, messenger bag, or pocket.

See the Appendix on Recording and Note taking for examples on how to keep these logs.

Compost Compost is decomposed organic material such as crop residues, natural vegetation or manure on its way to becoming humus. Proper composting relies on aerobic decomposition, which demands a mix of Carbon and Nitrogen rich materials, air and water.

Compost – The Key to Soil Health The many functions of compost in soil make it perhaps the most important ingredient that we can add to garden soil so as to achieve sustainable yields of highly nutritious vegetables, grains, legumes and fruits.

It is easy to make but does require advanced planning and time.

Improved structure – Compost breaks up heavy clay clods and binds together sandy soil. Proper aeration allows a sandy soil to hold water and a clay soil to drain water and promotes proper root growth and health.

Moisture retention – Compost holds 6 times its own weight in water. A soil with good organic matter content soaks up rain like a sponge and regulates the supply to the plants. A soil stripped of organic matter resists water penetration, leading to crusting, erosion and flooding.

Aeration – Plants can obtain 96% of the nutrients they need from the air, sun, and water. A loose, healthy soil assists in the diffusion of air and moisture into the soil and in the exchange of nutrients.

Carbon dioxide released by organic matter decomposition diffuses out of the soil and is absorbed by the canopy of leaves above in the microclimate created by closely spaced plants.

Fertilization – Compost contains some nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, and sulfur, but it is especially important for trace elements such as molybdenum, zinc, and iodide.

Nutrient release – Organic acids (carbonic and fulvic) from decomposing organic matter dissolve soil minerals and make them available to plants. As organic matter continues to break down it slowly releases key nutrients for plant uptake and to ensure a healthy soil microbe population.

Nitrogen storage – Nitrogen, one of the most important of plant nutrients, is also the most volatile.

If added to soils low in organic matter, this N is quickly converted to gas and lost to the air. Organic compounds bond to the nitrogen and allow it to be released slowly and steadily as the plant needs it, stopping its loss to leaching and volatilization.

Soil acidity and toxin buffer – plants have specific tolerances in terms of soil acidity and toxins.

Organic matter allows plants to have a broader range of tolerances to these elements common in the world’s poorest soils.

Germination and early seedling growth – once seeds are placed in the growing bed or seedling flat the soil is watered thoroughly so as to allow the seed coat to soften and crack open to allow for proper seedling growth. Compost in the soil will act like a sponge absorbing the water and keeping it moist around the seed for a much longer time which will increase the speed of germination and the likelihood of the young seedling growing through periods of dry weather that would otherwise destroy the tender stems, roots and leaves.

Source: “Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Home Gardens, Permagardens” Peter Jensen, PC Tanzania

How Compost Works In the presence of air and water, various kinds of fungi and bacteria feed on organic materials and convert them to humus. As this takes place, heat builds up in the compost pile. Properly made compost will generate bacterial action that will increase the temperature of the pile to 150-160 F in 2-4 days. After 5-6 days the compost pile will begin to cool down. Every time the compost pile is turned it will heat up and then cool down again.

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Materials Needed for Compost There is no fixed recipe for compost; the key is to make use of the materials available and to determine the mixture needed for a decent ratio of carbon to nitrogen. Good carbon-rich materials common in Senegal are dry leaves, dry grass, peanut shells, rice hulls, millet stalks and chaff, old roofing thatch, newspaper, and cardboard. Common nitrogen-rich materials are green leaves, green grass, green weeds as long as they are pest and seed free, manure, food scraps, and fish scraps. Compost should be roughly 50% carbon-rich material and 50% nitrogen-rich material.

Carbon Rich Materials (browns) Dry Leaves Dry Grass Peanut Shells Rice Hulls Millet Stalks/ Chaff Old Roofing Thatch Cardboard Newspaper

Nitrogen Rich Materials (greens) Green Leaves Green Grass Green Weeds (pest free) Manure Food Scraps Old Fish

Other materials can be added to compost to enhance the quality or the nutrient load. For the purposes of making compost these materials are not considered carbon-rich or nitrogen rich and should not be used in the same quantities as the standard materials. Optional composting materials include the following.

Charcoal powder – increases water holding capacity and microbial life.

Wood ash – adds potassium and the composting process helps to balance the high pH of the raw wood ash. NOTE: When using wood ash, make sure that no plastic was burned along with the wood.

Egg shells – adds calcium Sugar and Vinegar or lime juice – increases the decomposition rate by encouraging microbial activity. NOTE: the cost of these materials may be prohibitive to many farmers and gardeners.

Urine – adds large quantities of nitrogen. The use of human urine may be culturally inappropriate in some sites. Human urine should only be added to the first compost pile to prevent the spread of human pathogens.

Take advantage of seasonal abundance to build piles, such as when people are weeding compounds, replacing millet stalk fences, clearing fields, harvesting peanuts, pruning trees, or have large amounts of otherwise useless organic materials on hand.

How to Make Compost 1. Locate the pile in a shady spot, in an area that has a nearby water source.

2. Decide whether to make the pile above ground or in a pit. Above ground piles are less labor intensive, but don't hold moisture as well as pits. Making compost in pits reduces water evaporation, but pits take labor to dig, are hard on the back to empty, and in sandy areas tend to collapse.

3. Mark out a 1m square foot print on the ground.

4. IF you decide to put your compost pile in a pit, dig out a 1m cubed pit.

5. Place a 10cm to 15cm layer of carbonaceous material on the bottom. The more absorbent the material the better, as this layer will help retain moisture and nutrients that might otherwise leach out of the compost pile. Dry grass and roofing thatch tend to work well.

6. Water the first layer until it is moist.

7. Place a 10cm to 15cm layer of nitrogen rich material on top of the first layer.

8. Water until the second layer is moist.

9. Continue this process, alternating carbon rich materials with nitrogen rich materials until the pile is at least 1m cubed. The compost pile will work more efficiently if it is larger than 1m cubed, but it will not heat up adequately if it is smaller than 1m cubed.

10. Cover the pile with grass, soil, or plastic to hold in moisture.

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11. Drive a sharpened stick or metal rod through the top of the pile all the way to ground level.

12. Pull the stick out daily to analyze the heat, moisture content, and smell of the pile.

13. When possible uncover, turn, and water the pile to increase aeration and maintain adequate moisture (should be like a wrung-out wet cloth). When mixing the pile, move the less decomposed material from the outside of the pile into the middle so it can break down.

Once every two weeks is a good time-frame.

After roughly six weeks, the compost should be finished.

14. Before using the compost, sift it thoroughly and add any undigested material into a new compost pile.

Factors that Influence the Speed of Composting 1. Size of the Material - It takes labor to chop things up, but the smaller the materials the faster they decompose.

2. Adequate carbon: nitrogen ratio – If there is too much carbon, the pile will not heat up and will take longer to break down. If there is too much nitrogen, the pile will start to stink as nitrogen off-gasses in the form of ammonia. Ammonia not only smells bad, but is an indicator that the nitrogen that could otherwise be used as plant nutrient is being lost to the air.

3. Adequate aeration – High oxygen levels help feed beneficial bacteria, increasing the heat of the pile and speeding the decomposition process. Turning the pile every two weeks will ensure an adequate oxygen level.

4. Adequate moisture levels - A dry compost pile will decompose very slowly and a sopping wet pile runs the risk of rotting. A pile should be damp, but not soggy.

Compost - Trouble Shooting The stick that you place in the compost pile is a diagnostic tool. You should pull it out of the pile once each day to check it for the following three indicators.

1. Moisture level – The stick should be damp and moist. Use the following to diagnose moisture content: 1. If it is dry, the pile does not have enough moisture for the decomposition process to take place quickly and the pile needs to be watered.

2. If it is wet and slimy the pile is too moist, and runs the risk of rotting. In this case, the pile needs to be turned and aerated to release some of the moisture.

2. Heat – The compost pile should start to heat up after about 2-4 days if it has been built properly.

When you touch the stick immediately after it has been taken out of an active pile, it should be uncomfortably hot. If the stick never gets hot, the pile isn’t functioning. It could be one of 3 things: 1. Not enough moisture. If the stick is dry and the pile is cool, add water and give the pile time to heat up.

2. Too much moisture. If the stick is wet and slimy and the pile is cool, turn the pile and aerate it to release some of the moisture.

3. Not enough nitrogen materials. If the stick shows the proper moisture level, but the pile is still cool, there is not enough nitrogen for the desired chemical processes to take place.

Turn the pile while adding nitrogen materials. Water until it is properly moist.

3. Smell – If the compost pile is decomposing properly, the smell will change over time. At first, it will smell sour and unpleasant. After about two weeks the pile will start to smell more like the inside of a hamster cage. After four weeks the pile will start to smell sweeter and by the six week mark it will have a pleasant earthy smell like a forest after a rain. The compost pile should never STINK. If the compost pile begins to smell so bad that you can’t be near it then one of the following might be wrong: 17

1. If the stick is wet and slimy and smells terrible, then there is simply too much moisture and the pile is rotting. Aerate the pile by turning it thoroughly.

2. If the stick is at the proper moisture level and smells terrible, then there is too much nitrogen. Turn the pile while adding carbon materials and water as necessary.

The Four-Pile System The general idea of this four-pile system is to have a continuously regenerating supply of compost (every fifteen days). The steps are simple: 1. Select a shady area at least 1m x 6m long with easy access to a water source.

2. Mark out four distinct 1m x 1m spaces, or dig individual indentations of 15cm with the same dimensions.

3. Build a compost pile in the 1st space using process described earlier in this section.

4. Wait two weeks and then turn the compost pile from the first space into the second space remembering to aerate it thoroughly and add water if necessary. When turning the pile, place the less decomposed material from the outside of the pile on the interior of the pile so that it will break down.

5. Build a new compost pile in the 1st space.

6. Continue this process every two weeks.

7. When you are moving the compost from the 3rd space into the 4th space, it should be fully composted, but there will still be material that did not thoroughly digest. Sift the compost through a screen or onion sack to remove any undecomposed organic material and any inorganic material that may have made its way into the pile. Now you have a whole pile of ready to use compost.

8. Add the undecomposed organic material from the finished pile to the new pile to give it a jump start of microbial activity.

9. The whole system should look something like this:

Using Compost Compost is fully decomposed when the original materials are no longer recognizable. If a pile is turned and watered every 2 weeks this may only take six weeks. If a pile is built dry, watered by the rains, and never turned this may take a year or more. Even partially decomposed compost is useable. In a garden setting, compost can be turned into the soil when beds are prepared (1 bucket/m2 is a typical dose), or used as mulch around growing plants. In a field setting, compost is generally spread before weeding or seeding the soil, and is most beneficial on cereal crops. A good dose of compost for a hectare is 4 to 8 tons. One m3 (two horse cart loads) of decomposed compost is about a ton, and would be enough for an area between 25 and 50 m2. Compost can also be applied in to zhai holes at a dosage of 2 large handfuls per hole.

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Tips on Promoting Composting When working with Senegalese farmers on compost, keep it simple. It can be difficult to get people to compost. Use demonstrations to show its effectiveness. For field crops where large volumes are needed, promote a low labor input approach. Start the pile/pit just before the rainy season. This will allow the rain to water it. The farmer can turn the pile once or twice when time is available and use the compost the next season. In a garden setting people may be more interested in labor intensive procedures such as making a new pile every 1 to 2 weeks, and regularly watering and turning the piles. Don't get caught up on ratios or exact science- if you have water, air, and organic matter, it's eventually going to become compost.

Soil Amendments A soil amendment is any substance added to the soil that adds nutrients, enhances soil structure, improves water or microbial holding capacity, or protects plants’ roots against pests and disease. When gardening in the depleted soils of Senegal, large amounts of soil amendments are needed to improve both the nutrient content and structure of your garden soils. Below is a breakdown of the nutrient contents of some of the major soil amendments and their effects on soil.

Bone meal – Made from crushed bones, this slow release soil amendment contains large amounts of phosphorus and calcium. The long duration of bone meal in the soil makes it a good part of a longterm soil correction strategy for pH problems and calcium leaching. Bones are easier to crush if they have been cooked in a fire for several hours.

Biochar/charcoal powder – This purified form of organic carbon is most useful for water retention, as it can hold up to six times its weight in water. Additionally, charcoal is covered in micropores, which provide living space for beneficial bacteria in the soil. A balanced microbial content in your soil helps with nitrogen fixation, nutrient release, and pest suppression.

Compost – The nutrient content of compost is variable, and is entirely dependent on the materials which were used to make it. As compost is fully decomposed, all of the nutrients it contains have been converted into their most easily metabolized forms, naturalized soil bacteria are present in abundance, and the soil structure has already reached a stable level of breakdown. As compost no longer undergoes major degradation of structure it is also the best amendment for improving soils with poor water retention or severe compaction.

Egg shells – High in calcium and especially good for cabbage family crops. They are often available in large quantities from local breakfast vendors. Pound them into a fine powder before adding them to the soil.

Leaves (green and brown) – Leaves are used for nitrogen and carbon inputs which need to be made available quickly. Depending on species, they will have varying effects on soil structure, nutrient loads, pH, and pest problems. The soil must be allowed to rest for 2 to 3 weeks after adding large quantities of leaves before direct seeding or transplanting.

Manure – The most readily available soil amendment in Senegal, manure is heavily loaded with nitrogen and decompositional bacteria. Manure will slowly break down, releasing nutrients and slightly improving soil structure. Be sure to let the manure age before use to prevent the potassium and phosphorus from “burning” the plant in their raw state. When available, compost should always be used instead of manure as it does not attract termites, contain large quantities of weed seeds, or run the risk of damaging plants or soil pH. Wood ash – This quick-release pH stabilizer contains soluble potassium and phosphorus. It does not have extremely long lasting effects, and must be reapplied yearly to counter severe pH problems.

NOTE: Often in Senegal people burn large quantities of plastic. Be sure only to use pure wood ash, as plastic ash is toxic to the soil and harmful to your health.

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Amendment

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorus (P2O5)

Potassium (K2O)

pH effect

Recommended Dosage

Notes

Bone Meal (raw)

3.50%

22.00%

N/A

Basic

100g per 1m2 or one handful per 1m2 Also adds calcium

Charcoal Powder

N/A

N/A

N/A

Neutral

1 – 2 kg per 1m2 or 1 – 4 shovels full Micropores hold water and bacteria. per 1m2

Compost

7.5-15%

2.5-5%

5-10%

Neutral

1 – 4 kg per 1m2 or 2 – 10 shovels full Longest improvement per 1m2

Egg Shells

N/A

N/A

N/A

Neutral

100g per 1m2 or one handful per Great source of calcium 1m2

Manure (Cow)

5.50%

2.00%

5.00%

Acidic

1 – 2 kg per 1m2 or 1 – 4 shovels full per 1m2

Manure (Goat/Sheep)

10.00%

7.50%

10.50%

Acidic

1 – 2 kg per 1m2 or 1 – 4 shovels full Don't use pellets – attracts termites per 1m2

Manure (Horse)

6.50%

3.00%

4.50%

Acidic

1 – 2 kg per 1m2 or 1 – 4 shovels full Beware of seeds per 1m2

Wood Ash

N/A

1-2%

5-10%

Basic

100g per 1m2 or one handful per Fast Acting, ~30% CaCO3 1m2

lasting

Starting the Garden Traditional Soil Cultivation Practices Traditional cultivation and amendment practices in Senegal generally involve light surface cultivation of the topsoil and light amendments with manure - generally cow, horse, sheep, or goat. This process leaves the subsoil compacted which in turn restricts root growth and reduces the water-holding capacity of the soil.

Improved Cultivation Practices The most basic form of improved garden soil cultivation is a combination of a technique known as double-digging and the addition of three amendments – compost, charcoal powder, and wood ash. The double-digging process involves removing the topsoil of a garden bed, loosening and amending the subsoil with compost, replacing the topsoil and amending with charcoal powder, wood ash, and additional compost. At no point should the two layers be mixed together. When this process is complete, the subsoil is aerated, loosened to allow for increased root growth, and is able to store more water than in compacted soil. By not mixing the two layers together, the majority of the nutrients and microbial life in the soil remain in the topsoil where they are available to the plants’ lateral root system.

The Double-Digging Process 1. Mark out your garden beds. They should be no more than 1m wide (to allow full access without stepping in the bed) and no more than 10m long (to allow ease of traffic flow throughout the garden).

2. Gather your soil amendments: 4 shovels full of Compost or Manure per 1m2 1 shovel full of Charcoal Powder per 1m2 ½ shovel full of plastic-free Wood Ash per 1m2 3. Double-dig the garden beds.

1. Remove a 30-40cm wide strip of TOPSOIL from the beginning of the bed and place it at the end of the bed. (A) 2. Loosen and amend the SUBSOIL with one shovel full of Compost or Manure. Move the next 30-40cm strip of TOPSOIL onto the first strip of loosened SUBSOIL. Loosen and amend the second strip of SUBSOIL with one shovel full of Compost or Manure. (B) 3. Continue this process until the entire bed has been double dug. Replace the last strip of TOPSOIL with the TOPSOIL you removed at the very beginning of the process. (C)

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4. Roughly level the surface of the bed.

5. Scatter a light layer of Wood Ash evenly over the surface of the bed.

6. Scatter a thicker layer of Charcoal Powder evenly over the surface.

7. Scatter the remaining Compost or Manure over the surface.

8. Mix the amendments into the TOPSOIL thoroughly.

9. Re-level the bed using a rake or tool handle.

10. Water Beds gently to make sure they are level.

11. Water Beds every other day for 4-6 days so that weed seeds will germinate and the bed can be weeded prior to seeding.

Less than Ideal Soils and Situations The double digging process is the PC Senegal recommended method for preparing garden beds and improving soil, however, it is acknowledged that double digging is a time and labor intensive process and is not always appropriate for all soils or situations.

Soils with little to no Top-Soil – Some soils in Senegal have been depleted to the point that there is no discernible top soil. In this instance it is acceptable to disregard the topsoil cultivation aspect of the double digging process. Simply loosen the soil as deeply as possible and add the standard amendments.

Soil that has never been cultivated – In many cases, soil that has never been worked before can be hard as cement. In this instance double dig as deeply as possible without overworking yourself or your garden partners. The following season the subsoil will be easier to loosen to a deeper level. With each additional double-digging, the depth of both the subsoil and the topsoil will increase.

Lack of availability of compost – While compost is the recommended base soil amendment for any gardening situation, it is not always readily available. Compost takes time to make (generally six weeks minimum), and it can be difficult to convince work partners that its added benefits are worth the additional time, labor, and water. If compost is not available, manure can be used in its place. Manure is a good source of nutrients (primarily nitrogen) and organic matter; however it is host to a wide variety of problems. Manure tends to attract termites, contains abundant weed seeds, can lock necessary soil amendments while it decomposes, and can adversely affect soil pH if added in too great a quantity. In short, compost is the ideal soil amendment and its use should be encouraged at great lengths. Manure is a far distant second, but if it is all that is available on less than six weeks’ notice, it is better than no soil amendments at all.

Lack of availability of charcoal powder or wood ash – Neither charcoal powder or wood ash are essential soil amendments. If they are not available, or only available in a limited quantity, use what is available but don’t worry if the dosage is not quite by the book. So long as organic material is being added in the form of compost or manure, the plants will be happy.

Maintaining the Benefits of Double-Digging The double-digging process is a lot of work, especially when digging a bed in soil that has not been cultivated before. The last thing you want to do is re-compact your soil after spending so much time and energy making it fluffy and soft. Here is a list of dos and don’ts that will help you maintain the benefits of double digging.

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DO Use a watering can (factory or homemade) when watering to reduce the water’s impact on the soil.

Mulch the garden beds so that the surface is not continually drying in the sun and then remoistening when it is watered which leads to surface crusting and prevents future water penetration.

DON’T Step in the garden beds. Ever! This is the easiest way to compact the soil, damage existing root systems, and reduce the water-holding capacity.

Use a garden hose or bucket to water the beds. Garden hoses in Senegal do not have multiplespray-option heads. There is only one option – really hard. Watering roughly leads to soil compaction almost as quickly as walking on it.

Leave the surface of the soil exposed to the sun and wind longer than is absolutely necessary. As soon as plants are large enough to have mulch around them, the beds should be mulched thoroughly.

Vegetable Propagation What is Propagation?

Propagation refers to the controlled increase and dissemination of a given plant. When it comes to garden vegetables there are typically three methods of propagation: The nursery and transplant system Direct seeding Vegetative propagation The Nursery and Transplant System The nursery and transplant system is a gardening system in which vegetables are seeded in a small area and then transplanted into a permanent garden bed once they are large enough to make it on their own.

While this system takes more time and labor than direct seeding, it is beneficial for several reasons.

Requires less water - The small footprint of The Transplant Group the nursery requires less water while the young plants are still small than would be Cabbage Marigold necessary if the same number of seed was Basil Onion planted in a garden bed at the mature Bitter Tomato Pepper-Green plants’ recommended spacing.

Eggplant Pepper-Hot Improved plant selection - Not all seeds Leek Tomato germinate, but most transplants survive.

Lettuce Water Spinach When your seedlings are ready for transplanting, you can pick the healthiest, and strongest of them to transplant into the permanent bed. These strong, healthy transplants are also the best candidates for seed saving programs once the plants bear fruit.

Provides ideal growth space - Plants grow better when they are evenly spaced and it is easier to evenly space transplants than plants that are direct seeded. When plants are bunched together their roots compete for soil nutrients and water, and their leaves compete for space and light.

Plants that are tightly bunched tend to be smaller, prone to disease and pest problems, and produce a significantly smaller yield.

Increased root growth - Some plants benefit from increased root growth when transplanted deeper into the soil. When Solanaceae such as tomato, pepper, eggplant, and bitter tomato are planted deeper than the root collar, they actually send out roots from the portions of the stem that are in contact with the soil, greatly increasing the depth of the lateral root system.

Better use of space over time - Nurseries make better use of space and time. You can have seedlings in a nursery while you still have mature crops in your garden beds. For an intensive gardening operation, you should plan to start you nursery 2-6 weeks (depending on the vegetable) before the projected harvest date of the crops in your permanent beds.

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The Nursery Process 1. Double-Dig a 1x1m space.

2. Level surface extremely well, and make berms around edges.

3. Water the bed for 4 – 6 days (long enough for weed seeds to germinate) before seeding so that it can be weeded.

4. Make shallow seeding lines 10cm apart.

5. Sprinkle seeds 1-2cm apart in the seeding lines.

6. Seed one species per row.

7. Cover seeds and tamp lightly.

8. Water as gently as possible.

9. Place stakes in corners and cover with a mosquito net.

10. Weed weekly.

Common Nursery Troubles Seeding a nursery is pretty strait forward, however sometimes the seeds never show. If that happens, here is a list to help you trouble shoot.

Seeds are planted too deeply – If seeds are planted too deeply, they germinate in the soil, but the first leaves are unable to reach the surface. A good general rule is that seeds should be planted at a depth that is equal to their thickness. For very small seeds, including Lettuce and Basil, it can be more successful to scatter them lightly over the surface and then gently scratch them in with your fingertips.

Using old seeds – Germination rates drop with time. If you are sure that you have planted your seeds at the proper depth, it is possible that your seed is no longer viable to age or climatic conditions such as high heat and humidity.

Planting in water-logged soil – Seeds and young sprouts can rot if there is too much water and not enough oxygen. If a nursery is double dug properly, this should not be a problem. If you are making a nursery in a container, make sure to poke small holes in the sides and bottom to allow for proper drainage.

Using soil that has been exposed to herbicides – Herbicides can linger in soils, reducing germination rates and slowing plant growth.

Planting in an area that is not protected from ants – If there are a lot of ants in close proximity to your nursery area, they will carry off your seeds like a cake at a picnic! Surrounding the edges of your nursery with a thick line of Wood Ash and watering in the seeds immediately after seeding can help deter ants from entering.

Nursery Protection Mesh cloth – Mesh cloth provides shade for your young plants and protects them from Mosaic and other insectborne viruses. Young plants contract the virus when they are bitten by infected insects. However, the virus does not show itself until after it has been transplanted, greatly reducing crop yield. Although mature plants are still capable of contracting Mosaic virus once they have been transplanted in garden beds, the virus won’t manifest until after the plants have begun to produce fruit. At this stage there will not be significant loss to yield.

Wood ash – Wood ash has diatomaceous (microscopic razor blades) properties and can damage and deter softbodied insects such as termites and caterpillars. It also has a very low pH (basic) that helps deter ants. By spreading a thick line of wood ash around your nursery you can dissuade many soil creatures from venturing in.

Organic insect repellents – These are covered in detail in the IPM Manual and can be extremely effective at deterring pests from vegetable nurseries.

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Nursery Maintenance Weeding – Young plants are extremely vulnerable to over competition from weeds.

Nurseries should be weeded weekly to ensure that water and nutrients are going to the plants you want.

Thinning – As soon as your vegetables have two to three sets of true leaves, you can start thinning. You want to have between 1 and 2cm of space between each seedling. Pull out all plants that look small, weak, or otherwise unhealthy.

When thinning, pull the undesired plants out gently so as not to disrupt the root systems of the plants you want to keep.

Watering – Watering should be done as gently as possible. Even a normal watering-can can be too rough if used from too great a height.

Especially when plants are very young, you should inspect your nursery to make sure the seedlings are not bent over and stuck in the soil. If they are, gently free them without damaging the roots or stems.

Transplanting When transplanting vegetables it is important to treat them gently. Stressed or damaged transplants will take longer to re-establish in garden beds and can lead to reduced yields.

Vegetable specific transplanting information can found in the vegetable specific information section at the end of this manual. For general transplanting tips, keep the following in mind: Transplant as soon as possible – Once a plant is removed from the nursery, it needs to be transplanted as soon as possible. Every minute that the roots are exposed to sun and air makes it more difficult for the plant to re-establish.

Never handle plants by their stems – Stems are vital to a plant’s health. The stems on transplants tend to be soft and easily damaged. When transplanting try always to hold plants either by gently cupping the root ball from the bottom, or by holding them by the leaves which are no great loss to the plant if they get damaged.

Water in directly before or after transplanting – Plants need water as soon as they are transplanted. Do not leave fresh transplants in the ground for longer than 15 minutes before watering. If the plants start to wilt before the 15 minute mark, water them in sooner. A mild compost tea solution is a good thing to use when watering in to help reduce plant stress. If transplanting at a time when the transplants are in full sun, you can prevent wilting by pouring a small amount of water in the transplanting hole just before placing the transplant.

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Transplant in the early morning or late afternoon – The sun in Senegal is hot, especially in the middle of the day. For increased transplant success, only transplant early in the morning, or late in the afternoon to give them time to establish before facing the heat.

Transplanting Depth Not all plants are transplanted in the same manor. Some plants prefer to be planted just up to their root collar. In general these are plants that are grown for their greens such as lettuce and cabbage. Other species, particularly those of the Solanaceae family prefer a much deeper transplanting. When transplanting members of the Solanaceae, plant them so that the semi-lignified portion of the stem is just at the soil surface. The portion of the stem that is submerged will then grow roots, greatly increasing the plant’s ability to uptake nutrients.

Direct Seeding Not all vegetables are suitable for the and transplant system.

Some vegetables, especially root crops, have more sensitive root systems that can damaged when removed from the soil. crops, the direct seeding method is

The Direct Seed Group nursery Bean Beet Bissap Carrot Celery Cilantro Corn Cucumber Dill

Melon Moringa Okra Parsley Radish – French Radish - Daikon Squash Turnip Watermelon

much easily be For these ideal.

Benefits of Direct Seeding Less initial work – All you have to do is prepare your bed, plant your seeds at the appropriate spacing, water, and wait.

The nursery and transplant system is more work over time.

Less risk of damaging plant roots and stressing plants – Transplanting can be traumatic even for members of the transplant group. If done improperly, transplanting can significantly reduce the yield of a given vegetable. Direct seeding avoids this potentially hazardous step.

Drawbacks of Direct Seeding Increased water use during early stages of plant growth – In the nursery and transplant system you are watering the same number of plants in a tiny little footprint. In a direct-seeded bed, the whole bed needs to be watered.

Less control over plant selection – In the nursery and transplant system you can cull out any plants that show signs of weakness, disease, or mutation before transplanting.

Longer exposure of the soil surface to the sun – Generally, you cannot mulch a directly seeded bed until after the seeds have sprouted and grown to a height of approximately 10cm. Mulching too early can make young seedlings can physically damage them as they emerge from the soil, or make them vulnerable to fungal attacks due to the increased humidity. For very widely spaced directly seeded vegetables (cucumber, squash, watermelon, melon, okra, and bissap) you can mulch the area and then clear pockets in the mulch to sow your seeds, however wind may still blow the mulch over the young seedlings.

Seeding in Pockets For direct seeded species that require a wide spacing, such as cucumber, squash, watermelon, melon, okra, and bissap, it is easier to make individual holes or “pockets”. When making the direct seeding holes, keep the appropriate seed depth in mind. It is a common mistake to make the holes so deep that the seedling never reaches the surface. When seeding in holes, place 2 – 3 seeds in each hole to ensure germination. Thin to one plant per hole once the seedlings are 1 to 2 weeks old.

Seeding in Lines For certain species that are more closely spaced, such as carrot, turnip, radish, and beat, it is easier to make shallow lines in the soil than to make individual holes. Use the between-line and within-row spacing information in the specific vegetable section at the end of this manual. Place 2-3 seeds at the appropriate within row spacing within the rows.

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Steps to Direct Seeding 1. Measure out and mark the holes or lines where you will direct seed in your bed.

2. Make holes or lines to the appropriate depth.

3. If seeding in holes, place 2-3 seeds per hole. If seeding in lines, place 2 seeds at the appropriate spacing within each line.

4. Cover the seeds with soil and press down firmly enough to ensure that soil is making contact with the seeds.

5. Water the bed regularly.

6. About a week or two after the seeds have sprouted, thin them by removing any weak, sick, or mutated plants. You should leave only one plant per space.

7. Reseed any areas that did not sprout.

Vegetative Propagation Certain vegetables and herbs, sweet potato, potato, cassava, mint, garlic, green onion, and ginger, for example, either do not set seed at all, or have difficulty setting seed in the arid tropics. However, they can still be propagated. Vegetative propagation refers to the method of reproducing plants from leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes, bulbs, and tubers. While the methods of vegetative propagation vary from specie to specie, the end result is the same – a genetic duplicate of the original host plant. The basics of vegetative propagation will be covered here. For plant specific information refer to the vegetable charts at the end of this handbook.

Dividing Plants with Rhizomes and Tubers Certain plants have rhizomes or tubers which are swollen, underground stems. Botanically these two have differences, but in practice they are propagated very similarly. Vegetables and herbs common in Senegal that have rhizomes or tubers include: potato, ginger, and bamboo.

1. Dig up the entire rhizome.

2. Examine for damage or disease. Discard any rhizomes that look unhealthy.

3. Remove most, or all of surface leaves to minimize transpiration.

4. Use a sharp knife to cut the rhizome or tuber into smaller sections, leaving at least two growth buds per section.

5. Replant to the same depth at which the rhizome had been growing.

Dividing Plants with Offsets Plants that can be propagated by dividing offsets include aloe vera, lemon grass, vetiver grass, and a wide variety of ornamentals commonly found in Senegal. An offset is a young plant that grows off of the base of the parent plant just at the soil level.

1. Gently remove the plant from the soil.

2. Examine plants for pests or disease. Discard any offsets that look unhealthy.

3. Cut off the majority of the foliage.

4. Carefully cut or pull the offsets from the parent plant. Be sure only to remove offsets with preestablished, independent root systems.

5. Replant offsets at appropriate spacing to same depth of the parent plant

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Dividing Plants with Bulbs Garlic, green onion, and many ornamentals grown in Senegal can be propagated by dividing bulbs. Dividing bulbs is simple and easy.

1. Remove the outer paper layer from the bulb.

2. Divide the subsections known as cloves, bulblets, or cormels by pulling them apart with your hands.

3. Examine for signs of pests or disease. Discard any bulblets that look unhealthy.

4. Replant bulblets at appropriate depth.

5. Replant bulblets at appropriate spacing to same depth of the parent plant

Propagation by Cuttings Conventional Method - Vegetables and herbs common in Senegal such as sweet potato, cassava, moringa, and mint can easily be propagated by cuttings. A cutting is simply a severed portion of plant stem that is placed in soil or water and left to regenerate roots and leaves from the nodes or growth points.

Examine parent plants for signs of pests or disease. Discard any cuttings that look unhealthy.

Cut a length of stem from the parent plant.

Remove most or all of the foliage.

Place the cutting in soil so that at least 2-3 nodes are under the surface.

Wait until the cutting has 3-4 sets of established leaves. This is a good indicator that roots have established below the surface.

Transplant if necessary.

Hydroponic Method - Not all vegetables that are propagated by cuttings do well with the conventional propagation method. Mint, for instance, has a particularly low success rate if the cuttings are placed directly in the soil – about 40% survival. The hydroponic method can increase success rates significantly.

1. Find Styrofoam sheeting (Can sometimes be found in markets or hardware stores. Ask around.)

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2. Poke holes in the sheeting 3-5cm apart. The width of the holes depends on what is being propagated. The stems should be able to slip through and be supported by the leaves.

3. Take cuttings and slip them through the holes in the Styrofoam.

4. Place the Styrofoam sheet in a water basin, or growing table (see Container Gardening) 5. Lift up the Styrofoam daily to see how the roots are developing.

6. Once cuttings have well developed roots, transplant them into their final location.

Plant Spacing The term spacing refers to the horizontal distance between two plants. If plants are spaced too closely together, overcrowding occurs. If plants are overcrowded, they begin to compete with each other for water, light, and nutrients. In this environment, weaker plants will remain small and become increasingly vulnerable to insect attack, resulting in overall reduced yields. If plants are spaced too far apart, bed space is not being used efficiently, water and nutrient resources are wasted, and yields are not maximized. The spacing information found in the Vegetable Specific Sheets at the end of this manual list two forms of spacing: in-row spacing, and hexagonal spacing. Proper spacing is not an exact science and often times there is a range of functional spacing. Use the suggested spacing as a guide, but don’t be afraid to make slight changes, as soil and water conditions, and desired produce size may vary with site and situation.

Row Spacing In conventional gardening, plants are often spaced in strait lines. Strait line planting is referred to as Row spacing. Within-row refers to the distance between plants within a row and between-row refers to the distance between separate lines of plants. While planting in rows is slightly easier to implement than planting in a hexagonal pattern, it does not maximize use of bed space.

Hexagonal Spacing Row spacing creates a square pattern within the garden bed. Plants however do not grow in square shapes, but in rough circular shapes. By staggering rows and planting in a hexagonal pattern, plantings per square meter can increase by 20-50% depending on the vegetable’s spacing needs.

Convenient Spacing Tools Although tape measures are extremely useful for determining accurate distances between plants, they are not always readily available in all sites or are not convenient to use if planting a large number of plants.

If you are working in an area where measuring tapes are unavailable, you can use parts of your body to accurately determine distances. When you are near a tape measure, use it to find out convenient body spacing tools. Some common examples are: 28

10cm – For most people, the width of their fist is 10cm.

20cm – For most people, when their little finger and thumb is stretched as far apart as possible, the distance between the tip of the little finger and the tip of the thumb is 20cm 40cm – For most people, if the tips of the thumbs are placed together, the distance between the tips of both little fingers is 40cm. For those with smaller hands, the distance between the elbow and the tip of the little finger is 40cm 50cm – For people whose hands span 20cm as described above, the distance between the elbow and the tip of the little finger is 50cm If you do own a tape measure, it is not always convenient to use for every planting, especially if you are planting in a hexagonal pattern. For hexagonal spacing, measure and cut two sticks to the distance you are planting. Measure and mark your first line using the tape measure. Once the first line is marked, use the sticks to form a triangle off of two marked points. The third point is the place of the next planting.

Repeat this process and your bed will be planted hexagonally.

General Garden Maintenance Daily Observation The best fertilizer is the gardener’s shadow. If you are not in your garden every day taking the time to make close observations, problems can quickly get out of control. Spend the time to look at your plants.

Look under the leaves, look at the stems, look at the flowers, and look at the fruit. Check under your mulch to make sure the soil is moist. If the vegetables are ready to eat, pick them. If you start to notice pests, treat for them. If the garden is getting over shaded, thin out some branches from surrounding trees.

Watering Proper watering is crucial to garden health. The following list provides all of the information you need to water successfully: Water gently – Whether it is homemade or purchased from the store, always use some kind of watering can that sprinkles water. When water first comes out of a watering can it starts very roughly. By first tipping the watering can over the path, and then moving it over the bed, you can make sure that the water flow is as gentle as possible. Pouring or splashing water onto garden beds compacts the soil and can quickly lead to soil erosion and plant root exposure.

Provide adequate water – Plants require an average of 5 liters of water per square meter (5L/1m2). Depending on seasonal temperature changes, the necessary amount of water may vary. A good rule to follow when watering is the “10 second Shine” rule. After watering, the surface of the soil should stay shiny for about 10 seconds before the water fully penetrates the soil. Watering should also be done as gently as possible.

Water regularly – Plants will adjust to a given watering regiment. Increasing or decreasing daily watering abruptly can stress plants, resulting in decreased yields.

Water uniformly - Water the bed as uniformly as possible. It is easy to forget to water the sides of the bed, and in turn decrease the yield of the vegetables planted on the edges. If you water in strait lines across the width of the bed, this can be avoided.

Check soil moisture regularly – Even if you are adhering to a regular watering schedule it is possible for soil moisture to drop below a healthy level. As climatic conditions become more arid in the cool dry season, water sometimes evaporates from the soil surface before it penetrates to the subsoil. If this happens frequently a dry pan develops. A dry pan is a shelf of bone-dry soil beneath moist soil. A dry pan can be detrimental to plant health as a large part of the root system has no access to water. 1-2 times a week find a place in a bed that will not damage plant roots and dig down 20-30cm to ensure that there is even moisture to an acceptable depth.

Thinning Whether seeding in the nursery or direct seeding into garden beds, nearly all vegetables are seeded with 2-3 seeds per space. This practice is designed to safeguard against potentially low germination. However, if more than one seed germinates, the plants will soon crowd and begin to compete for each other over 29

light, water, and nutrients. “Thinning” refers to the practice of culling the weaker plants from a given planting space to allow for the most vigorous to have all the space it needs to grow quickly and produce high yields. A general rule is to thin seedlings when they have 1-2 sets of true leaves. Thinning too early can damage the fragile roots of the young plants you intend to keep. If too much time passes before plants are thinned, roots will grow into each other and you may damage the roots of the plants that you are trying to save.

Weeding A weed is any plant that the gardener does not want in the garden. Weed seeds can lay dormant in the soil for a number of seasons before conditions are right for germination. If weeds are left unchecked, they will quickly overcrowd and out-compete garden vegetables. Weed garden beds prior to planting and then thoroughly re-weed once every two weeks. As part of a daily routine, pull out individual weeds as they sprout. It is important not to allow weeds to go to seed. If weeding is done properly, every season weeding work will become less and less. If even one weed is allowed to go to seed there are potentially hundreds or thousands of new weeds that will need to be pulled.

Mulching Mulch is any material placed around plants in a garden bed that completely covers the soil. Mulch should be anywhere from 5-15cm thick depending on the material being used and should be at least 35cm from contact with plant stems to prevent fungal problems.

Materials commonly used include: Peanut shells, dry grass, dry leaves, old roofing thatch, and rice hulls. Mulching is beneficial for a number of reasons: Protection from the sun – When soil is exposed to the sun, humus photo degrades, water evaporates, and soil temperatures increase. A thick layer of mulch significantly reduces these effects, maintaining soil quality, conserving water, and keeping soil temperatures cool.

Weed control – If mulch is thick enough, weeds that sprout cannot make it through the physical barrier, significantly reducing the amount of weeding that is required.

Erosion prevention – Mulch protects soil from the erosive effects of wind, rain, and handwatering.

Prevents soil crusting – When the soil surface is watered and then dries out repeatedly, a condition called soil crusting occurs. Soil crust is a thin, hard layer that forms over the surface of the soil. This layer prevents water from entering the soil and can lead to wilting. Because mulch retains moisture in the soil throughout the day, a mulched bed is unlikely to form a crust.

Addition of organic material – Over time, mulch will break down, adding humus to the soil surface. When the soil is cultivated between plantings, this organic material will incorporate into the topsoil.

Protects ground-laying fruits – Certain fruits such as cucumber, squash, and melon may rot if left in contact with the soil surface. Placing fruits on top of a thick layer mulch will keep them dry and safe.

Creation of beneficial habitat – Mulched beds are higher in earthworm and spider populations than un-mulched beds.

Proper mulching is not as simple as throwing some organic matter on a garden bed. Use the following tips to ensure you get the most from your mulch.

Leave space between the mulch and plant stems – If mulch is in close contact with plant stems it may promote fungal attack due to high humidity. Always leave a few centimeters of space between mulch and plant stems.

Mulch to an appropriate thickness – Mulch thickness will vary depending on the type of material being used. Mulch should be thick enough to protect the soil and act as a weed barrier, but not

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so thick that it prevents water from entering the soil. I good rule to follow is to mulch until no part of the soil surface can be seen.

If using leaves, mulch more thinly than if using other materials.

Leaves tend to matt, preventing water penetration.

Reapply mulch as needed – Mulch decomposes with time.

Continually reapply mulch as it starts to break down.

Cautious use of mulch – Mulching vegetable nurseries is a common Senegalese practice. PC Senegal recommends using mesh cloth to shade nurseries instead of mulching them.

However, if mesh cloth is unavailable mulch can be used. Mulch must be removed from the nursery a day or two BEFORE seed germination. If mulch is left on the nursery after germination seedlings may become damaged when the mulch is removed.

Keep accurate notes on planting dates and consult this gardening manual for germination times to ensure that mulch is removed in time.

Avoiding Soil Compaction Plant roots need soft soil with good structure to support healthy plants. When soil becomes compacted it is difficult for roots to grow deeply and for water and oxygen to be suspended in beneficial ways. The following list provides ways to avoid soil compaction: Water gently – As stated above, watering harshly is a sure way to compact your soil. Always use some sort of watering can when watering.

Mulch – Mulch slows and disrupts the impact of falling water.

Never step in garden beds – Garden beds are not paths and should not be treated as such.

Stepping in garden beds is the single easiest way to compact the soil. Often times it does not occur to people that plant roots spread laterally through the soil so that stepping in a bed, even if not directly on a plant, is still damaging the plant. In Senegal, it can be extremely difficult to prevent people from walking on beds. An easy and doubly useful trick is to mulch garden beds. In Senegal, people associate mulch with vegetable nurseries and will avoid stepping in beds.

Tool Maintenance Garden tools are expensive, so take care of them. If tools are left out in the rain or are put away while dirty, they will rust. Always clean, and dry tools before putting them away. Rusty tools do not last long before breaking. If tool handles are left on the ground termites will start eating them in a matter of hours. Tool handles break when they are full of termite holes. A strict routine of cleaning and putting your tools away after every use can extend the life of your tools by years.

Dirty tools also spread disease. If you have been using your tools in an area known to have pest or disease issues, make sure you clean them before using them in another part of the garden.

Never clean tools in water that will then be used to water your plants.

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4.

Advanced Gardening

Maximizing Bed Efficiency In chapter 3 we discussed the ability to increase the output of a garden bed by planting in a hexagonal pattern rather than in strait rows. Hexagonal planting can significantly increase the number of plants per sq. meter while still giving them all of the space, water, light, and nutrient they need for a full yield. And yet there are still other ways to get a little extra out of a garden bed. Conventional agriculture focuses on the planting of a single species of vegetable in a single space, however there are many techniques, both ancient and new that allow the gardener to plant more than one type of vegetable in close proximity, reducing labor and water requirements while increasing total yield.

Monocropping Monocropping is the planting of a single variety of vegetable in a defined space. Often in the United States, monocropping will take place over many acres. In Senegal, monocropping generally ranges from between a few hectares to as little as a few garden beds.

Benefits of Monocropping Ease of planting – Planting a single crop in a single space is simple. Generally all of the plants of a given species have the same physical characteristics, and nutrient, water, and sunlight needs. This allows for an entire area to be planted rapidly at uniform spacing.

Ability to mechanize – Vegetables grown in Senegal are almost always seeded and harvested by hand. However, field crops are almost always mechanically seeded and sometimes mechanically harvested. Mechanization significantly increases the rate at which a field can be seeded and harvested and significantly reduces the amount of physical labor that is required.

Ease of maintenance – Because plants of the same species have the same nutrient, water, and sunlight needs, and are susceptible to the same types of pests, general maintenance can be streamlined over a large area. Fertilizer regiments and dosages, specific soil amendments, water needs, and pest control methods can be uniformly applied to all plants at the same time.

Ease of harvest – Even if a monocrop is being harvested by hand, it is still easier and faster to harvest an entire area of the same vegetable than to pick through several different types of vegetable to harvest the one that is ready.

Easier market production – A space that has been planted with the same crop can more reliably be trusted to produce a uniform yield. This makes it easier to bring a large quantity of the same vegetable to market at the same time.

Drawbacks of Monocropping Increased pest problems – One plant will be susceptible to the same pests and diseases as another plant of the same species. By planting large quantities of the same species directly next to each other, insects and disease from one plant can very quickly spread to the entire garden or field.

Does not maximize the total quantity of produce from a given space – Because the plants in a monocropping system are all roughly the same size and shape, they do not make the most use of three dimensional spaces.

Intercropping Intercropping is the planting of two or more species within a defined growing space. Successful intercrops arrange plants in ways that take advantage of one or more of the plants’ factors such as physical shape, root depth, resistance or susceptibility to pests, or growth rate. Perhaps the most widely known and celebrated form of intercropping in the United States is known as the “Three Sisters Garden”. The Three Sisters Garden is an intercropping scheme that combines corn, pole bean, and squash within the same growing space. The Three Sisters Garden works because it combines plants that have characteristics that are mutually beneficial to each other. The corn acts as a trellis for the climbing pole beans, the beans are

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nitrogen fixers and add small amounts of nitrogen to the soil as roots decompose at the end of the season, while the sprawling squash plant acts as a living mulch by shading the soil, reducing soil temperatures, minimizing moisture loss, and keeping weeds at bay.

In Senegal there are also a number of local intercropping schemes. Corn is sometimes planted along the edge of a garden bed perpendicular to the direction of prominent winds. This acts as both a small wind break, and provides dappled shade for vegetables that require less light, such as lettuce or carrots.

Another good local example is the planting of hibiscus around the edges of cabbage beds. Hibiscus tends to be more attractive to caterpillars than cabbage is. As both plants mature, the hibiscus leaves take the brunt of the damage, while the cabbage heads are left relatively untouched.

Another Senegalese intercropping system partners corn, bitter tomato, and okra. The corn is planted in zhai holes with a diameter of about 25cm. When the corn is 15cm high, a bitter tomato is transplanted about 15 cm from the base. At the same time, a smaller zhai hole with a diameter of about 15cm is dug adjoining the larger zhai hole. In this smaller zhai hole Okra is direct seeded. All three of these plants tend not to have the same pest issues greatly increasing risk diversification. At the same time, the corn provides dappled shade for the young bitter tomato and okra, but not so much that they don’t reach full yield capacity when mature.

Small-scale, intensive gardening focuses on yet another type of intercropping: the planting of full beds of two or more different types of plants at their normal recommended spacing. Eggplant and lettuce are an example of this. A bed is planted with eggplant at 40cm hexagonal spacing. Lettuce is then intercropped in lines at normal 10-20cm row spacing, cutting out any lettuce plants that land directly in the foot print of an eggplant. The plant heights and root shapes of the two plants are not competitive with each other making them good companions. With an intensive intercropping scheme such as this you will only get 6080% of the yield from each type of vegetable, but that still adds up to 20-60% greater total yield in half the space than if you had a single bed of lettuce and a single bed of eggplant. However for an intensive intercropping scheme such as this to work it is important to remember a number of points.

Twice the plants equal twice the nutrient demands - Intercropped beds must be heavily amended before planting and often require fertilizer application to maintain plant health and vigor.

Not all garden vegetables can be grown together successfully - It is important to get to know a plant’s physical characteristics, nutrient needs, and growth rates and habits before working them into an intercropping scheme.

Benefits of Intercropping Increased yield per 1m2 – While there is sometimes a decrease in the yield of one type of vegetable in an intercropping scheme, the total yield of the bed is often significantly higher than an intercropped bed.

Decreased labor – While the time and energy it takes to maintain a single growing space may remain the same or increase slightly with an intercropping scheme, the total labor for the same yield decreases.

Decreased water requirements – More efficiently spaced beds mean that all available soil space is being taken up by root systems. This means that the vast majority of water entering the soil is being used by the vegetables.

Pest control – As listed in the example of hibiscus and cabbage above, intercropping can sometimes be used to repel insects from a garden bed, or attract them to a less desired plant.

Risk diversification – Growing a single thing is always risky. If an unmanageable pest or disease comes through an area it has the potential to decimate an entire crop. If a grower has nothing else planted, than she has nothing to sell or eat at the end of such a pest event. Intercropping ensures that multiple vegetables (often unaffected by the same insect pests) are being grown in the same space. If one type is eliminated, the garden is still productive.

Increased micro-climates – By planting two vegetables with different physical characteristics next to each other, you are creating micro-climates of sun and shade. These diverse temperature margins are ideal for shade/cool loving plants, or beneficial insects flying through your garden looking for pest prey.

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Drawbacks of Intercropping Increased planning – Intercropping is more complicated and requires greater planning than simple monocropping. Nursery timing for transplants, germination time for direct seeds, growth rates, and harvest times must all be taken into account for a successful intercrop. If anything is too far off it is possible for overcrowding, competition, and decreased yields to occur.

Difficult to mechanize – Intercropping is inherently difficult to mechanize because simple agricultural machines are designed to do a single task for a single crop. However, vegetable production in Senegal is almost exclusively conducted by hand so the point is somewhat moot.

General Rules for Intercropping The Vegetable Specific Pages at the end of this manual go into detail on possible intercropping schemes for each vegetable. The information on intercropping found in these pages is in not exhaustive. Feel free to experiment with other intercropping combinations, but remember the following points: Use appropriate spacing – Use the spacing charts in the Vegetable Specific Pages when planning an intercrop. Plants should be no closer together than the smallest spacing of the vegetables being planted. For example, when intercropping eggplant at 40cm hexagonal spacing with lettuce intercropped at 10cm row spacing, a given head of lettuce should be no closer than 10cm from the base of the eggplant.

Take advantage of physical differences – One of the largest benefits of intercropping is that plants that have different physical characteristics can be worked into the same bed like puzzle pieces. Place plants with low leaf cover and compact or shallow root systems next to plants with larger leaf cover and deeper root systems.

Work with plants from different families – In general, plants from different vegetable families are susceptible to different pests and diseases than those of other families. By diversifying vegetable families being grown in the garden the potential for devastating insect loss is even further reduced.

Take advantage of changing physical conditions – The physical characteristics of plants change as they mature, sometimes minimally, sometimes dramatically. Keep these changes in mind when designing and implementing intercropping schemes. See the “Cucumber and Lettuce” intercrop in the Vegetable Specific Sheets for an example of an intercropping scheme that takes advantage of changing physical conditions over time.

Keep transplanting and seeding issues in mind – If a bed is direct seeded it is difficult to intercrop with transplants before the seedlings sprout without disturbing seeds that are in the process of germinating. Always transplant before direct seeding OR direct seed first and then wait until the seedlings have broken the soil surface before transplanting. Your decision will rely on the growth cycles of the particular plants being intercropped.

Taking Advantage of 3-Dimensional Space As discussed above, planting nothing but a single crop in a bed does not maximize the potential of that space. Even so, it is important to think of growing space not just as the footprint in which vegetables can be planted, but all of the space above and below the soil surface, as well as the space surrounding the garden. You can typically think of the vertical growing space as broken into 7 stratifications or layers.

1. The root layer – Under the soil surface plants can take up just as much space as that do above the surface. Understanding a plant’s root system will help you partner that plant with other species that are not competitive for root space.

2. The ground cover layer – Ground cover plants such as peppermint, sweet potato, water spinach, and certain inedible succulents sprawl across the ground, but stay lower than many other garden plants.

As they crawl across the surface of the ground they create a living mulch - shading the soil from the sun, retaining soil moisture, and suppressing weed growth. Other garden vegetables with low level vegetative growth such as lettuce, cabbage, carrot, radish, etc. can be placed in this layer as well.

These vegetables are generally intercropped with much taller vegetables.

3. The herbaceous layer – This layer is home to many common garden vegetables such as tomato, eggplant, pepper, bitter tomato, okra, hibiscus, corn, etc. These plants generally grow between 50cm and a meter and 150cm in height. In intercropping schemes they can provide dappled shade and cooler micro climates to lower lying plants.

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4. The bush layer – This layer is home to smaller bushier plants such as pomegranate, china pride, or well-maintained tree species such as pigeon pea, moringa, or Leucaena. When interspersed in the garden, these plants provide dappled shade, and create cooler microclimates for lower layer vegetables.

5. The small tree layer – In this layer you will find small fruit and forestry trees such as banana, papaya, guava, pigeon pea, moringa, leucaena, etc. These plants, if allowed to grow to their full potential tend to be too large to incorporate into the middle of the garden. These trees tend to serve the garden best when planted on the perimeter – on the east, north, and west sides of the garden. Keeping the south side of the garden open means there will be plenty of sun during the cool season from November through early march.

6. The large tree layer – Large trees that are good on the edges of the garden, or used to provide shade near wells or sitting areas include fruit trees such as mango, citrus, tamarind, and shade trees such as bombardier and gmelina. These trees should be planted very sparingly and only in strategic places.

When planning for large trees, always take into consideration their fully mature size.

7. The climbing layer - Climbing or vining plants are often overlooked. Their soil footprint is generally small, and they can make use of the small tree layer surrounding the perimeter of the garden.

Climbers common in Senegal include cucumber and squash. Other climbing plants that grow well in this climate and can be found hear but are not well known everywhere include water spinach, Malabar spinach, hanging yam, and pole beans.

Building Soil and Maintaining Soil Fertility Soil fertility refers to a soil’s base level of macro and micro nutrients as well as the soil’s ability to deliver those nutrients to plants through appropriate soil pH, adequate trace mineral content, and suitable soil structure. Due to climatic conditions such as extreme seasonality, harsh sunlight, and wind and water erosion, and due to poor land stewardship such as over grazing, deforestation, burning, and monocropping, most soils in Senegal have extremely poor soil fertility. In this section we will talk about ways to build fertile soil from pure sand and ways to maintain that soil fertility once it has been established.

Permanent Garden Beds In chapter three you learned about the double digging process. As you are aware, double-digging is one of the best ways to establish healthy soil, but it can also be a prohibitive amount of work if you have to do it in compacted soil season after season and year after year. Establishing permanent garden beds and clearly marking them so no one walks in them makes each additional double-digging that much easier. In general, a bed needs to be double-dug every season for the first year, once a year for the next two years, and then every 2nd or 3rd year after that. Once a bed has been adequately dug and amended for a number of years, a deep single dig and the addition of amendments is adequate to make plants healthy and productive.

Shape of Garden Beds We know that 1 meter wide garden beds make more efficient use of growing space, labor-time, and water than does row gardening. There are however several other bed shapes that have certain advantages over conventional meter wide level beds.

Raised beds – Raised beds are elevated above the surface of the path by 20-50cm or higher. Raised beds can be created by adding enough soil amendments that the surface of the bed is heightened, or by using bricks or rocks to create and reinforce the shape of the bed and then backfilling with soil and amendments. Raised beds tend to stay less compacted than other types of beds, do not flood during the rainy season improving the success of root crops at that time of year, and are easier on the back as you do not have to bend over as far when planting and weeding. However, raised beds tend to dry out more quickly than other types of beds during the dry season.

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Sunken Beds – Sunken beds are created by removing the layer of topsoil and setting it to the side. A 30-40cm layer of subsoil is then removed completely from the bed. The underlying subsoil is then loosened and amended and the topsoil is replaced and amended as if following standard doubledigging procedures. The surface of the finished bed should be 10-15cm below the surface of the pathway. Sunken beds are ideal for areas that are hot, dry, and extremely sandy. They retain moisture much better than raised beds, but tend to flood in the rainy season and are not ideal for root crops.

Keyhole beds – Keyhole beds are circular beds in the shape of a keyhole. The shape of the bed reduces path area significantly increasing total space efficiency. Keyhole beds are ideal for urban gardeners working with very small spaces such as courtyards. Keyhole beds are not convenient for large scale gardening as they present traffic flow problems when installed over a large area.

Crop Rotation All species have different nutrient needs and therefore have differing impacts on the soil. Lettuce will draw a different ration of NPK and micro nutrients than does tomato, bean, or carrot. If a single vegetable species is cultivated in the same location for multiple seasons the soil will quickly be depleted of particular nutrients.

Crop rotation is the practice of recording what has been in a given space each season and placing a different crop in that same space the following season.

Good crop rotation practices and the addition of organic matter to the soil between growing seasons will ensure the soil always has the nutrient load it needs to keep plants healthy.

There are a couple of different ways to think Heavy Feeders Givers Light Feeders about vegetable crop rotations. The first is the Basil Bean Beets three part crop rotation system. In the three part Broccoli Cowpea Bissap system you can think of plants as heavy feeders, Cabbage Lablab Carrots light feeders, and givers. Heavy feeders are Cilantro Moringa Dill Corn Garlic species that require large amounts of nitrogen Cucumbers Leek from the soil in order to produce. Light feeders Eggplant Okra are species that require only a very little amount Kale Onions of nitrogen from the soil in order to produce.

Kohlrabi Peppers Givers are species that actually give back nitrogen Lettuce Potatoes to the soil. Givers have symbiotic relationships Melon Radish with certain kinds of soil bacteria called Parsley Sweet Potato azotobacter (azote means nitrogen in French) that Squash Turnip help fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. This Tomato means two things, the giver does not need to use watermelon Water soil nitrogen to produce, and the excess Spinach atmospheric nitrogen that is fixed in the soil can become available to other plants. When planning seasonal plantings, the rotational order should be heavy feeders into givers into light feeders. With the addition of soil amendments between each growing season, and this crop rotation cycle, you can sustainably ensure happy healthy plants. When practicing crop rotation you must also take into account the families of the vegetables that you are rotating. Always try to follow a crop with a species from a different family. Generally members of different families are not susceptible to the same pests and diseases. For example, if you are practicing the three-part crop rotation system, you should not plant tomatoes (heavy feeders) after peppers (light feeders) because they are closely related and susceptible to the same pests and diseases.

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The second crop rotation system is a four part system. This system is not as good for soil nutrient cycling as is the three-part system, but it does have a couple of other advantages. The four-part system may be more appropriate as an extension tool if working with Senegalese populations with limited education in science or chemistry. Many rural Senegalese may have little understanding of nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium. It may be easier to extend the idea of rotating crops based on how they look. An easy and effective way to do this is to Beans Roots Fruits Leaves break plants up into four Bean Carrot Broccoli Basil categories, beans, roots, fruits, Cowpea Beet Corn Bissap and leaves. Additionally, the Lablab Garlic Cucumber Cabbage four-part system is slightly more Moringa Kohlrabi Eggplant Cilantro Onion Melon Dill effective as a pest prevention Potato Okra Kale system as most closely related Radish Pepper Leek crops are grouped within the Sweet Potato Squash Kohlrabi same category making it less Turnip Tomato Lettuce likely to cultivate large pest Watermelon Parsley populations if the system is Water Spinach strictly implemented. When implementing this system, plant beans into roots into fruits into leaves.

Cover Cropping and Green Manure Cover cropping is a system in which expendable plants are seeded with the purpose of protecting the soil from the sun after the main crop has been harvested. Green Manure is any cover crop that is turned back into the soil without going through a composting process. Plants that make excellent cover crops include cowpea, sweet potato, lablab bean, and velvet bean. As yet lablab and velvet bean are extremely uncommon in Senegal, but can be purchased online or ordered from ECHO. Cover cropping and green manure are techniques that are more commonly used in field crop production; however, there are some uses in the garden.

Rainy season soil protection – Many gardeners in Senegal do not grow vegetables during the rainy season because they are focusing on field crop production. Typically gardens are left to over grow with weeds and grasses and then cleared and burned before the cold season vegetable production begins. The act of clearing and burning greatly reduces the fertility of garden soil over time. Planting a cover crop in the garden area after the first few rains can help suppress persistent weeds and grasses, and can be used for composting material or turned into the soil as green manure.

Cold season crop rotation – If the garden is large enough and not every bed needs to be used for production, it is a good idea to use the giver phase of the crop rotation cycle for cover cropping and green manure. Maintain cover crops through the growing season in the selected beds and let them die when halting production before the hot season. Leave the dry organic matter on the soil surface through the hot season, and then compost it or work it directly into the soil at the beginning of the rainy season.

Water Harvesting and Soil Erosion Control Another way to build soil and improve the overall health of an agricultural space is through water harvesting and soil erosion control. In Senegal, many soils are poor due to continual loss of topsoil from wind and water erosion. If these effects can be mitigated, soil can be built over time passively instead of using relatively labor intensive techniques such as composting and the addition of soil amendments. The easiest and most effective way to stabilize and build soil as well as catch and sink rain water is through

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the installment of earthworks. Earthworks are permeable mounds or depressions that work to capture water and windblown organic matter, and to stabilize soils within a particular watershed. A watershed is any rain catchment area measured from the crest to the base of the catchment area.

Why Build Earthworks?

Maximize water absorption on a landscape – There is no such thing as flat land. Even on land that appears to have no slope, there will be water flow when it rains. Earthworks help to slow that water and sink it in places that surrounding vegetation can use it.

Control and direct the flow of water – Rains in Senegal are torrential. Sometimes there is simply too much water for a landscape to hold. Earthworks can be used to direct the flow of water to places that need it more without running the risk of creating erosion channels that will damage an agricultural space.

Capture leaf litter and windblown organic material – Along with capturing water, earthworks also capture leaf litter and other windblown organic material. As these materials break down they create a rich layer of topsoil that feeds surrounding vegetation.

Stabilize sloped land – Significantly sloped land is more vulnerable to erosion and topsoil loss than relatively flat land. Earthworks can help rehabilitate sloped land so that it can still be used for agricultural purposes.

Berms and Swales Berms and swales are the most common types of earthworks you will use in the field. A berm is a long low mound of earth laid out dead level on the down-slope side of a swale. Conversely, a swale is a long, shallow trench laid out dead level on the up-slope side of a berm. Berms and swales allow water to enter and remain in the landscape more evenly, giving human control over absorption points. There are three commonly used types of berms and swales.

Standard berm and swale – A standard berm and swale is a long, low berm that snakes across the contour of a landscape. Standard berms and swales allow for the most uniform collection of organic material and are commonly used in fields in combination with alley cropping lines. Standard berms and swales are perfect for using as a guide for leveling garden beds or plowing on contour. Use standard berms and swales in areas with limited perennial vegetation, or stagger them around desired permanent plantings such as fruit trees. Standard berms and swales are also perfect for protecting gardens from sheet flow by placing them on the up-slope side of the garden.

Boomerang berm – A boomerang berm is a semi-circle or half-moon shaped berm that is placed around an established tree. The purpose of a boomerang berm is to capture water specifically within the root zone of a single planting. Boomerang berms can be established in series so that the overflow from one boomerang berm descends into the catchment area of a downslope boomerang berm.

Diversion swales – A diversion swale is a berm and swale laid out slightly off contour, designed to slow the flow of water and channel it to a more desirable location. Diversion swales are useful in mitigating flood waters and directing excess water to areas that can hold it better or need it more. Diversion swales can also be used to direct contaminated water off-site. This can be particularly useful for urban gardeners who find there only gardening location down-slope of a garbage dump or auto mechanic.

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Basins Basins are depressions or bowls in the soil that catch water. Basins are often used to collect water for a single planting in the center or for multiple plantings that have been placed around the edges.

Infiltration basin – An infiltration basin is a shallow, level bottomed depression that allows water to enter from multiple sides.

Infiltration basins are generally used on level ground or at the very bottom of a slope. Infiltration basins are commonly used to collect water around a single planting such as a fruit tree or used as garden bed, in the case of sunken beds.

Catchment basins – A catchment basin, also known as a cuvette, is a shallow depression in a level landscape completely surrounded by a berm. Catchment basins are designed both to hold human delivered irrigation and to prevent excess rain water from drowning a flood sensitive planting.

Zhai holes – Zhai holes are small, shallow depressions used in series for planting vegetables of field crops in conservation farming schemes. They are typically only 10-15cm deep and 20-25cm in diameter. They are heavily amended before planting and are useful in uniformly concentrating small amounts of rain water around each individual plant.

Terraces Terraces are flat shelves of soil built parallel to the contour of a slope with a berm placed along the down-slope edge. Terraces are used on sloped land where growing space is limited and intensive cultivation of annual crops is desired. Terraces are the most vulnerable of all of the earthworks to water erosion and blow-outs and must only be installed in areas where there is human control over the entire water shed.

Erosion Channel Mitigation Erosion channels are areas where water flow concentrates to form erosive tracks. If left un-checked erosion channels can be responsible for considerable topsoil loss and destruction of agricultural land.

Check Dams – A check dam is a low, earthen dam built inside an erosion track perpendicular to the direction of flow. Check dams are not designed to capture and hold all water that flows into its catchment area. Rather, they are designed to slow the flow of water within an erosion channel and allow excess water to leave while remaining inside the original flow track. For check dams to be successful they must be planted with thick rooted vegetation such as Vetiver grass or bamboo to prevent dam breaches and blow out further down the erosion channel.

Stone bunds – A stone bund is a dry-stacked (no cement involved), permeable stone wall built inside an erosion track perpendicular to the direction of flow. Stone bunds are intended to be used in significant erosion channels where standard check dams might blowout from the force of water.

Stone bunds slow water down and catch organic matter, but allow water to permeate slowly. In time the portion of the erosion channel on the up-slope side of the stone bund will back fill resulting in dark, rich soil that can nourish surrounding plantings.

Gabions – A gabion is similar to a stone bund, however the rocks are wrapped in wire to hold them together. Gabions are less susceptible to blow-outs than stone bunds, but are much more expensive and generally more challenging to install.

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Stabilizing Earthworks Even the best built earthworks still need to be stabilized. If earthworks are not properly maintained they run a chance of blowing out within their first rainy season. There are three primary ways to stabilize earthworks.

Spillways – A spillway is a reinforced controlled overflow route designed to allow excess water out of an earthwork. Spillways are important for a number of reasons. If water breaches an earthwork in an unintended location it runs the risk of blowing out the entire earthwork. Spillways are deliberately reinforced with stones or bricks to facilitate the flow of water. The location of the spillway allows you to ensure that water is traveling in the direction you desire. Spillways can be staggered to aid in the slowing and spread of water.

Mulching – mulching swales or allowing mulch to accumulate from windblown organic matter is not just good for the soil. Mulch in the swales also slows the impact of water coming from up-slope and reduces the stress of water impact on the earthwork.

Planting – Plantings are extremely important to stabilizing earthworks. Earthworks are never secure until plant roots have fully secured them. Plantings will vary widely depending on the size, location, and purpose of the earthwork, and can include anything from annual vegetables to large fruit trees such as mango or tamarind. Depending on the situation and the specie of vegetation, it may be planted in the swales, on the berms, or some combination of both.

Useful Earthworks Tools All of the tools needed to build earthworks can be easily purchased or assembled from free materials. Before extending earthworks techniques to your community assess the tools that they have easy access to. Only extend tools and techniques that can be easily obtained at site.

A-frame – An A-frame is a simple leveling tool that can be built out of sticks, string, and a rock or bottle. The feet can be walked across the landscape in order to find a contour line, or used to level the surface of a boomerang berm or check dam.

Slope finder – A slope finder is a simple tool that allows you to assess the slope of the landscape so you can determine whether or not certain types of earthworks are appropriate. It consists of a 1 meter long stick, 3 meters of rope, and a mason’s level.

Rope and level – When installing boomerang berms around trees, or a series of check dams within an erosion channel, a rope and mason’s level is important to determine that spillways have been set in appropriate places.

Wooden stakes – Wooden stakes are useful in marking contour lines and level points.

Principles of Successful Earthworks There are several principles you should keep in mind when planning and implementing earthworks. Strict adherence to these principles will ensure that the work you have put in will be long lasting and to the greatest benefit.

Begin with long and thoughtful observation – As with all aspects of gardening, observation is the key to success. Take the time to observe where water flows on the landscape. Look for obvious flow in the rainy season. In the dry season look for indicators of where water flows and settles on the landscape. Typically areas with greater flow will be apparent because of lighter colored sandier soils and limited vegetation, or even small gullies and erosion channels. Areas where water concentrates will be indicated by darker soils and thicker vegetation.

Start at the top of the landscape and work your way down – The flow of water is the most forceful at the bottom of a slope. If you start low on a landscape the chances of your earthworks being blown out by flood waters is much greater than if you start at the very top. If you have started at the top and worked your way down and the earthworks have been implemented properly, the amount of surface flow will be minimal at the bottom of the slope and your earthworks will be secure.

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Start small and simple and expand from there – Do not tackle an entire field right from the beginning. Identify an area where intervention will be easily achieved and start there. Once you are comfortable with the techniques and your work partners have been convinced that they are worth the time and energy, start to expand.

Slow, spread, and sink the flow of water – Fast water is destructive. Do everything you can to slow it down and spread it out so that the largest possible footprint can take advantage of that water. Once you have slowed it down and spread it out, create earthworks that will capture and sink it.

Mix, match, and innovate – The earthworks techniques you have learned about are not mutually exclusive. Any earthwork technique can be used in conjunction with any other earthwork technique.

Don’t be afraid to try new things or tweak designs to fit your particular site and situation.

Always plan an overflow route and manage that overflow as a resource – Even the best made earthworks will overflow sometimes. Make sure each of your earthworks has a spillway. Make sure that each spillway will direct overflow to an area that can also slow, spread, and sink that water.

Continually reassess your earthworks and make changes as necessary - You won’t always get everything right the first time around. Sometimes earthworks erode before vegetation has time to secure them. Make changes when you think you need to, and repair earthworks before the blow out completely.

Integrated Agroforestry Techniques Nothing grows well in a desert. As you learned in chapter 1 deforestation is one of the major detriments to the Senegalese environment and its agricultural systems. Agroforestry provides a set of specific skills and techniques that use trees to create beneficial micro-climates or provide protection for agricultural systems. The PC Senegal agroforestry manual goes into great detail on agroforestry techniques and appropriate species. In this manual we will discuss just a few techniques and species that are highly useful in the garden. For more information please consult the PC Senegal agroforestry manual.

Appropriate Agroforestry Techniques for the Garden Live fencing – Live fencing is the planting of trees along the perimeter of an agricultural space that provides protection from human and livestock traffic. o Thorny hedge – A thorny hedge is a type of live fencing that uses tightly spaced thorny tree species to weave a thick hedge. Thorny hedges are perhaps the best protection against livestock, but can be vulnerable to grazing while they are still establishing. Generally speaking thorny hedges should be protected by chain-link or millet stalk fencing while being established. o Impenetrable barrier – An impenetrable barrier is a type of live fencing system that uses tree species that grow very closely together, preventing the passing of human and livestock traffic. Impenetrable barrier species are not thorny. Instead they rely on unpalatable milky sap to deter livestock. While established impenetrable barriers tend not to be as effective at livestock deterrent as thorny hedges, their unpalatability makes them easier to establish without additional protection in the early stages. o Live fence posts – Live fence posts are quickly growing, stiff-trunked tree species planted at 1.5 to 2 meters to form living posts for non-living fencing material such as chain-link, chicken wire, or millet stalks.

Alley cropping – Alley cropping is an agroforestry technique that plants lines of beneficial tree species within an agricultural space. Alley cropping builds soil through falling leaf litter and nitrogen fixation, creates a beneficial micro-climate for garden vegetables, can be used to organize and demarcate garden space, and can provide a wide host of secondary products such as food, animal fodder, firewood, and pole wood.

Windbreaks – A windbreak is an agroforestry technique that uses lines of tree species planted on the windward side of an agricultural space to protect it from harsh, desiccating winds. For many parts of the country, windbreaks are critical to establishing a healthy and productive garden space.

Interspersed trees – Most vegetables in Senegal prefer dappled shade over full sun. Interspersing nitrogen fixing or fruit bearing trees within a garden space helps to create the ideal micro-climate for garden vegetables.

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Appropriate Tree Species for the Garden As mentioned above, there are many useful tree species available in Senegal. We encourage you to study the PC Senegal Agroforestry manual before deciding on a particular specie or technique. In this manual we mention only the species that are the most useful in a garden setting.

Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) – Leucaena is an extremely good nitrogen fixer, is ideal for live fence posts, alley cropping, and creates very good dappled shade when interspersed in the garden.

Leucaena also makes excellent firewood and charcoal, and is an excellent source of animal fodder for ruminants such as goats, sheep, and cows. No more than 10% of an animal’s diet should consist of leucaena as it may become toxic in too high a proportion.

Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan) – Pigeon pea is an excellent nitrogen fixer making it ideal for alley cropping, produces edible dry beans similar to cowpea, is a highly nutritious animal fodder, and provides dappled shade when interspersed in the garden.

Moringa (Moringa olifera) – Moringa has many uses in the garden. It can be grown in intensive beds as a garden vegetable, or as a standalone interspersed tree to provide dappled shade. Moringa is very useful for both live fence posts and alley cropping. The leaves, flowers, seeds, and young seed pods are edible and highly nutritious.

China Pride (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) – China pride is a small ornamental bush with bright, attractive flowers. China pride fixes nitrogen, creates dappled shade, and attracts predatory insects and pollinators to the garden.

Acacia Nilotica – Acacia Nilotica is a fast growing thorny species ideal for thorny hedges.

Prosopis juliflora – Prosopis juliflora is a fast growing thorny species ideal for thorny hedges.

Euphorbia balsamifera – Euphorbia is an unpalatable species ideal for impenetrable barriers.

Jatropha curcas – Jatropha is an unpalatable species ideal for impenetrable barriers. The seeds are high in oil content and if grown on a large scale, can be processed into biofuels.

Guava – Guava is a medium sized fruit tree that grows well on the perimeter of garden areas.

Papaya – Papaya is a quickly producing fruit tree that works well interspersed in gardens. It provides dappled shade, and the roots can act as trap crops for root-knot nematodes.

Banana – Banana can be a good fruit tree for the garden. Banana can be planted near a water spigot, well, or basin to take advantage of spilled water, or placed in a downslope swale to take advantage of rainy season runoff. Banana should not be placed in the middle of garden beds as the wide leaves create dense shade. Banana requires on average 20 liters of water a day so water cost should be taken into account before planting.

Pomegranate – Pomegranate is a fruiting bush that produces delicious fruit and provides light, dappled shade to the garden.

Vegetable Care and Maintenance After planting, vegetables need care and maintenance to ensure a bountiful harvest. Much of the specific information you will need on care and maintenance can be found in the vegetable specific pages at the end of this manual. In this section we will talk about several basic techniques that are applicable to a wide variety of garden vegetables.

Vegetable Support Many vegetables, especially those in the Solanaceae family become top heavy when producing fruit and begin to fall over. Contact with the soil surface can create a wide variety of problems for stems, leaves, and fruits, including soil-borne insect infestation and fungal attack. Prevent this from happening by providing physical support to your vegetable crops.

Staking – Staking is the simplest and cheapest form of support. Simply cut a stick to an appropriate height, taking into consideration the depth of the garden bed, and place it in the soil next to the plant being supported. Use a strip of cloth (not string or cord as it might damage the sensitive plant stems) to tie the plant to the stake. As the plant grows, add ties up the stake. Staking is cheap and easy, but stakes are not the most reliable as they may rot or be eaten by termites before the plant finishes producing.

Caging – Caging is ideal for plants such as tomatoes or eggplant. A metal cage – usually made of rebar - is placed around the plant when it is young. The plant then grows up through the cage which

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provides support at all stages of growth. Caging is extremely useful, but the material costs may be prohibitive to many vegetable gardeners.

Trellising – Trellising is ideal for climbing vegetables such as cucumber, zucchini, squash, and pole bean, and in some instances a very good technique for other vegetables such as tomato and eggplant. o Grid trellis – Create a grid trellis by placing metal bars along the edge of the garden bed at 1m spacing. 25cm from the ground run cord back and forth between the bars until you have made a horizontal, grid-shaped web. Repeat this at 50cm, 75cm, and 1m in height as necessary. As plants grow, they will grow up through the webbing, using it for support. o Teepee trellis – Teepee trellising is ideal for cucurbits. Tie cord to the top of a long metal bar.

Make sure the cord is long enough that it will reach the edges of the bed once the bar has been placed in the center. Tie as many cords as there are cucurbits planted along the outside of the bed – generally about 4 on each side. Once the bar has been sunken into the ground, use wooden stakes to secure the cords at the base of the young cucumber plants. The cucumbers will vine up the trellis creating a teepee like effect. o Wall trellis – If you have a wall in a good, sunny location, usually north or east facing, you can use the wall as the trellis. Simply tack wall nails into the wall at about 2m in height. Run cord from the wall nails to the ground at the base of the wall. Plant cucurbits and watch them climb the cords. This form of terracing can also add an attractive ornamental quality to courtyards.

Integrated Pest Management Pests and diseases are the surest headache you will have in the garden. So much so that we are in the process of creating an entire manual on integrated pest management. That said, many pest management techniques are reactionary. If you follow the advice listed in this gardening manual, vegetables will often be healthy enough that many pests will not present a problem.

Fertilizers In chapter two you learned about plant nutrient needs and in chapter three you learned about the soil amendments that are capable of providing those nutrients to plants. Soil amendments are best added to the soil before plants are seeded or transplanted. But sometimes in a vegetable’s life cycle it needs a little extra boost of nutrition to produce stronger stems, and healthier leaves and fruits. That is where fertilizer comes in. Unlike soil amendments, fertilizers do not actually add to a soil’s structure or long term fertility.

Fertilizers are intended to be used as quick additions of nutrients used in conjunction with, not as a substitute for soil amendments. Fertilizers should always be used with care as adding too much at once can actually deplete soil organic matter, reducing long term soil fertility, while simultaneously polluting local waterways and drinking water.

Organic Fertilizer In this section we will talk about two different classifications of fertilizers, organic fertilizers and chemical fertilizers. Organic fertilizers as we will discuss them in this manual are any water soluble nutrient sources that are derived from easily obtainable materials. Organic fertilizers tend to be easily produced, low impact fertilizers that can give plants a little extra boost without running the risk of polluting local water systems or damaging soil ecology.

Compost and Manure Tea Compost and Manure teas are to gardens as Gatorade is to PCVs; a refreshing drink that rejuvenates and adds that extra boost needed to make it through the next phase in the growth cycle. Organic fertilizer is easy to make and the perfect answer to those women's group presidents who are always asking you for engrais (chemical fertilizer). Most importantly, it really works. When you apply it to your field, you will notice a remarkable invigoration of the plants. There are two ways to make compost and manure teas.

The aerobic method introduces oxygen into the brewing process retaining more nutrients and adding beneficial macrobiotics to the solution, but it’s a little more work than the anaerobic method. The Anaerobic method is simple, and requires less work, but results in a tea that is less beneficial to plants.

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You are the judge of your communities’ level of commitment, so here are a couple of recipes for organic compost or manure tea.

The Aerobic Method (Better Product, More Work) Put a large, empty barrel out in the garden in the sunlight.

Take an empty rice sack, an old piece of cloth, or an old mosquito net (not a new, treated, malaria no more distributed net! Those are for the children!) and fill it with 4kgs of compost or well-aged manure.

Put in a few big rocks to weigh it down and then tie the bundle shut.

Tie a rope to the end of the bundle. It should be long enough to dangle over the edge of the barrel.

Place it in the barrel. Fill the barrel with water until the sack is submerged (not until the barrel is completely full!)

Every day, use the rope to lift the sack up and down in the water to create aeration. If you don’t see air bubbles you aren’t doing it vigorously enough.

After 2 weeks it should be ready to use.

Mix 1 part tea to 4 parts water and apply to the garden.

The Anaerobic Method (Weaker Product, Less Work) 1. Put a large, empty barrel out in the garden in the sunlight.

2. Take an empty rice sack, an old piece of cloth, or an old mosquito net (not a new, treated, malaria no more distributed net! Those are for the children!) and fill it with 2kgs of compost or well-aged manure.

3. Put in a few big rocks to weigh it down and then tie the bundle shut.

4. Place it in the barrel. Fill the barrel with water until the sack is submerged (not until the barrel is completely full.)

5. Place as tight a fitting lid as possible on the container.

6. Wait 2 weeks and open the lid (take shallow breaths because it will be stinky!)

7. Add 4 parts water to 1 part tea.

8. Stir.

9. Apply to the garden.

Using Compost and Manure Tea With the aerobic method, the tea should never smell terrible. With the anaerobic method it will smell terrible. Either way it is working, and either way the final product will be pretty strong. Here are some helpful tips for using Compost or Manure Teas in the garden: One barrel will cover roughly a 20 x 20 m2 area.

Avoid getting the tea on plant leaves while watering. This is powerful stuff, and the solution can actually give the leaves nitrogen burns.

Some PCVs have reported successful use of the tea when preparing holes for transplanting, but you should not use it to water vegetable nurseries or fresh transplants; give them 2 weeks or so to get established.

Fresh manure can be a little too potent given the recipes above. It’s always better to use compost or aged manure over fresh manure.

When using a new batch of tea, apply it to a small patch of vegetables before applying it to the entire garden. Wait 2 days, and if there are no adverse effects to the test plants, apply the tea to the entire garden.

Finished compost or manure tea can be added directly to drip irrigation tanks for easier fertilization.

Seaweed Tea For those of you near an ocean, you can also make seaweed tea. Tests at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute showed that plants in soil sprayed with a seaweed solution had 67 percent to 175 percent more roots than those in untreated soil. How to make it: 1. Soak 1kg kelp in fresh water for 3 days.

2. Change the water daily to remove the salt content.

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3.

4.

5.

6.

Once the salt is removed, put the kelp in a barrel.

Fill the barrel with water until the kelp is submerged.

Stir the solution twice daily for 4 days.

Strain and dilute – 1 part kelp liquid to 2 parts water.

Chemical Fertilizer Chemical fertilizer as we will discuss it in this manual refers to any manufactured industrial fertilizer.

While the use of chemical fertilizer has come under increased scrutiny by the organic food movement in the United States, it remains in heavy usage by the majority of large scale industrial agricultural. In Senegal, chemical fertilizer (known locally as engrais) is widely known and desired by gardeners and farmers, but remains less widely used than in the United States. The use of chemical fertilizers creates a number of long term problems for the soils and ecosystems in which it is used, however it is important to learn how to use it properly and teach its safe usage when working with community partners who already use it.

Benefits of Chemical Fertilizer High nutrient content – Chemical fertilizers are specifically designed to pack a punch. The nutrient content of chemical fertilizers is much higher per kilogram than in organic fertilizers. This allows for easier application when applying fertilizer to a large area of land.

Works fast – Most chemical fertilizers are water soluble, allowing plant roots to absorb nutrients quickly when they are applied to soil. It is therefore useful to boost growth at specific points in a plant’s life cycle, primarily midway through the vegetative stage and again during the beginning of the flowering stage.

Reliable nutrient contents – Unlike organic soil amendments and fertilizers, whose nutrient contents are difficult to determine without tests that are widely unavailable in Senegal, chemical fertilizers are manufactured to have specific nutrient content and known dosage requirements. This allows for more precise application of nutrients.

Increased yields – Perhaps the most attractive aspect of chemical fertilizers is the increase in vegetable output. The first few years that chemical fertilizer is applied to an area, crop yields can increase dramatically, producing increased income for farmers and gardeners.

Drawbacks of Chemical Fertilizers Increased cost – Unlike organic amendments and fertilizers, which are predominantly free, chemical fertilizers cost money. For many Senegalese gardeners operating on a small scale, the increased yield obtained from the use of chemical fertilizer does not necessarily compensate for the initial purchase of the fertilizer.

Loss of soil organic matter – When chemical fertilizer is applied to the soil, soil microbial life gets supercharged. This hyperactive microbial life is one of the main reasons why plants are able to absorb the nutrients of chemical fertilizers so well. However, while stimulated, the soil microbiotics also start searching for carbonaceous material to consume. In the soil landscape, carbon is found in the form of organic material. As soil organic content is increasingly depleted by these bacteria, overall soil fertility diminishes. Soil that contains little organic matter does not respond as well to the application of fertilizer as soil that is rich in organic matter. Over time, as the soil becomes lifeless, more and more fertilizer needs to be applied to gain the same results, effectively creating soil chemical dependency.

Once the soil is dead, there is often little option but to continue using large quantities of chemical fertilizer, or begin the lengthy and labor intensive process of reintroducing large quantities of organic matter to the soil.

Wide spread pollution and ecosystem damage – Because chemical fertilizers are water soluble, what is not absorbed by soil organic matter during application is washed out of topsoil into subsoils, and eventually pollutes ground water tables. Water pollution is worsened dramatically by over fertilization. In Senegal, where gardeners and farmers are largely unaware of appropriate dosages, over fertilization is common. As the fertilizer content (primarily Nitrogen) builds in the ground water table, it eventually drains into wells and river systems. Nitrogen pollution in wells can lead to a host of human health concerns, and nitrogen pollution in rivers can have a widespread impact on the entire river (and eventually ocean) ecosystem, including fish stock. In a country such as Senegal

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where one of the major protein sources is river and ocean fish, it is critical that fish stocks and ultimately food security are not damaged due to careless agricultural practices intended to increase vegetable and grain yields.

Vegetable Breeding and Seed Saving Around the world people have saved vegetable seed since the advent of agriculture. This commonplace practice is responsible for the galaxy of vegetable varieties we have today. And yet globally, there are fewer commonly grown vegetable varieties than there were even a hundred years ago. In the contemporary developed world many people garden only as a hobby, and large-scale agriculture relies on a select few improved variety vegetables that are mass produced on large-scale seed production farms.

Traditionally in Senegal farmers commonly save seed for field crops such as corn, millet, sorghum, rice, peanut, and fonyo, and only a very few vegetables including okra, bissap, bitter tomato, and hot pepper.

As yet, the vast majority of Senegalese farmers and gardeners are unaware that reliable seed can be saved from common market vegetables such as lettuce, tomato, eggplant, cabbage, radish, turnip, and many more.

Why Save Vegetable Seed and Breed Vegetable Varieties?

Cut costs – It’s hard to make a living on agriculture in Senegal. Any means to cut costs is welcome. If properly stored, self-saved seed is often more reliable than store-purchased seed and costs little to no money to produce once the first generation of seed has been purchased.

Creation of local varieties – Historically, each micro-bio region across the globe could claim its own host of heirloom vegetable varieties because every gardener saved their own seed. As pertains to this gardening manual an heirloom variety is any variety of vegetable that has been saved for multiple generations and exhibits traits different from varieties available for purchase from large seed companies. Heirloom varieties had evolved over time to be highly suitable to local climatic and ecological conditions exhibiting tolerance to floods, draughts, and specific pest attacks depending on the threats common to the region. Today in Senegal most of the vegetable seed available for purchase has been bred by large seed companies for cultivation in the most common vegetable producing areas of Senegal such as the Thies region and the Niayes. These varieties often perform poorly in other parts of the country where climatic conditions vary considerably. By saving seed year after year, local farmers can begin to create their own heirloom varieties that will produce reliably for generations to come.

Creation of pest and disease resistant varieties – In the same way that vegetables can be bred to tolerate climatic conditions they can be bred for specific pest and disease resistance.

Creation of varieties with marketable traits – Different markets desire different qualities in their produce. Vegetables can be bred over time to produce larger or smaller fruits, different colored leaves, different flavor, or different shapes that are more desirable to the market than commonplace vegetables.

Seed Selection The creation of new vegetable varieties in most cases is fairly simple. As plants in the garden grow, look for desirable traits such as climatic tolerance, general vigor, marketable traits, or specific pest or disease tolerance. Once a plant with a desirable trait has been identified, use a colored piece of yarn or string to mark the plant or fruit from which you would like to save seed. Alert anyone else working in the garden that anything marked with that kind of string is intended for seed saving. Once the seed is mature, harvest it, process it, and save it. For specific seed selection instructions refer to the vegetable specific pages at the end of this manual.

When selecting seed to be saved, be sure to save seed from the largest number of plants with desirable traits as possible. Saving seed for future crops from a single crop may present future genetic diversity problems such as weakness to particular viruses.

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Botanical Classifications In each vegetable specific page at the end of this manual you will find the particular vegetable’s family, genus, and species. Family, genus, and species are hierarchical botanical classifications that group plants into related categories. Family, genus, and species are always listed in Latin. Latin allows us to identify plants without confusion across continents and languages. On the vegetable specific pages you will also find the common names in English, French, and in the local languages when available.

Botanical names of vegetables are as important to gardeners as are botanical names of trees to agroforestry volunteers.

Botanical names help us keep plant relationships organized and provide fundamental information for both integrated pest management and vegetable breeding. Families are the broadest grouping we will discuss in this manual. Members of the same family are not always very closely related, but often share similar qualities and are susceptible to the same pests and diseases. Members of the same genus are much more closely related and generally are anatomically similar. It is rare that members of the same genus can interbreed, but it can sometimes occur. Members of the same species are so closely related that they easily interbreed, trading traits to create new varieties. Varieties or cultivars are members of the same species that bear slightly different characteristics, but can easily cross. The most striking example of botanical classification in the garden is the Brassicaceae family which contains a great number of common garden vegetables, many of which are in the same genus, or are even cultivars of the same species. For example, many of us think of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, kale, and kohlrabi as distinctly different vegetables. However, they are all members of the same species and can be crossbred to form new varieties.

Botanical Classification Family – Brassicaceae o Genus – Armoracia Species – rusticana Variety – Horseradish o Genus – Brassica Species – juncea Variety – Mustard Greens Species – Napus Variety – Rutabaga Variety – Siberian Kale Variety – Canola (Rape Seed) Species – oleracea Variety – Broccoli Variety – Brussels Sprouts Variety – Cabbage Variety – Cauliflower Variety – Collards Variety – Kale Variety – Kohlrabi Variety – Romanesco Species – rapa Variety – Chinese Cabbage Variety – Chinese Mustard Variety – Turnip o Genus – Eruca Species – sativa Variety – Arugula (rocket) o Genus – Raphanus Species – sativus Variety – French Radish Variety – Daikon Radish o Genus – Wassabia Species – japonica Variety - Wassabi

Types of Flowers In chapter 2 you learned about basic plant anatomy. In this section we will go into further depth on flower anatomy as it will help with the vegetable breeding process. There are two types of flowers we will discuss here, perfect flowers and imperfect flowers. Perfect flowers are flowers that contain both male and female reproductive parts within the same flower. Imperfect flowers are flowers that contain only male reproductive parts or female reproductive parts. A plant will have either perfect flowers or imperfect flowers, but never both. For example, every flower on a tomato plant will be a perfect flower, while every flower on a cucumber plant will be an imperfect flower.

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Pollination The ovaries of all sexually reproductive vegetables must be Perfect Flowers Imperfect Flowers pollinated before they will bear fruit and set seed. The type of Arugula Cucumber plant and whether it has perfect or imperfect flowers will Basil Gourd determine the kind of vector necessary to achieve pollination.

Bean Luffa Bitter Tomato Melon Self-pollinated plants – Most vegetables that contain Broccoli Squash perfect flowers are self-pollinating. The flowers of these Cabbage Zucchini vegetables contain functional male and female parts Cauliflower within the same flower. Pollination occurs when pollen Celery from the anther falls into the stigma and makes its way Cilantro into the ovary. This process is encouraged by any Dill movement to the flower including wind and insect Eggplant agitation. Self-pollinating plants tend to be the easiest Hibiscus types of vegetables to save pure seed, as there is little risk Kale of wind or insect crossing from neighboring species. Not Lentil Lettuce all plants with perfect flowers are self-pollinating.

Okra Members of the Brassicaceae family for instance have Onion perfect flowers but are self-incompatible, requiring Parsley insects to carry pollen to the flowers of neighboring Pepper plants.

Purslane Insect-pollinated plants Vegetables with imperfect Tomato flowers and some vegetables with perfect flowers such as Water Spinach members of the Brassicaceae family require insects to carry pollen from one flower to another. Bees, butterflies, flies, and certain types of wasps carry pollen from plant to plant as they visit flowers.

Wind-pollinated plants – Wind-pollination is common among field crops such as corn, millet, rice, and sorghum. These crops have extremely light pollen that is easily blown from crop to crop. Windpollination is uncommon in vegetable crops.

Hand-Pollination – Sometimes hand pollination is necessary to achieve pollination when pollinator populations are low, hybridization is desired, or varietal purity needs to be achieved. Handpollination is most commonly practiced on vegetable crops with imperfect flowers.

Varietal Purity Varietal purity is necessary for reliable seed saving. You don’t want to spend the time and energy saving seed unless you are certain that the seed being saved will retain the traits that you had been saving for.

Some vegetables such as the cucurbits and Brassicaceae run very high risk of cross-pollination with neighboring plants because they require insect pollination. However, even self-pollinating plants with

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perfect flowers can cross breed through insect-pollination. There are several measures you can take to ensure that seed will breed true to the traits you have selected for.

Isolation Distance – The lowest input way to guarantee varietal purity is through physical distance.

Insects and windblown pollen can only travel so far. In Senegal, this form of control can be challenging as agricultural areas are often very small. However, if you are growing a crop that is rare in Senegal and you are reasonably certain no neighbors are growing it; you may not need to do anything to ensure varietal purity.

Bagging – Bagging is an easy form of purity control for self-pollinating, self-compatible plants such as tomato, eggplant, bitter tomato, pepper, okra, hibiscus, and many others. To ensure insect crosspollination does not occur, place a small mesh bag over a fruit set BEFORE the flowers begin to open.

Leave the bag over the flower set for several days. Remove the mesh bag as soon as you see the fruits starting to form. Use a brightly colored string to mark the flower set for later harvest and seed saving.

Hand-pollination – Hand-pollination is the act of physically transferring pollen from the anther of a male flower to the stigma and ovary of a female flower. For cucurbits hand pollination is the easiest way to guarantee varietal purity.

1. Locate a female flower the evening before it begins to open and gently tape the petals shut so they cannot open on their own. This will prevent unwanted insect-pollination before you are able to hand-pollinate.

2. The following day, gently remove the tape allowing the flower to open.

3. Remove a male flower from a desired plant and gently pull off the petals being careful not to damage the stamen within.

4. Gently rub the tip of the anther around the stigma of the female flower allowing pollen to enter the ovary.

5. Once you have pollinated the female flower re-tape the petals shut preventing further insect borne pollination.

6. Mark the pollinated fruit set with a brightly colored piece of string to indicate to everyone working in the garden that that fruit is intended for seed.

7. In a few days’ time the petals will wither and fall off along with the tape.

Hybrid Seed Not all seed can be reliably saved from a parent plant. A hybrid variety is a cultivar of a given vegetable that has been selectively hand crossed to achieve particular favorable traits. Typically hybridization occurs with self-compatible, self-pollinating plants. Because of the relatively high level of genetic diversity between the two parent plants there is no guarantee that the second generation of seed will have the same genetic characteristics as the mother plant. Frequently undesirable traits from the grandparent generation will re-emerge. A full growing season may be lost before any problems with varietal purity have been identified. It is recommended that you never attempt to save seed from hybrid vegetables.

Hybrid vegetables can easily be identified in seed stores. They will read F-1, F-2, H-1 or H-2 on the seed packet. If one of these codes is not printed on the package, you can be sure that the seed is not hybrid and can be reliably saved.

Seed Processing and Storage Not all vegetable seed is processed the same way. See the vegetable specific pages for specific information on vegetable seed processing and storage.

Extending Vegetable Breeding and Seed Saving in Senegal As mentioned at the beginning of this section, in Senegal seed is commonly saved for field crops and a few of the most traditional vegetables. Many growers are unaware that seed can be saved from many of the new-comer vegetables such as lettuce, tomato, eggplant, green pepper, etc. Convincing gardeners not to harvest the best and the brightest of a particular crop can be challenging, but once they realize how cheap and easy seed saving actually is, most growers are excited to practice it year after year.

Growers need not fully understand the importance of global varietal diversification or the need to create new heirloom varieties. Simply by saving seed each season there will be new evolutions and new varieties in the making.

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When extending breeding and seed saving to Senegalese work partners, a good plant to start with is lettuce. Lettuce is a short-cycle, self-compatible plant with perfect flowers and the seed is particularly easy to harvest. A good strategy is to plant some lettuce with enough time that it will set seed around the same time that okra and bitter tomato is maturing. Because seed saving for okra and bitter tomato is traditional and widespread, an easy comparison can be made between letting certain okra plants go to seed and letting certain lettuce plants go to seed.

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5.

Urban Gardening

Microgardening and Urban Populations The majority of gardening in Senegal is traditional, in-ground gardening. However, as the Senegalese population becomes increasingly urbanized there is a greater need and desire to produce food on a small, home scale. In many contexts there is still in-ground space available even in urban courtyards, however, more and more commonly courtyards are paved, or the only outdoor access is on rooftops or balconies.

Microgardening refers to any agricultural method that allows people to grow in marginal or otherwise unusable spaces. In general, the following methods should only be used if in-ground space is unavailable or if the specific technique offers a particular benefit that in-ground gardening does not. Microgardening is not intended to satisfy the entirety of an urban population’s food needs, but is intended to augment nutrition and income. Because of this, there are particular types of crops that are ideal for micro gardening, such as herbs and spices that are used in small quantities and can be used at home or sold to neighbors, and productive vegetable crops that are expensive to buy or are hard to find in the market because of transportation difficulties.

Appropriate Situations for Container Gardening In-ground space is unavailable – Container gardening is appropriate for situations when the only outdoor space is on rooftops and balconies, on paved surfaces, or on ground that is too rocky to cultivate.

Marginal spaces can be utilized – In small urban gardens every space needs to be used to maximize output. The ground space next to walls is often overlooked in this context because it tends to fall in deep shade for most or part of the day. By planting fast growing trees at 1.5m spacing along the inside of the wall, you can create living posts for growing hammocks, while simultaneously creating dappled shade for the rest of the garden. If the space is too small to accommodate trees, hanging containers can be attached directly to the walls.

The soil is unsuitable for agriculture – Not all soil is suitable for agriculture. Some soils have been contaminated with plastic ash, battery acid, motor oil, persistent herbicides, or other toxic chemicals.

Importing clean soil for use in container gardening is often the only solution for gardening on contaminated soils.

Livestock poses a threat to crops – Not all outdoor spaces are safe from roaming livestock. Hanging containers can be placed high enough that goats and sheep cannot eat the crops being grown.

The garden needs to be mobile – Container gardening does not need to be full term. Often it is a good idea to start nursery crops in containers for easy and safe transport to the planting site.

The Qualities of a Good Growing Container Growing containers come in all shapes and sizes, but there are a few important points to remember. First, the container should be large enough to accommodate the root structure of the plant that will go there.

If you are growing carrots in a container garden the container needs to be deep enough to allow the carrot to grow without deforming the taproot. Similarly, you can reserve shallow containers for crops that have very shallow root systems, such as mint and lettuce. Second, containers need to retain enough moisture throughout the day that the soil does not dry, while allowing enough drainage that the soil does not become waterlogged. Third, the opening of the container should be wide enough that it catches water easily. If the mouth of the container is too narrow or the plant that has been placed there has foliage that is wider than the container, the soil will soon dry, and the plant will die.

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Types of Containers Micro gardening can typically be broken into 5 categories: purchased containers, found containers, hanging containers, growing tables, and constructed raised beds.

Purchased Containers – Purchased containers are typically favored by wealthier members of the population because the containers include an added benefit of being ornamental themselves. In function, they are no different from other types of containers in that they hold soil and offer drainage so that plants get everything they need to be healthy and happy.

Found Containers – Functionally, found containers are no different from purchased containers. Found containers hold soil and offer good drainage, and while they are often seen to be aesthetically undesirable, have an added benefit of reducing waste. Found containers include anything that you can fill with soil or substratum. Found containers typically available in Senegal include old water bottles, tomato cans, buckets, benoirs, TV frames, and car tires.

Hanging Containers – Hanging containers include growing hammocks, hanging pots, and wall hangings. Hanging containers sometimes utilize found containers, but often rely on purchased materials. Hanging containers offer many benefits. They can be stacked to conserve water, can use marginal spaces such as between trees or along walls, and can be placed high enough that goats and sheep cannot access the crops being grown.

Growing Tables – Growing tables are often extended by agricultural offices throughout Senegal. The idea behind a growing table is that it provides a light-weight, shallow container that can be filled with substratum or used as a hydroponic system. Growing tables are ideal in areas that have abundant timber supplies, cheap petroleum products such as plastic sheeting and tubing, and dense urban populations that require light-weight growing systems for use on roof-tops and balconies. In Senegal, tables are relatively expensive compared to the potential agricultural return, use scarce materials, and are frequently eaten by termites before the revenue they can generate pays for the table itself. Because agriculture offices extend tables it is important for Peace Corps volunteers to be familiar with the construction and use of growing tables. Pre-existing tables can easily be covered with mesh cloth for use as a vegetable nursery.

Constructed Raised Beds – Not all containers need to be small or light-weight. In cases of growing on top of paved surfaces or in soil that is much too rocky to cultivate, constructed raised beds are ideal.

Constructed raised beds can be made with bricks or rubble, and can either be cemented in place or dry-stacked. Using rubble to make constructed raised beds is a great way to reduce waste in the street. The raised bed can be built to any width, length, height, and/or shape that is appropriate to the space. Because constructed raised beds are intended for use in courtyards and other spaces that can support weight, any soil-type can be used.

Soil Mixes and Substratum The type of soil used in container gardening is very important. Because of the limited growing space available to the root system in most container conditions, the soil must be very high in nutrients. Typically, there are two types of material used in container gardening: potting soils, and substratums.

Potting Soil Mix: 2 parts Sand 2 parts Compost 1 part Charcoal Powder

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Potting Soils – Potting soil is any soil mix that contains an amount of mineral earth – sand for instance. Because potting soils contain mineral soil particles they are much heavier than substratums.

However, they offer much better drainage and use materials that are inexpensive or free, and widely available.

Substratum – Substratum is any growing medium that does not contain mineral soil. Typically substratum is made from any fibrous organic material that Substratum Mix 1: absorbs water and breaks down slowly. In conventional urban agriculture, substratum is often combined with the use of water 1 part Peanut Shell soluble inorganic fertilizer; 1 part Rice Hull or Millet however NPK can be Substratum Mix 2: Chaff substituted for compost.

1 part Finished Compost The benefit of substratum is 2 parts Peanut Shell that it is highly absorbent and much lighter than mineral soils.

2 parts Compost Substratum is best used when growing on rooftops or balconies, 1 part Charcoal Powder or when growing in tables or hanging containers.

Plants for Container Gardens All plants can be grown in containers, but some are particularly suited for small-scale container gardening.

Lettuce – Lettuce has a very shallow root system and is perfect for growing in shallow containers so long as the opening of the container is at least 30cm wide to accommodate for the leaf structure when the plant is full grown.

Mint – Mint can be grown in almost any container and responds well to division and replanting at the beginning of each growing season. The leaf structure of mint allows water to penetrate into the container, making it possible to grow mint in even the smallest containers.

Dill, Cilantro, and Parsley – Dill, cilantro, and parsley have fragile root structures that do not take will to transplanting. At the same time, they do better in tropical climates if started in the shade and then moved to the sun. Additionally, the leaf structure is tall and airy, making it easy to water even when planted in small containers. Dill, cilantro, and parsley are perfect for old soda and water bottles, as well as larger containers that are mobile enough to start in the shade and then move into the sun.

Green Onions – Green onions are great in the container garden. They can be intercropped with most other crops, take up little space, and can be continually divided to ensure future crops. The narrow leaf structure makes them suitable for narrow-mouthed containers.

Ginger – Ginger likes rich, well-draining soil, but still requires a lot of water and shade. Ginger does well in tire stacks that can be tipped over at harvest time, for easy gathering.

Basil – Does very well in containers and adds both an ornamental and culinary benefit to any garden.

Because of the broader leaf structure, basil does better in containers that are 20cm in diameter or wider.

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6.

Permaculture

What is Permaculture?

Permaculture was first developed in the 1970’s by Bill Molleson and his graduate student David Holmgren. Bill Molleson was originally a forester, who began to compare the differences between modern industrial-agricultural land use systems and natural forest ecosystems. He saw that industrial agriculture required extremely high industrial inputs, supported relatively little standing biomass, was susceptible to pest and disease attack, and recycled very few of its products back into the system. At the same time he saw that forest ecosystems were sustainable, self-replicating, had an extremely high level of standing biomass, were extremely resilient against pests and disease, and required few other inputs other than sunlight and precipitation. The word “permaculture” stands for permanent agriculture.

Permaculture is an agricultural design approach that incorporates a set of principles and dynamic techniques and strives to create closed-loop agricultural systems that mimic natural ecosystems.

Many contemporary production systems function on a linear production model. Linear production systems do not re-connect output products and waste with input resources. An agricultural example of this is using natural gas to generate incredible amounts of energy to fix atmospheric nitrogen into solid forms that plants can use. That fertilizer is then shipped using fossil fuels to agricultural areas where it is applied to gardens and fields. The fertilizer that is not used directly by the plants leaves the system as waste in the form of agricultural runoff, polluting rivers, lakes, and drinking water. The vegetable produce that then comes from those fields is shipped off-site to markets where it is then consumed by humans.

The vegetable waste is often sent to landfills and the human waste is sent to waste treatment facilities.

Linear production systems are unsustainable.

As mentioned before, permaculture strives to create closed-loop systems. Closed-loop production systems attempt to turn all system wastes back into production resources and/or replace unpreventable system wastes (such as vegetables sold at the market) with locally accessible, sustainable off-site resources. A comparable closed-loop production model looks something like this: Compost that has been made from agricultural residues and locally sourced animal manures is applied to the garden using little or no fossil fuels to transport the compost. The compost stays locked in the soil and remains available to plants throughout the growing season, and in growing seasons to come. At harvest time vegetables are removed from the system and sold in markets. All remaining agricultural residues are combined with locally sourced animal manures and composted for re-application in the garden. The human waste that comes from the produce sold in the market can be composted as well, and re-applied to agricultural systems even further reducing waste.

We are a long way globally, and especially in Senegal, from composting human waste, but the idea remains valid. By looking at all “wastes” as potentially useful substances we can slowly work toward sustainable systems that not only produce enough to keep them going at contemporary standards, but continue to grow. For Peace Corps volunteers, permaculture is useful because it allows for the

organized assessment and design of any agricultural space, whether in the garden, field, or orchard.

Functions and Elements In some ways you can think of permaculture as a discipline designed to link various different agricultural elements by determining which functions those elements serve. An Element is any physical object within the system, including garden beds, vegetation, buildings, animals, people, the air around us, the earth

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beneath our feet, and everything else that takes up physical space. A Function is the action or service that an element does or provides.

You can think of a specific element and all of the functions it serves. Let’s use a pigeon pea tree as an example of an element. The pigeon pea tree has multiple functions in that it provides dappled shade, food, nitrogen fixation, leaf litter, support for climbing plants, animal fodder, composting material, and soil stabilization. Conversely, we can take a function and think of all of the elements that provide that function. A common function that is desired in a garden in Senegal is dappled shade. We can brainstorm all of the elements that create the desired level and density of shade including pigeon pea, Leucaena, Moringa, pomegranate, Gliricidia, and papaya.

By maximizing diversity of elements in the garden we can ensure that we have a high level of biodiversity and all of our desired functions are met on several different levels. Permaculture focuses on using elements that provide multiple functions. In permaculture this is referred to as stacking functions. You can think of it as getting the biggest bang from your buck. The more complex the system becomes, the more web-like it becomes. If a single strand in a web breaks, the entire web does not fall down. In other words, if a single moringa tree dies, the entire garden does not fall into ruin. In an agricultural setting, redundancy of function creates resiliency.

The Permaculture Toolbox All of the elements used in the creation of permaculture systems have been discussed in detail in earlier chapters in this manual. However, when creating a permaculture design, it is sometimes easier to imagine all of those techniques and elements being grouped together and organized by the role they play in an agricultural space. As you see, certain elements will fit into multiple categories. Think of the following list as your Permaculture Toolbox: Building Soil Fertility Compost Mulch Soil Amendments Crop Rotation Interspersed Nitrogen Fixers No-Till Farming

Cover Cropping Sheet Mulch Double-Digging Alley Cropping Conservation Farming

Holding Water on the landscape Raised Beds Paths Boomerang Berms and Swales Diversion Swales Sheet Mulching

Sunken Beds Standard Berms and Swales Infiltration Basins Mulching Double-Digging

Working with Human Structures Fences Paved Paths and Roads Buildings

Walls Cisterns Live Buildings

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The Botanical World Food Producers Nitrogen Fixers Annuals Trees Animal Fodder Live Building Soil Builders Medicinal Uses

Composting materials Nutrient Accumulators Herbaceous Perennials Shade Givers Building Materials Producers Live Fencing Fuel Producers

Micro Climates and Marginal Spaces Shady Areas Moist Areas Wind Free Areas Alley Cropping Paths

Sunny Areas Dry Areas Live Fencing Edges of Garden Beds Containers/Micro Gardening

Creating Habitat for Beneficials Flowers and Herbs Diverse Microclimates Moist areas for toads

Small trees interspersed in garden Mulched Beds Rock piles for Lizards

The Design Process Permaculture is not a rigid set of techniques. Permaculture is a design approach that allows the designer to use all available techniques in the most appropriate combinations to get the most beneficial results possible. The permaculture design process is broken down into the following steps: 1. Design Principles 2. Observation 3. Vision 4. Planning 5. Implementation Design Principles The total ecological design process is reliant on adherence to the following principles. If you familiarize yourself with these principles they will help guide your decisions and actions within any agricultural setting.

Core Principles for Ecological Design: Observe - Use protracted and thoughtful observation rather than prolonged and thoughtless action.

Observe the site and its elements in all seasons. Design for specific sites, clients, and cultures.

Connect - Use relative location. That is, place the elements of your design in ways that create useful relationships and time-saving connections among all parts. It is the number of connections among elements that creates a healthy, diverse ecosystem, not the number of elements.

Catch and store energy and materials - Identify, collect, and hold useful flows. Every cycle is an opportunity for yield, every gradient (in slope, charge, temperature, and the like can produce energy.

Reinvesting resources builds capacity to capture yet more resources.

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Each element performs multiple functions - Choose and place each element in a design to perform as many functions as possible. Beneficial connections between diverse components create a stable whole. Stack elements in both space and time.

Each function is supported by multiple elements - Use multiple methods to achieve important functions and to create synergies. Redundancy protects when one or more elements fail.

Make the least change for the greatest effect - Understand the system you are working with well enough to find its “leverage points” and intervene there, where the least work accomplishes the most change.

Use small-scale, intensive systems - Start at your doorstep with the smallest systems that will do the job and build on your successes. Grow by “chunking” – that is, developing a small system or arrangement that works well – and repeat it with variations.

Optimize edge - The edge, the intersection of two environments, is the most diverse place in a system and is where energy and materials accumulate or are translated. Increase or decrease the edge as appropriate.

Collaborate with succession - Living systems usually advance from immaturity to maturity, and if we accept this trend and align our designs with it instead of fighting it, we save work and energy. Mature ecosystems are more diverse and productive than young ones.

Use biological and renewable resources - Renewable resources reproduce and build up over time, store energy, assist yield, and interact with other elements. Favor these over nonrenewable resources.

Principles Based on Attitudes: Turn problems into solutions - Constraints can inspire creative design, and most problems usually carry not just the seeds of their own solution within them but also the inspiration for simultaneously solving other problems. “We are confronted by insurmountable opportunities.” – Attributed to Pogo (Walt Kelley).

Get a yield - Design for both immediate and long-term returns from your efforts: “You can’t work on an empty stomach.” Set up positive feedback loops to build the system and repay your investment.

The biggest limit to abundance is creativity - The designer’s imagination and skill usually limit productivity and diversity before any physical limits are reached.

Mistakes are tools for learning - Evaluate your trials. Making mistakes is a sign you’re trying to do things better. There is usually little penalty for mistakes if you learn from them.

Excerpt from: Gaia’s Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture by Toby Hemenway

Observation Good permaculture design is grounded in detailed and extended observation. Please refer to the section on observation and recording in chapter 3 and the observation checklist appendix for the things you should be observing in the field. Ideally you should observe a work site for an entire year before starting the planning phase in order to see the site change through every season. As 57

a Peace Corps volunteer with only a two year window to start projects, this time frame is not appropriate.

None the less, careful observation can be applied with other seasons in mind. Look for the effects of the rainy season, i.e. erosion points; areas of pooling or flooding, where vegetation is most likely to be thicker. For the hot dry season, keep in mind that elevated areas will be more prone to soil desiccation than lower areas. Making a to-scale map of the area is a great tool to get to know the area and will be an invaluable asset to the design process down the road. When making a map, be sure to pace-out and measure the entire spice. The more details that are added to the map and the more accurate the spacing, the easier it will be to use down the line. Make note of all physical elements such as vegetation, fences, spigots, etc. as well as transitional aspects such as prominent direction of wind and rain, sun and shade patterns, and human and animal traffic flows.

Vision The vision step is generally the most fun and creative part of the design process. This is the stage when you get to take your community or work partner’s needs assessments and imagine all of the ways that you can help make their vision happen. This is the time to brain storm all of the tools, techniques, demonstrations, plant species, animals, infrastructural elements, etc. that you could possibly put into your workspace given infinite funds and material availability. Shoot for the sky, you can hone down your agricultural utopia to fit local constraints during the planning phase.

It’s a good idea not to start the vision portion of the design process until you are confident that you have thoroughly observed everything that is taking place in the work space. By resisting the urge to fantasize while observing the work site, you can help curb the tendency to impose your initial wants on the landscape. Remember that at all stages of the permaculture design process you should be thinking about how best to work with nature rather than trying to bend nature to a desired output.

Planning The first stage of planning is conceptual design. This is the point where you take the brainstorming lists you created during the vision phase and begin to shape them into a functional design. Start by creating a to-scale map template. Use your original map as a guide, and redraw your map leaving only the elements you wish to retain. If you have access to a photocopier in your regional capital or roadtown it is a good idea to

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make a lot of copies so that you can try and retry different takes on designs through the planning phase.

Keep in mind that nothing is a blank slate. There will generally be pre-existing elements (established fruit trees, garden beds, cisterns, buildings, etc.) that you and your work partners will want to keep on the landscape.

When making the first few drafts of the plan it is a good idea to think in terms of function rather than specific elements. If you pencil in “fruit tree” rather than “mango”, “Livestock barrier” rather than “live prosopis fence”, “gardening area” rather than “raised beds” it will leave you the freedom to fine tune the design in appropriate ways when you get to that step.

After making the conceptual design you can start making the schematic design. At this point you will clarify all of the vague elements you penciled in during the conceptual design step. A helpful tool is a function/element chart. In the function/element chart, make a list of all the things you would like to “do or happen” in the space and cross them with all of the physical things that can “do or make happen” a function/element chart looks like this:

Function

Elements Pest Deterrent Shade N-Fixer Food Animal Fodder Compost Cash Beauty

Neem X X

X

Moringa X X X X X X

Basil X

Mint x

Carrot

X

X

X

X x

X

x

Wall X X

x

Live Fence X X X X X X X X

This chart helps you assess the number of functions each element is serving. Remember to strive for redundancy, i.e. stack functions. If every element serves more than one function and every function is satisfied by more than one element you have created a system that is less likely to break down should any one element disappear due to pest, disease, etc.

After the conceptual design it’s time for more mapping. Once you have clarified the elements you want to use, begin to pencil in the specifics of the map. Again, the more detailed you make the map, and the more scale specific it is; the easier it will be to implement the plan. Don’t be afraid to change the plan around until the final design makes sense. Eventually you will have a map that is more or less what your finished garden will look like.

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Remember to keep in mind the reality of the elements you would like to use at all times. Try to get to know there characteristics as much as possible in before finalizing your plan. Remember to plan for the full grown size of any living elements. You don’t want an overcrowded garden 3 years down the line.

When in doubt do research and ask questions!

Implementation The plan is complete, now it’s time to get your hands dirty. First off, create an installation calendar. Keep in mind all of the proper times of year to make nurseries and out-plant the various plants you are going to be working with, as well as the proper sequence of installation steps as follows: 1. Start Composting – you are going to want to use it as soon as you are ready to dig beds and plant trees.

2. Install Hardscaping – you don’t want to destroy the more fragile elements while constructing a shade structure or putting in a concrete basin or tool shed.

3. Install Softscaping – Put in berms, swales, basins, and other softscaping elements before you start to plant perennials – it is easier to make them the first than it is to retrofit a garden, field, or orchard later.

4. Start to build soil – Add compost, amendments, cover crop, or sheet mulch wherever you will be working with the soil.

5. Install major plants – trees, live fencing, alley cropping, windbreaks, etc.

6. Get to work on Annuals – The annual plants should be the final step, they are the most vulnerable, and the most likely to come into harm’s way during the installation of the other elements.

Permaculture Guilds It is true that no two permaculture systems are the same. If you are following the steps properly every design you come up with will be different, elements will be interchanged with others and the physical placement of elements will vary based on the footprint of the space being used. However, it is not necessary to completely re-invent the wheel every time you design a permaculture system. The understanding of guilds can go a long way in speeding up the design process. A guild in the permaculture context is a tried and true grouping of species that grow well together and can become more productive than if they were on their own. We commonly describe a guild by the key species in the guild. Remember, guilds are useful when starting out, but never be afraid to try new things or tweak the guild information found in this manual.

Guilds for the Garden Banana Guild – Plant a small grove of bananas. On the south-east side, plant a line of leucaena to fix nitrogen and protect the banana trees from the rainy-season storm winds. On the north side plant a line of pigeon pea to fix nitrogen and protect the banana trees from the milder cool-season winds.

This formation will leave the bananas open to afternoon sun all year round. To take advantage of the

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understory, plant water loving sweet potato, purslane, or water spinach in a large patch around the base of the banana trees.

Papaya Guild – Plant a small grove of papaya. As in the banana guild plant a line of Lecuaena on the south-east side and a line of pigeon pea on the north side. Because papaya does not require as much water as banana, more draught tolerant plants can be placed in the understory. Good plants for this setting include, beans, lemon grass, aloe vera, and marigold.

Pigeon Pea Guild – In many gardens you will install a protective berm and swale on the up-slope side of the garden to protect from runoff damaging the garden. Along this berm you can plant pigeon pea at 2 meter spacing. Plant 1 china pride directly in between each pigeon pea to attract beneficial insects. Along the top of the berm plant mint or purslane as they are shade tolerant and will help hold water on the berm when it gets hand-watered. Along the edges of the berm plant lines of aloe vera, lemon grass, or basil to further secure the berm.

Guilds for the Field Field Crop Guild – Field guilds can be limited as species planted there must be able to withstand many months without water and frequent grazing. For field crop areas, install contour berms at 8-12 meters apart. Plant alley cropping species such as leucaena, pigeon pea, or Gliricidia along the top of the berm to help secure the soil in place. On the down-slope side of the berm plant a line of vetiver grass to further stabilize the soil and help catch wind-blown organic matter. During the rainy season, take advantage of the water captured in the swale by planting squash, cucumber, or melon on the up-slope side of the berm.

Guilds for the Orchard Mango or citrus guild – Guild members in orchards must also be much more draught resistant than those in gardens because many orchards in Senegal do not receive supplemental irrigation. Most Fruit trees take a very long time to establish and leave large areas of empty space between them until they are mature. Install boomerang berms 3-4 meters from the newly planted fruit trees. Plant pigeon pea along the tops of the berms and vetiver grass on the down-slope side of the berm. Pigeon pea has a life-span of only 4-5 years and will not run the risk of out-competing the fruit trees. By the time the fruit trees are large enough to out shade the pigeon pea, the pigeon pea will be dead. In the mean time you will have taken advantage of the space by producing beans from the pigeon pea and will have enriched the soil through nitrogen fixation.

Pros and Cons of Permaculture Permaculture is not a panacea to all of the world’s food security issues. Within our contemporary context there are many limitations - real, perceived, behavioral, and cultural – to the potentials of implementing permaculture systems. That said, well designed systems work better and necessitate less human labor than poorly designed systems. Sustainability may be an unattainable concept, but striving for sustainability inherently reduces waste and increases resource efficiency, which is always a good thing.

Cons of Permaculture Requires critical thought and broad understanding – Permaculture requires critical analysis of natural and man-made systems and an understanding of a wide range of related topics such as ecology, biology, entomology, hydrology, etc. or at least an ability to learn new information and fill in gaps in understanding. Not all people know how to think critically, or have the education, motivation, or information access to understand the concepts that go into permaculture.

Requires good planning and timely action – All agriculture requires good planning and timely action, but because of the large diversity of plant species in a permaculture system, it can be more difficult

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to plan for planting, maintenance, and harvesting routines than if farming large quantities of a single crop.

Slow to establish – Permaculture systems have an emphasis on perennial plantings and are therefore slow to establish. Furthermore, because soil builds slowly, it may be years before it is capable of out producing soil treated with in-organic fertilizer. When switching to a permaculture system from chemical agriculture it is important to do so in chunks so as not to jeopardize anticipated yields.

Difficult to mechanize – Because permaculture systems require a high level of biodiversity to function properly, they are difficult to mechanize. For instance, a barren field that has been planted with corn is easier to harvest using a combine than a corn field that is filled with on-contour alleycropping rows and interspersed fruit and nitrogen-fixing trees. The latter is undoubtedly more productive, but is unattractive to large scale agriculture because it requires a shift in existing infrastructures in order to manage and harvest.

Does not always conform to aesthetic ideals – Many people have deep-set cultural understandings of how an agricultural space should look. Often permaculture systems do not conform to ordered aesthetics because they are intended to mimic natural ecosystems and take advantage of existing irregularities in the space.

Increasingly difficult to implement as the scale is reduced – In many ways forests work because they are big. There is an outer layer of trees that buffer the interior of the forest from winds, hard rains, human exploitation, etc. Because we have little control over what our neighbors do with their property, it is extremely difficult to regulate the impact surrounding parcels have on permaculture systems. It is challenging to create a healthy agro-ecological system in an area smaller than a quarter hectare.

Pros of Permaculture Resilient systems – Many contemporary agricultural systems are extremely fragile because they focus on high-input production of single crops. An entire corn field can be destroyed by single pest epidemic, stem borers for example, ruining a farmer’s income for that year. However, in a permaculture system, if the corn crop is ruined, there are a dozen other crops producing staple foods and saleable produce. The negative impact to the farmer’s livelihood is greatly diminished. However, the resiliency of permaculture systems goes beyond pest management. Because all elements work together to strengthen the system, and most importantly – the soil, if any one element fails, there are others to take its place, and this is made possible by soil that becomes healthier year after year.

Requires human labor – Permaculture systems, by nature are more labor intensive than mechanized, single-crop agriculture because of the high level of biodiversity. Traditionally, anything that requires more labor is seen as negative. However, in Senegal, the cost of human labor is almost never a limiting factor which makes labor intensive systems highly appropriate.

Human labor decreases over time – As the “chunks” of permaculture systems are implemented and fine-tuned the system as a whole slowly requires less and less labor. A mature permaculture system only requires annual maintenance to keep it going.

Greater net output – In a permaculture system, there may still be a focus crop such as mango, lettuce, or corn, but there are also dozens of secondary outputs, such as food crops, cash crops, fuel woods, animal products, etc. from the same parcel of land. In order to fit all of these elements into the agricultural space the production of the focus crop will go down, often between 20-50%.

However, the net output of the same amount of land is significantly increased 20-80%.

Increased economic stability – Because of the high level of resiliency in permaculture systems, total harvests are much more reliable than in single-crop agriculture. For small-scale producers, this generally means consistent weekly or monthly yields that will provide food or turn a profit combined with larger annual harvests like mangoes or field crops.

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Works toward environmental sustainability – Permaculture focuses on sustainability over profitability. This does not mean that permaculture systems are not profitable, just that profit is not the sole goal when developing a permaculture system. Part of the philosophical aspect of permaculture is that extreme wealth of an individual may not be the best for the whole, and as such, any agricultural practice that does not leave the land in better shape for the next generation probably should not be used.

Better use of natural flows – Well designed permaculture systems not only minimize material and energy that leave the system but also slow and make use of exterior flows that would otherwise pass through without contributing. Examples would include making earthworks to slow and sink water flows that would otherwise contribute to soil erosion and carry away topsoil, or setting up a produce stand outside of the garden on the market path to sell fresher produce to market goers without having to compete with other vendors at the market.

Decreased reliance on utilities – Many components of permaculture systems serve to use water more efficiently or make living conditions more passively comfortable, reducing energy costs. A garden that holds water because the soil is rich in organic matter and the beds are mulched requires less city water be purchased or less fuel burned to power a pump. If the courtyard is hot, plant a mango tree that will eventually provide shade and produce fruit, thereby improving living conditions and family nutrition at the same time.

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7

Agribusiness:

Production Planning and Produce Marketing Production Planning Making a plan. It’s something that people do every day as a way to anticipate opportunities or problems and efficiently use their time and resources. Farmers, in particular, can benefit from making a plan, yet few Senegalese farmers do so. The reason has not so much to do with a lack of understanding the benefits of planning ahead as not having the information to do so. Information is the key to making a plan, and planning ahead—budgeting, preparing, developing a strategy—is the key to helping a farmer become a better businessperson. Adequate production planning helps farmers reduce waste, increase profits, and further contribute to food security on a local level.

Developing an Agricultural Calendar An agricultural calendar helps a farmer plan for the immediate future. In its simplest form, it's a list of the things—activities—that a farmer does throughout the growing season, from pre-planting through postharvest. By developing an agricultural calendar, a farmer is anticipating all the things that need to be done and when he needs to do them. He's making a forecast of his future activities. But before the growing season starts, he'll also want to forecast his future needs. Things like how much seed and water and time he’ll need for planting, or how much it will cost to transport his vegetables or grain to market after harvest. Things like inputs and outputs.

Inputs are all of the things that go into producing a crop, so, for instance, seeds, fertilizer, sunshine and labor. Sunlight is still free, but most other inputs have a cost associated with them. Outputs are the valuable crops and agricultural products that result from those inputs, like millet, mangos and milk.

Outputs include both the crop being grown—let’s say corn—and any marketable by-product—cornstalks for animal fodder, for example.

If a farmer has records of prior growing seasons, you can use those records to calculate this year's needs.

But let's say a farmer doesn't have records, or is planting a crop for the first time. You can help her estimate her needs by using the information that's on the veggie sheets and elsewhere in your gardening manuals.

Estimating Water Inputs In Senegal, the average water requirement throughout the year is 5 liters of water per square meter of garden bed per day. In the vegetable-specific sheets, we have slightly higher watering recommendations for certain vegetables such as cucumber or celery, so consult the appropriate veggie sheet for recommended water requirements. The amount needed will vary from season to season and from crop to crop, and will lessen if a farmer uses water-saving techniques such as mulching, wind breaks, dappled shade, or drip irrigation. Given all these variables, calculating water inputs will only give an estimate. The advantage of keeping records is that they record a specific situation. All the variables are accounted for, and a farmer can make a much better estimation of the needs for future growing seasons.

Estimating Time Inputs Estimating time inputs helps a farmer predict his time and labor needs. Time inputs are different in the field and in the garden. In the field, on average, it should take a typical farmer from 3-5 days to work an entire hectare on a single task. That means 3-5 days to plow it, 3-5 days to seed it, 3-5 days to weed it, and 3-5 days to harvest the grain.

Given the diverse set of tasks that must be performed in the garden, there's no simple formula. But there are some rough estimates: Making and turning compost: 4 hours once every 2 weeks.

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Turning compost piles and sifting finished compost: 2-4 hours every two weeks.

Double-digging garden beds: 20 to 40 minutes per square meter, depending on soil condition, heat and other factors.

Single well maintained garden beds: 5-15 minutes per square meter.

Making and seeding nursery beds: 40 to 60 minutes per square meter.

Transplanting/seeding in garden beds: depending on the type of vegetable, 5 to 15 minutes per square meter of garden bed.

Weeding: 5 minutes per square meter of garden bed, 2-4 times per month.

Watering by hand: 30-60 minutes per 100 square meters depending on the type of watering system and the distance from the water source. If the garden is fed by a spigot, we highly recommend you build a water basin. Water basins greatly reduce wait time when filling watering cans.

Estimating Seed and Transplant Requirements Estimating seed and transplant requirements before planting can help ensure that your farmer has a successful season. Seed and transplant requirements can be found in the Propagation Information section on the veggie sheets in this manual. The requirements are different for seeds versus transplants.

Garden seeds Multiply the recommended amount of seed by the size and number of garden beds.

Field crops Your field crop manual has information on calculating seed inputs for many types of field crops.

Transplants Transplants are somewhat more complicated than seeds. Use the recommended spacing of the particular vegetable to calculate how many plants will fit in 1m2 of garden bed. Multiply that number by the number of square meters you wish to plant to get the total number of transplants needed.

Double the total number of transplants needed to account for germination issues, and transplant die off. Use the propagation information section to calculate the amount of seed and nursery space you will need for that many transplants.

Anticipating Yields Estimating anticipated yields can help a farmer forecast the size of his or her harvest and the price that harvest might bring at market. Information on how to estimate potential yields for both field crops and garden vegetables is found in the respective manuals. Potential yields are calculated by hectare for field crops and by square meter for garden vegetables.

The Importance of Recordkeeping With an agricultural calendar and the pre-recorded data in the Gardening and Field Crop manuals, you can help growers estimate their inputs and activities and be better prepared for the growing season. Let’s take this a step further, now. By tracking and recording their inputs and outputs, a grower can get a better understanding of how the garden or farm operates, and how well that garden or farm—the business—is doing. There's a lot of useful information that growers can learn about their gardens and farms: which of their crops is most profitable or where there are opportunities to trim waste and cut costs, for example. But to do so, a grower needs data that's specific to his or her situation, not generic formulas that apply to everyone.

Before a grower can start tracking inputs and outputs, he or she needs to have a system for doing so-- a methodology. This manual contains a set of eight data-collection logs that you can use with your farmer to track costs and activities, monitor pests and other problems, and record harvests and sales. They're also available on the PC Senegal website. The logs focus on the parts as a way to see the whole. Some of the logs are meant to track a specific crop in small units over a short period of time—for example, the mint in one garden bed for one growing season. The other logs allow a farmer to aggregate that information and get a look at the bigger picture—all the garden crops for the past year, let's say.

It is important to recognize that data collection starts extremely slowly in Senegal. Just like anywhere else in the world, adopting new technologies or new ways of doing things takes some time. It will most likely be too daunting to think of keeping records of a whole farm, so get a farmer started by tracking just one

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or two crops. That's a more manageable way to begin, and working with a farmer or gardener to collect some data the first season is better than collecting no information at all. Hopefully, over time your farmers and gardeners will see the value of this kind of recordkeeping and as their proficiency increases, each year they can begin to track larger and larger parts of their businesses.

There's one other potential impediment to recordkeeping that this system doesn't address: illiteracy.

Currently, the data-collection logs offered in this manual are only applicable to literate work partners.

Keeping good records with illiterate work partners will be extremely challenging, but all the more rewarding. When you're working with illiterate farmers, one thing you can do is find out if they have an educated relative or child who might be able to help them with recordkeeping.

Tracking and Recording Inputs There are four logs for recording information about a farmer’s inputs. If you don’t have access to the logs themselves, you can collect this information in a notebook and transfer it to a log at a later date.

Inputs and activities log A farmer's agricultural calendar is a forecast: what she needs to do and when she needs to do it. This log is a record of what she did and how she did it. Use a separate log for each crop or individual field or bed to track and record: o Land preparation: dates, activities performed, materials used prior to planting (such as mulching material or another soil amendment), and how much time was spent on each activity. o Seeds/transplants: date of planting and the crop variety that was seeded or transplanted, either the seeding density per square meter or hectare or the transplant spacing that was used, and how much time was spent on each activity. o Fertilizers/pest control: date of the activity, material or method applied, usage rate, amount used. Also note any particulars or observations, and how much time was spent on each activity o Thinning: date of thinning, method of thinning, and how much time it took. o Weeding: date of weeding, the weeding method used, projected date of the next weeding, and the amount of time spent weeding. o Watering: date of watering, watering method used, amount of water used, and the amount of time spent watering. This can be taken as a weekly or bi-weekly average if that is easier since watering will most likely occur every day. o Additional notes and observations: the remaining section of this log is for additional notes and observations.

Pest and disease monitoring log Use a separate log for each crop or individual field or bed to track and record: the date the pest or disease was first observed, the type of pest or disease, the type and extent of crop damage that was incurred, the control method used, and the date it was applied. Also record whether or not the method was effective and any additional notes and observations.

Seed and transplants stock log Some of this information will have been recorded in the seeds and transplants section of the Inputs and Activities Logs. On this log that information gets compiled to help track the bigger picture. Use one log to track and record: o Garden seed and planting stock information: type of crop, crop variety and supplier (from who or where the farmer purchased it). o Costs: the price per unit, the amount purchased, and the total price paid. o Usage: the amount of seed used, the seeding density used, and the amount of seed remaining. If you're dealing with transplants, record the number of transplants used, transplant spacing, and the number of transplants remaining. o Storage time: Estimated shelf life of unused seed.

Farm costs log Tracking costs is the most important recordkeeping a farmer can do. Having an account of total costs is important when it comes to determining whether or not a farmer had a profitable year. This log is designed to be a record of total production costs: all the inputs that a farmer spent money on. To help farmers gain even greater insight into their businesses, adapt this methodology slightly and keep 66

a separate cost log for each type of crop grown. Then aggregate the information from the different logs onto one log for the whole farm. When tracking costs, completeness is everything so consider all of the following: o Seeds/transplants: record the date of purchase, type of crop, variety of seed or transplant, amount purchased, cost per unit, and total cost. o Fertilizers/pest control: record the date of purchase, type or brand of material, source, amount purchased, cost per unit, and total cost. o Water: if a farmer gets water from a faucet, record the price per cubic liter, number of cubic liters bought, and total cost. If a farmer gets water with the use of a pump, record the price per cubic liter, number of cubic liters bought, amount spent on electricity or diesel to operate the pump, and total cost. o Hired labor: the cost of labor can be difficult to record. If your farmer hires labor—an extra worker during harvest season, for example—and he pays a wage, then it's fairly straightforward to figure out his labor costs and the information he’ll want to record: the laborer's name, the work he performed, the hourly or daily rate he was paid, the number of hours or days the laborer worked, and the total amount the laborer was paid. Some farmers pay their workers a percentage of the harvest instead of a wage. In that case, a farmer should record the estimated market value of the portion of the harvest the worker was paid. In either case, record the total cost of hired labor. o Materials transportation: for costs associated with materials being transported—usually bringing things to the farm—record the type of transport used, the material or goods being transported, their origin and destination, the number of people travelling, the cost per person (if applicable), transport fees for the materials or goods, and the total cost. o Post-harvest transportation: for costs associated with goods being transported—usually the costs of bringing produce to market—record the type of transport used, the material or goods being transported, their origin and destination, the number of people travelling, the cost per person (if applicable), transport fees for the materials or goods, and the total cost. o Tool/material repair and replacement: record the tool or type of material, the number of years it was owned or in use, its repair or replacement cost, whichever is applicable, and the total cost. o Storage and tool/machine rental: there are many different types of rental costs, whether for tools, machines or storage space. A farmer may need to rent a plow or seeding machine, may need to pay for shelling or grinding services, or may need to lease storage space. Record the rental rate, the number of days, and the total rental cost. o Loan interest: if your farmer is paying off a loan, record the costs and payments associated with the loan. o Other Costs: there may be other, occasional production costs that don't fit into these categories. The cost of providing room and board for a hired worker is one you may encounter. Record any miscellaneous costs and include them when determining the total production costs for a specific crop or an entire farm.

As mentioned earlier, encourage your farmers to keep a separate cost log for individual beds or fields or for each type of crop. Among other things, this will provide the information needed to calculate production costs—what a gardener spent to grow her tomato crop, for example. But if we also know how many kilos she harvested and how much she sold them for, we can determine whether she made a profit on her tomato crop. Harvests and sales are outputs, and you can help a farmer record those things, as well.

Tracking and Recording Outputs There are four logs for recording information about a farmer’s outputs. Again, if you don’t have access to the logs themselves, you can collect this information in a notebook and transfer it to a log at a later date.

Farm harvest record Use this log to record: the date of harvest, the bed or field harvested, the type of crop harvested, the quantity harvested, its grade or quality, and whether it was stored, sold or consumed.

Market load list

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This log is an inventory of what a farmer brings to market each day. Use a separate log for each type of produce and record: the date, any amount carried over from the previous market day, the quantity that was harvested, any amounts consumed by the family, the total amount brought to market, the quantity sold, any amount lost to spoilage, and the quantity remaining.

Market sales log This will give your farmer a detailed record of each market day's sales. Record: the date of sale, the market or customer, the crop or type of produce sold, quantity sold, the sales price per unit, and the total price received.

Total Market sales log Use this log to record and calculate a farmer’s total annual sales. Record: the date of sale, the market or customer, and the total sales receipts for each day. To calculate a farmer's annual total sales, add the amounts in the total sales receipts column and enter the sum in the shaded box at the bottom.

If you're committed to starting small with your farmer, but you're wondering where to start, recording costs and recording harvests are two of the most important things you can do. But the more data that a farmer collects, the more information he or she has to help make better decisions.

The Benefits of Recordkeeping The information that farmers track and record can help them make informed decisions about crop selection and crop diversification. Information allows a farmer to plan ahead: he can anticipate his needs and budget for his costs. Tracking the time and labor that goes into producing a crop means a gardener can assess her workload and allocate her time. Recordkeeping can help increase crop yields by identifying what’s worked best in previous growing seasons. Keeping records and tracking costs can help farmers identify where they’re wasting money—and effort—and trim their production costs. Ultimately, recordkeeping is the key to helping farmers improve the profitability of their businesses.

Calculating Material and Tool Needs Each of the veggie and crop sheets in your Gardening and Field Crop manuals includes sections on “Soil and Amendments,” “Care and Maintenance,” “Fertilization,” and “Harvesting, Seed Processing and Storage.” Use the information contained in these sections to help farmers estimate their materials and tool needs when they are planting a crop for the first time, or when they don’t keep records. If your farmer tracks his inputs, you can use the information he’s recorded on the Inputs and Activities Log and the Farm Costs Log to better calculate his material and tool requirements and how much he’ll need to budget in coming seasons.

Calculating Pest Management Costs Pest management costs can also be estimated using the information contained in your IPM manual. Any estimate of pest management costs will depend on the method a farmer chooses to use to combat insects or disease. If a farmer tracks her inputs, you can use the information she’s recorded on the Inputs and Activities Log, Pest and Disease Monitoring Log and the Farm Costs Log to not only calculate her pest management costs but also to assess the effectiveness of various pest-control methods.

Assessing Feasible Workloads Earlier in this chapter, the Estimating Time Inputs section contains a number of rough estimates for various field and garden activities. If a farmer tracks his inputs, you can use the specific information he’s recorded on the Inputs and Activities Log to calculate the actual amount of time he spends working in his field. If he wants to expand his production of a specific crop, it’s important to know if he has enough available time in the week to do so. Add up the total hours spent working on a crop. Subtract the total from the number of work hours he has in a week. The remainder is the number of work hours he has available and can be used to calculate how large an expansion of production he can reasonably manage.

Yield Documentation The information that a farmer records on the Farm Harvest Record helps to document his yields after each harvest. By comparing the yields he's recorded on his harvest logs with the seeding density or transplant spacing that he used when planting, a farmer can learn which methods produce the best results. Comparing yields with thinning methods also reveals the best practices to use. Information about 68

seeding density, transplant spacing and thinning methods is recorded on the Inputs and Activities Log. Obviously, the efficacy of one method versus another becomes more apparent the more years and variations you have to compare, so in a few years a farmer will be able to make an even better determination of what's been working best for him. Comparing yields to the information he’s recorded on the Seed and Transplants Stock Log can reveal which of the seeds, varieties or plant stock he’s used has produced the best yields.

Cost/Benefit Analysis Getting a farmer started keeping records may not be easy. But once started, the results may give a farmer the motivation to continue. Analyzing the data can bring a deeper understanding of the business of farming. Use the collected data and a few simple formulas to calculate: Total profit: subtract the total cost of production from the total sales revenues.

Per unit costs: divide the total production costs by the number of kilos (or other amount) produced.

Profit per unit: subtract total costs from total sales to determine total profit, divide total profit by the number of kilos (or other amount) produced.

Cost in hours per unit: divide the total amount of time spent growing a crop by the number of kilos (or other amount) produced.

Hourly wage: divide total profit by the number of hours spent growing a crop.

Percentage of costs: divide costs attributable to a specific item (fertilizer, for example) by the total costs to determine the percentage of costs that is attributable to the specific item.

Profit margin: subtract total costs from total sales to determine total profit, divide total profit by total costs. Multiply the result by 100. This is the profit on cost—how many francs a farmer made for every franc he or she invested in producing a crop.

Talking About Profitability while Encouraging Crop Diversification Volunteers have to be a little careful when they're talking about profitability. Just because something was profitable last year doesn't mean it will be profitable again this year. It's important to stress that to your farmer because you don't want to create false expectations. Nor do you want to inadvertently encourage a farmer to grow only the most profitable crops. When it comes to profitability and food security, the best advice you can give to farmers is to keep their farms and gardens diversified.

Single-crop farmers risk loss of income and even starvation if their crop fails. It's that old adage: Don't put all your eggs in one basket. Investors use diversification to reduce risk in their portfolio of holdings, farmers use crop diversification to minimize risk to their families and livelihoods. A farmer who grows a number of different crops probably won't starve and is less vulnerable to weather conditions and pestilence. Crop diversification helps farmers spread their risk. By growing two crops—hot peppers and sweet potatoes, let’s say—a gardener is insulating herself somewhat should anything cause the loss of her potato crop. If all goes well, come harvest, she's got two products to sell, so she's not ruined if prices for peppers precipitously plummet.

The Uses of Recordkeeping In addition to gaining a better understanding of his farm and how it operates, a farmer may have other needs and reasons for keeping records.

Documentation - If a farmer wants to expand, he or she will need documentation of profits and costs when applying for a loan or other funding. Farmers who want to join or form a cooperative or group need to document their product before combining it with others, not to mention be able to calculate anticipated yields and selling prices.

Income-generation - If a farmer is thinking of starting a new income-generating activity, that’s another important reason for keeping records. There are several methods of food-transformation that can increase food security and add value to an agricultural product. Added value increases the selling price, and that can increase a farmer’s income. But if a mango farmer, let’s say, wants to dry mangoes and sell them in the off season, he or she needs to know what they will cost to produce, including what it will cost to grow the mangoes. Recordkeeping may be a prerequisite to starting a new business in the future, so that’s all the more reason to get a farmer started keeping records now.

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Increased food security - One of the most life-changing applications of a system of recording and planning is one that isn’t driven only by you and your farmer. At the community level, forecasting and planning ahead makes possible the creation of village food banks for the hungry times, and community storage facilities that can help farmers escape the cycle of seasonal supply-and-demand.

Once you've got several farmers in a village accustomed to recordkeeping and adept at planning ahead, a food bank becomes an achievable goal. A food bank is a community-based method of planning ahead for the hungry season. It requires a community-wide commitment to reduce consumption patterns at the peak of harvest and bank some of that food for future use. It's not possible to create a food bank—or storage solution, for that matter—solely from good records, but it's impossible to create one without them. A community's potential for increased food security grows with every farmer who begins to keep records and plan ahead.

As mentioned earlier, recordkeeping is not familiar to many Senegalese farmers and inspiring and motivating them to keep records may not be easy at first. But it's worth the effort, because if you're successful—if you can help a farmer to start planning ahead—you're making a profoundly positive difference in his or her life.

Produce Marketing Marketing is the practice—some say art—that businesses engage in to increase their visibility, attract new customers, expand their sales area—and ultimately make more money. Marketing can take many different forms: advertising, branding, product presentation, storefront presentation, improving existing products and inventing new ones. Any business that produces a product or service can improve its profit potential by engaging in the practical art of marketing. Larger companies have entire departments that are devoted to marketing, but even sole proprietors or part-time sellers need to give due thought to their marketing strategy and opportunities.

Farmers are in the business of selling agricultural produce. Like any other sole proprietor, a farmer isn’t just the owner of his or her business, but the labor force, the sales force, the accountant and the marketing department as well. By following better business practices in these different areas, specifically in sales and marketing, farmers can increase their income without changing their line of work.

Agricultural produce marketing isn’t so much about doing something different as it is about doing something better.

How to Anticipate Seasonal Price Fluctuations The laws of supply and demand affect farmers in a unique way. Because most deal with very basic agricultural outputs, they have almost no control over what the market prices of their products are.

Thankfully, however, they also have a wide range of opportunities and strategies for evading that lack of control and using the supply and demand curve for their benefit. In order to get the most out of those opportunities, it’s important for farmers to have a basic understanding of supply and demand, how the seasons affect supply and demand in Senegal, and how that causes seasonal price fluctuations.

First, let us go over the basic concepts of how a supply and demand curve functions. In the first diagram, the upward sloping curve (S1) represents supply, and the downward sloping curve (D1) represents demand. As you can see from the demand curve, as items drop in price consumers are more likely to purchase higher quantities. The supply curve shows that, as the price of a product increases, the sale of that product becomes more enticing and sellers are motivated to produce higher quantities of it. The point on the graph where these competing interests meet is the equilibrium point. In a perfect market, the demands of the consumer and the bottom lines of the suppliers would establish this as the perfect price and quantity of the product. Obviously in practice this is uglier than this graph makes it 70

look, but understanding this basic idea will help us understand how seasonal supply can affect prices and how we can use that knowledge to find new markets and increase the profits we can gain from our agriculture.

Let’s use mangoes as an example. It is important to note that most of the agricultural products we will be discussing are inelastic in supply, meaning that market prices exert very little control over the quantity of the product supplied. Higher prices won’t yield many more mangoes, and lower prices won’t yield many less. This is represented by the relatively steep slope of the supply curve in both of these examples. The second diagram shows the supply of mangoes in August (S1) and January (S2). When mangoes are plentiful in August, prices are low. But in January, when the local supply shrinks and only imported foods are available, prices are higher. August is a buyer’s market: there are so many mangoes on the market that a customer might even be able to bargain down from the already low prices that sellers are asking. January is a seller’s market: with so few mangoes available, buyers are willing to pay more and a seller can charge much higher prices.

As mentioned above, the equilibrium point represents the price and quantity of product that the marketplace will allow—the result of the independent decisions and actions of all the different buyers and sellers in the marketplace. This inescapable equation—that prices are set by the effects of supply and demand in the marketplace—embodies both challenges and opportunities for a farmer. The challenge is how to increase sales and income given the relative lack of control over the supply of the agricultural produce, but in that challenge is also the opportunity. If a farmer can break out of this supply and demand cycle by finding a way to sell these products when no one else is, he can reap the benefits of living in a seller’s market.

One of the best ways to increase profits from agricultural production is by anticipating seasonal price fluctuations and finding ways to sell certain produce when no one else is. By doing so, a farmer can avoid falling victim to low prices and market saturation. By finding a way to sell produce when no one else is selling, a farmer will not only fetch a higher price for it, but will also be able to sell a higher quantity because demand tends to outpace supply during the lowest production times of the year. If planned correctly, anticipating seasonal price fluctuations can help farmers increase their profit margins with only a minimal increase in added labor and time commitments.

Understanding Local Markets The seasonal availability of agricultural produce in Senegal differs from region to region. In order to exploit supply and demand, it’s important for a farmer to understand the local market. This starts with an understanding of when products are usually available in a specific region throughout the year, and when they are not. If a farmer fails to accurately interpret the market for a certain good in the geographic area in which he’s selling, he will continue to be affected by the whims of the market. Without a strong grasp of seasonal price fluctuations, the planning and work necessary to take advantage of those fluctuations will likely be in vain.

Although markets are similar throughout the world, culture and lifestyle provide just enough idiosyncrasies in the mix to make it difficult for an American to fully understand certain aspects of local markets in Senegal. Unlike the US, where most individuals have some disposable income and are willing to venture out of the box to try a new product at least once, Senegalese consumers on average tend to lack any real disposable income and are also relatively risk averse. Creating a market for a product that Senegalese consumers have not seen before can be extremely difficult, but not necessarily impossible. If proper care and understanding are given to marketing a new product in a manner that mitigates local difficulties, the rewards can be great.

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Producing for Local Markets Once farmers have a good idea of the market in which they will be selling their product, they must then consider the manner in which they will exploit supply fluctuations to gain a higher profit. These options range from methods as simple as long-term storage to something as complex as food transformation and everything in between.

1. Storage - Storage is one of the simplest ways to take advantage of seasonal price fluctuations. This method unfortunately only works for products, such as grains and certain vegetables like onions and cassava, that can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling. As long as they are stored properly and don’t fall victim to rodents, weevils or forces of nature, certain crops will last throughout the year. The price of these crops right after harvest season is often much lower than it is during the rest of the year due to the glut in supply. Storage allows a farmer to bide his or her time and then sell the product when everyone else is running out of theirs and prices are on the rise.

Although this seems simple, there are obviously certain requirements and risks. The first is that farmers must be food secure enough that they can feed their families throughout the entire course of the year before they can think about storing and selling surplus. Even once this first requirement is achieved, a farmer might store grain for later sale only to find out that he wasn’t the only one, or that a glut of cheap imported foods hit the market and prices have stayed stagnant. Despite these risks, this is by far the simplest and easiest way to increase profits and food security.

2. Growing vegetables in the off season - Another way to take advantage of seasonal price fluctuations is by growing certain vegetables when no one else is growing them. This is obviously something that needs to be carefully considered, in order to make sure that a farmer has the capacity to keep a crop alive and producing in the off-season. If done correctly, however, growing certain vegetables in the off season can yield large rewards. If a grower is the only person at market with a crop, she can set the price. This allows her to bump up her profit margins without having to introduce any added inputs into her crop production. This strategy requires getting a good handle on when different vegetables are available, so growers must make sure to have reliable information before proceeding with this idea.

3. Food Transformation - If simple storage or off-season growing seem out of reach in some way (which can often be the case for produce with a short shelf-life and large water requirements such as tomatoes, for example), another way to increase profits is by transforming produce in some way.

Unlike storage or growing in the off-season, food transformation increases profits by adding value to the food by transforming it into a new product that is somehow different from the original produce.

Food transformation can be as simple as cooking the produce before it is sold, to as complicated as making natural pesticides or biofuels from produce. Some value added processes will not increase the shelf-life or storability of items (in-cycle value added) while others will allow a farmer to store certain produce for a much longer period of time than would have been possible before the transformation (out-of-cycle value added). Although both means are a way to increase profit by adding value, only out-of-cycle value added will allow a farmer to exploit seasonal price fluctuations. o In-cycle value added (Restaurant Meals, Yogurts, Juice) - In-cycle value added isn’t so much about exploiting market fluctuations as it is about escaping a market altogether. Due to the nature of raw agricultural outputs, the seller has almost no control whatsoever on the price of the good they are selling. However, if a seller transforms the raw agricultural output into a new product, they are able to escape the market for the original product and, due to the value added nature of the new product, exercise greater control over the product price. Examples of this sort of value added process include restaurant meals, yogurt and juice. All of these items have a relatively limited shelf life, but are able to fetch higher prices because the product being sold required added energy and inputs. Although these options are usually limited and don’t solve the storage conundrum, it is important to make note of all of the different ways one can try to take advantage of the supply and demand curve. o Out-of-cycle value added (Solar Drying, Canning, Syrups) - Out-of-cycle value added is some of the most capital – and labor – intensive means of taking advantage of season price fluctuations, but also some of the most efficient. Solar drying provides a means to store perishable fruits, vegetables and even meats in a dehydrated form for many months. Although this is a relatively new product in Senegal and therefore difficult to market, it is a process that can serve to not only increase the income of the producer, but increase the nutrition and food security of a community 72

at large as well. Depending on the solar dryer design, the initial costs can be a minor setback, but can allow a farmer to obtain the illustrious goal of having vegetables and fruits to sell during the off-season. Canning is even more efficient at providing a path to this goal, but can also run into bigger problems. Canning equipment can be expensive, and non-sanitized or improperly sealed cans can lead to the growth of deadly bacterial infections. Canning is a great system if done on a higher level, but may be out of reach for many small operations. The third way of increasing the longevity of agricultural products through a value added food transformation process is the creation of syrups (juice concentrates). Syrups are a great way to increase income, but not food security. Like canning, the production of syrups is also capital intensive, and requires a high level of sanitation.

These descriptions are not intended to discourage farmers from pursuing out-of-cycle food transformation, but rather warn against the many pitfalls they pose. Out-of-cycle food transformation is easily one of the most efficient and effective means of taking advantage of seasonal price shifts, and should be seriously considered as a possibility for many farmers. Due caution, however, will be needed in order to ensure that such an intensive project sees success.

Selling to Local Markets It is important to remember that regardless of the manner in which farmers sell their produce, they must always think of it as a business. In order to make the most from their agricultural production and ensure that they achieve a profit, they must first consider the basic principles of marketing to the local population, and doing the necessary research to determine whether or not their endeavor will realize a profit.

The first step to assessing a new business idea requires an understanding of the basic principles of product marketing. Knowledge of the four key principles of marketing will provide a farmer with the necessary groundwork to flesh out his or her business idea before considering whether or not it has the capacity to make a profit. We refer to these four terms as “the 4 P’s of marketing.”

The 4 P’s of Marketing 1. Product - The first step is determining the product a farmer wishes to sell. Farmers must carefully consider their resources, their skills and their capacity in order to find a product they think they can produce at a high enough level to sell it to consumers, and ensure that it is a product that consumers actually want.

2. Price - The next step is deciding the price at which the product will sell. The price has to achieve at least two opposing objectives: be high enough for the farmer to achieve a profit while at the same time be low enough that people will be willing to purchase it.

3. Place - The third step is place – the location – in which a farmer intends to sell his product. Will he buy a storefront in the marketplace, or set up a roadside stand? Will he sell directly to consumers, or to a wholesaler or even directly to retail outlets such as boutiques, hotels, or campemants?

4. Promotion - The fourth and final step is promotion. During this step farmers must consider how they are going to promote their products to consumers. This is a very important step in Senegal, since risk aversion makes Senegalese consumers unlikely to try products that they aren’t familiar with or haven’t heard of before. Although the methods for overcoming this barrier are wide in range, it’s important for farmers to think about how they are going to introduce a product into the market in a manner that allows consumers to overcome that fear.

Once the 4 P’s are understood, the farmer must take one further step and put numbers down on paper to determine if his or her business will actually earn a profit. This step is essential, but is often overlooked by individuals in Senegal who are starting a business. Because they didn’t take all of their costs into account when starting, there are many business owners who make little or no profit from their businesses, and incomplete (or non-existent) recordkeeping fails to reflect the fact that their business is actually losing them money.

In order to prevent this mishap from occurring, an individual looking to start a business must conduct what is known as a feasibility study. The basic feasibility study consists of six steps, and will allow 73

someone to determine, with relative certainty, the risks and potential profits (or lack thereof) they could make from a business venture.

Feasibility Study 1. Choose a product - The first step is the same as the first “P” of marketing, determine what product will be sold.

2. Conduct a market study - The second step is to conduct something known as a market study. A market study usually consists of conducting the research necessary to determine the last 3 “P’s” of marketing (price, place and promotion), as well as some other points, such as who the clients of the business will be, if the product interests them, and what other sellers are currently in the market and will be competing with you.

3. Determine how the business will operate - In the third step you must determine how your business will operate. In this step the individual will determine what skills and resources they need to work as well as how they will work. Who will do the accounting and how? Who will produce the product and how? Who will coordinate the workings of the business and how? This step will help better determine the costs in the coming step, as well as provide a basic outline of how the business will function so as to avoid problems and confusion later.

4. Calculate the investments and costs of the business - The fourth step is to take into account all of the investments an individual will need to make to start the business, as well as the recurring costs he or she will incur from making and selling the product. Things to take into account include, but are not limited to: raw materials, transportation, employees, selling location, packaging, advertising, training, and taxes.

5. Calculate the price of the product or service - Based upon the costs that will be incurred, the fifth step is to determine at what price the product will be able to (or need to) be sold at. This step might be moot if the individual already knows how much the product will fetch in the market. In most cases concerning value added, however, producers may be able to exercise a level of control over the price of the product.

6. Calculate the potential profit and decide: Is this business a good idea? - In the last step, the individual must determine, based upon the information they have collected and the calculations they have done, what profit they can potentially make from this business endeavor. Then it will be up to them to make the final judgment call as to whether or not the business is a good idea.

Export Potential Although export is an enticing option due to the higher disposable incomes of individuals in Europe and the United States, it is important to note the many governmental regulations and conditions that must be met in order to export abroad. For a Senegalese business to export its product, it must be an officially registered Groupement d’Interet Economique (GIE) and hold a NINEA (Tax I.D #) as well as a Carte Import-Export. This process involves many taxes, product testing and other costly fees that require a high-quality product and many months or even years to complete. Most of this information can be found at the local Chamber of Commerce office, where they should be able to guide a business through this process However, if all these obstacles can be overcome, great opportunities await. The African Growth and Opportunities Act, or AGOA, provides African businesses with special benefits that ease the process of exporting certain products to the United States. Since the act is constantly being updated and products are being added to or removed from the list regularly, the best way to see if a product has special exemptions is to look at the act’s website, agoa.gov.

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Vegetable Pages

In the following pages you will find specific information on many of the vegetables and herbs commonly grown in Senegal. The information on these pages is constantly evolving as new varieties are introduced to Senegal, and volunteers gain more and more collective experience from the field. When working with these vegetables you are encouraged to cross check your experiences with the information provided here. The experiences you have will be taken into consideration before printing new additions and incorporated into the new addition when appropriate. Additionally, if there are vegetables you have worked with extensively that are not represented here, please take the time to complete a vegetable page for that vegetable. Your PCVL can provide you with the template for the vegetable pages.

Happy Planting.

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Bean, Green Varieties (Bush) Garonel Ariel Coco Nain Blanc Royalnel Belna Picker Calvy Valdenal Findor Varieties (Pole) Mangetout Blanc de Juillet Stringless Blue Lake

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 75 – 85 days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row

Cold Season Hot Season

75 – 85 days

N/A

40cm

Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm

Typical Season Year round

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 100 days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 60cm (40cm if trellising)

Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 70cm Within-row: 50cm

Other Names Latin Phaseolus vulgaris Pulafuuta Ñebe Kecce

Wolof Ñebe Haraan Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord Ñebe Kecce Mandinka/Jahonke Soso Keroo

Fulakunda Ñebe Kecce French Haricot Vert

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct seed in pockets

375

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Seed 600g

Seeding Depth

Notes

2cm

Seed 3 beans per pocket. Thin to 1 plant per pocket at 10cm height.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 300-900g

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers Sandy Silt, well drained, rich in well-decomposed organic matter Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Giver Salinity Tolerance - Low

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to a thickness of 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Weed once every two weeks. Spot weed as needed.

IPM – Beans are susceptible to the following pests and diseases: pod borers, caterpillars, mylabre beetles, spider mites, root rot, rust, leaf burn, nematodes, aphids, and thrips. Consult the IPM Manual for specific symptoms and management.

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Fabaceae Other members include: peanut, pigeon pea, garbanzo bean, soybean, lentil, pea, and cowpea.

Companions – potatoes, carrots, cucumbers, cauliflower, cabbage, corn, peas, eggplant Antagonists – onions, garlic Intercropping Suggestions The Three Sisters (Corn, Pole Beans, and Squash) A common intercropping scheme that has been revitalized in North America is the three sisters planting. This is a particularly good intercrop because of the ways that the plants interact with each other. The corn acts as a trellis for the pole beans, the pole beans fix small amounts of nitrogen in the soil, that feeds both the corn and the squash, and the squash provides ground cover to aid in soil moisture retention.

1. Direct seed corn at 40cm between-row, 60cm within-row 2. When corn is 10cm high (1 to 2 weeks), direct seed pole beans in two staggered rows on either side of each row of corn. 40cm within-row, 20cm between-row, with 15cm between each bean and corn plant.

3. Wait 1 week and direct seed squash at 1m spacing in center of bed.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into soil before seeding.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest green beans after they have reached full size but before they become tough and stringy.

Seed Processing – To harvest seed for re-planting, wait until pods start to turn yellow. Harvest before they turn fully brown and dry out. Allow to fully dry in shade. Once pods are fully dry, place in a rice sack and beat against the ground or a wall to shatter shells. Winnow broken shells to remove. Shells make great mulch. In villages, this is also commonly done by placing the dry pods in a large mortar, and gently pounding them with a pestle.

Storage – Once fully dry, store in an air-tight container. Bean seed is particularly susceptible to weevils. It is recommended that bean seed be treated with phostoxin prior to long term storage.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding - Beans are an inbreeding plant with a perfect flower which makes it difficult (but not impossible) to cross breed with other varieties. If growing for seed, make sure there is at least 50m between two different varieties. Common beans will not cross with other members of the family such as peanut or pigeon pea.

Varietal Selection – When selecting for bean seed to save, look for the following: Resistance to aphids and/or nematodes – Beans are highly susceptible to these two pests. If you have a few plants that seem to be doing fine in the presence of these pests, save the seed for the next planting.

Drought tolerance High yield 77

Bitter Tomato (US: Tomato Fruited Eggplant) Varieties Soxna Keur Mbir Ndao Ngalan

Typical Season Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 130-200days

Time in Nursery 30-40 days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 60cm Within-row: 40cm

Other Names Latin Solanum integrifolium Pulafuuta Jaxatu/Jagatu

Wolof Jaxatu Sereer Jaxatu

Pulaar du Nord Jaxatu Mandinka/Jahonke Jaxato/Jatoo

Fulakunda Jaxatu/Jagatu French N/A

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

23,000

4g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Seed 6g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Sow 1-2 seeds every 2-3cm. Thin to 1 plant per space when plants have 2 leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 800g-2kg

Propagation Tips Transplant bitter tomato to a depth that submerges any semi-lignified part of the stem. Strip any leaves that fall below this point. If the transplant runs the risk of wilting after transplanting, strip all of the leaves except for the top most 2 sets. When stripping leaves pinch them off with fingernails or use a sharp, clean knife. Never pull off leaves as this can damage the stem. If the transplant has a significant bend in the stem, plant it horizontally so that the portion of the stem that emerges from the soil is vertical and straight.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers loamy soil, rich in organic matter. Tolerates sandy and clayey soils if high in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance – Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Solanaceae Other Members Include: Pepper, tomato, tomatillo, eggplant, nightshade, potato, and tobacco.

Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting bitter tomato at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce.

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Care and Maintenance Watering – Nursery: 2L/m2 daily After Transplantation: 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Bitter tomato is susceptible to caterpillars, spider mites, leafhoppers, temphyliose, rust, nematodes, cecidomie, downy mildew, and aphids. Consult IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into nursery before seeding.

40g/m2 worked into soil before transplantation.

30g/m2 at 20, 40, and 60 days after transplantation.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest begins 45 to 50 days after transplanting and continues for an additional 55-125 days. Harvest fruits when they are 6-10cm in diameter and greenish, orangey, yellowish, or whitish.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Pick bitter tomato and discard any fruits that show signs of rot or insect infestation. Store in a cool dry place. Bitter tomato can be stored for 3-4 days after harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Allow fruits to fully mature before harvesting. Fully mature bitter tomato will be orange, yellow, or white in color. Cut fruits into chunks and place in a round bowl. Use a spoon to mash the seeds from the pulp. Fill the bowl with water. The pulp and nonviable seed will float to the top. The viable seed will sink to the bottom. Pour off the pulp and nonviable seed. Spread the viable seed on a sifter screen or glass/ceramic surface to dry in the shade.

Seed Storage – Bitter tomato seed needs to be kept in a cool dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid. Properly stored bitter tomato seed will remain viable for 8-12 months. If saving bitter tomato seed in the rainy season when ambient humidity is an issue, mix one teaspoon of powdered milk in with the seed to absorb moisture.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Bitter tomato is an inbreeding plant with perfect flowers, but insect crosspollination is common. Although Bitter tomato is a different species than standard eggplant, there is some confusion about whether or not the two plants will cross breed. To ensure seed purity, bag flowers before they open or isolate from other bitter tomato and eggplant by at least 100m.

Varietal Selection Marketability - Like many vegetables in Senegal, the ones that sell best are the ones that are the proper size for the lunch bowl. Avoid saving seed from extremely large bitter tomato. Because it is impossible to tell the size of the bitter tomato while it is still flowering, use the isolation method, or bag and mark many flowers and then harvest only the marked bitter tomatoes of the proper size.

Pest and Disease Resistance – Bitter tomato is highly susceptible to fruit flies and nematodes. When selecting plants for seed saving, look for plants that show signs of resistance to these two pests.

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Cabbage Varieties Balli (Hybrid)

Typical Season Cold Season Hot Season

Africa Cross Superette Fama Summer H50 (Hybrid)

Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Fabula Marche de Copenhague Green Express Africana (Hybrid) Falrea Tropica Cross (Hybrid)

Cold Season

Hot Season

Cycle (Seeding Time in Spacing – to Harvest) Nursery Hexagonal 85-130days 20-30days (large head) 40cm (small head) 25 cm 85-130days 20-30days (large head) 40cm (small head) 25 cm 85-130days 20-30days (large head) 40cm (small head) 25 cm 85-130days

20-30days

(large head) 40cm (small head) 25 cm

Spacing – Row (Large Head) Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm (Small Head) Between-row: 25cm Within-row: 25cm (Large Head) Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm (Small Head) Between-row: 25cm Within-row: 25cm (Large Head) Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm (Small Head) Between-row: 25cm Within-row: 25cm (Large Head) Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm (Small Head) Between-row: 25cm Within-row: 25cm

Other Names Latin Brassica oleracea Pulafuuta Supome

Wolof Supome Sereer Supome

Pulaar du Nord Supome Mandinka/Jahonke Supome

Fulakunda Supome French Chou

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

31,400

4g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 1,500 plants

Seed 9.5g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 1-2 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery row. Thin to 1 plant per space when plants have 2 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 2.5-4kg

Propagation Tips Transplant cabbage when they have 4-6 true leaves. Plant just up to the root collar. Try not to submerge true leaves with soil. If necessary, pinch or cut off larger leaves to prevent wilting after transplanting.

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Soil and Amendments Soil – Cabbage grows well in most soils. Prefers soil rich in organic matter. The more compost the better.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance – Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Brassicaceae Other members include: cauliflower, kale, collards, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, horseradish, mustard greens, rutabaga, turnip, Chinese cabbage, radish, watercress Companions – Beet, onion, bean, potato, garlic, carrot, peppermint, hibiscus Antagonists –Tomato, pole bean Intercropping Suggestions Cabbage and Bissap – Cabbage and hibiscus can go well together. To intercrop cabbage and hibiscus: 1. Direct seed bissap at 40cm row spacing in a clean, double-dug garden bed.

2. When bissap plants are 25-30cm high, transplant cabbage transplants in the center of each square that the bissap forms.

3. Mulch around the plants.

Cabbage and Onions – Cabbage and onions grow well together 1. Start cabbage and onions in nursery on the same date.

2. 20-30 days later transplant cabbage at 40cm hexagonal spacing 3. 10-25 days later (40-55 days from seeding) transplant onions in diagonal lines between cabbage at 10cm spacing.

4. NOTE: Traditional onion cultivation in Senegal requires stopping watering cycles to allow onions to dry in the soil before harvest. Cabbage heads must be harvested before onions are fully mature to allow for this process. Alternatively you can encourage out-of-ground drying for a quicker harvest, and to free up growing space.

Care and Maintenance Watering — Nursery: 2l/m2 daily. After Transplant: 5L/m2 daily. NOTE: Be sure to water cabbage very regularly. If Cabbage becomes used to draught conditions and then receives an abrupt increase in water, maturing heads can burst, resulting in unmarketable produce.

Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Weed once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Cabbage is highly susceptible to caterpillar attacks. Treat for caterpillars before cabbage goes to head. Once caterpillars have established themselves inside the cabbage head they are extremely difficult to control and can ruin crops. Cabbage is also susceptible to aphids and mildew. See IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 30 g/m2 worked into soil before transplantation.

20 g/m2 top worked into soil 20 and 35 days after transplantation.

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Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – The outer fan leaves of cabbage can be harvested in small quantities without affecting the development of the head. For head cabbage, harvest when the heads are firm to the touch. In Senegal, smaller heads are often more marketable because they do not need to be cut into rice bowl-sized portions at the market. If the cabbage head is cut off the plant at the base rather than uprooted, it is possible to get a second harvest of 2-4 small heads from the same plant.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – If kept cool and dry, cabbage heads can be stored for 5-7 days. If the cabbage is harvested when slightly larger than the desired end result it will store for longer as the outer, damaged leaves can be peeled away prior to sale or cooking.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – To gather cabbage seed, leave the cabbage in the ground until the head is well developed. Once the head is large and fully formed, use a clean, sharp knife to cut an “X” across the top to a depth of 3-5cm. From this cut, a flower stalk will emerge from the cabbage. Allow the pods to fully mature and start to turn yellow. Once they are nearly dry (but not fully) harvest the pods and allow to dry in the shade. Gently shatter the pod casings in a mortar and pestle and winnow off the chaff.

Seed Storage – Cabbage is a hard, durable seed and can be saved for 1 year or more. Be sure to store seed in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Cabbage has perfect flowers, but is outbreeding and self-incompatible. This means that while the pollen from one plant is viable, it requires insect pollination from another plant for fertilization to occur. When saving cabbage seed, it is important to have as many flowering plants as possible to ensure large quantities of seed. CAUTION: kale, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi, romanesco, and collards are all cultivars of Brassica oleracea and will cross breed if flowering in the same area at the same time. If growing any of these vegetables within 1km, remove plants that you do not want to enter the gene pool before they go to flower. In Senegal it is uncommon for gardeners to allow their cabbages to go to seed,

and is therefore unlikely that you will come into crossbreeding problems from neighboring gardens.

Varietal Selection Marketability – In Senegal smaller heads of cabbage are more marketable than larger heads. When selecting plants to save seed, look for plants that develop a small, compact head early in the cycle.

Mark these with a bright piece of thread or yarn and allow to go to seed.

Pest Resistance – Cabbage is extremely susceptible to caterpillar attack. When saving seed, look for plants that show little to no caterpillar damage.

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Carrot Varieties (Conical) Kinko Chantenay Royal Cross (Hybrid) Nataise New Kuruda Varieties (Cylindrical) Touchon Naintaise Tantel

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 100-120days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 5-10cm

Spacing – Row

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 100-120days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 5-10cm

Spacing - Row

Between-row: 2030cm Within-row: 5cm

Between-row: 2030cm Within-row: 5cm

Other Names Latin Daucus carota Pulafuuta Karot

Wolof Karot Sereer Karot

Pulaar du Nord Karot Mandinka/Jahonke Karootoo

Fulakunda Karot French Carotte

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct seed in line

81,200

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Seed 80g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed in lines, thin to 1 plant every 56cm when plants are 5-10cm tall.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-4kg

Propagation Tips Carrots are cool weather crops and germinate best if the soil surface does not dry out. Mulching on top of a freshly seeded bed will help keep soil temperatures moist and cool and improve germination rates. The mulch must be removed just before the carrots start to break the soil surface. If seedlings have started to sprout before the mulch has been removed, remove the mulch gently, without damaging the young seedlings.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Carrot prefers sandy, well-drained soils, high in organic matter. Carrot does not tolerate salinity in water or soil.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder Salinity Tolerance – Medium

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Apiceae Other Members Include: celery, dill, chervil, coriander (cilantro), fennel, parsnip, parsley Companions – pea, lettuce, onions, tomatoes, beans, cauliflower, cabbage, turnips Antagonists – dill Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme – Carrots can be intercropped with a variety of vegetables with noncompetitive root and leaf structures. Planting 2-3 lines of carrot between pepper, eggplant, jaxatu, okra, or bissap planted at 40cm hexagonal spacing is a common way to intercrop with carrot.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Once carrot seedlings have sprouted it is very difficult to mulch around them without damaging them. Instead of mulching young carrots, provide shade for them by using mesh cloth or intercropping with other, taller, shade providing plants such as tomato, pepper, or eggplant Weeding – Because carrot seedlings are so easy to damage it is important to allow weed seeds to sprout and be weeded before sowing carrot seed. Once Carrot seeds have sprouted, gently spot weed as necessary. Once carrots are more mature, weed once every two weeks as usual.

IPM – Carrots have few issues with insect attack, but are highly desired by rats and other rodents. Garlic and onion sprays can be an effective rodent repellent. In the rainy season carrots have a number of issues with fungal disease and mildews. See IPM manual for more information.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 50g/m2 worked into soil before planting 30g/m2 top-worked into soil 20 and 40 days after planting

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest Carrots 100-120 days from seeding, when the top of the carrot root looks mature and begins to push from the surface of the soil.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Wash the soil off and allow to dry in the shade. Store in a cool dry place for up to 4-5 days from harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Carrots are biennial crops that require a cool, dormant period to set seed. There is only one variety of carrot “Uberlandia” that can set seed in the tropics. It is available from ECHO at www.echocommunity.site-ym.com.

Seed Storage – Store carrot seed in a cool, dry place preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid. If properly stored, carrot seed will maintain viability for 6-8 months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Most varieties of carrot do not set seed in the tropics.

Varietal Selection – N/A

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Cauliflower Varieties Farmers Early (hybrid) White Contessa (hybrid) Everest Boule de Neice Tropical D’Erfut

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding Time in to Harvest) Nursery 70-110days 25-30 days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm

Other Names Latin Brassica oleracea Pulafuuta N/A

Wolof N/A Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord N/A Mandinka/Jahonke N/A

Fulakunda N/A French Chou Fleur

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

31,400

4g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Seed 6.75g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 2-3 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery row. Thin to 1 plant per space when transplants have 2 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 800g-2kg

Propagation Tips Transplant Cauliflower up to the root collar. Try not to submerge any true leaves with soil when transplanting. Strip off lower leaves if plants are running the risk of wilting after transplanting.

Soil and Amendments Soil – All soil types, rich in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance - Medium

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Brassicaceae Other members include: Cabbage, kale, collards, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, horseradish, mustard greens, rutabaga, turnip, Chinese cabbage, radish, watercress Companions – Bean Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting cauliflower at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low-level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce. Plant root crops at appropriate spacing in rows between rows of cabbage.

Care and Maintenance Watering – In Nursery – 1L/m2 twice a day After Transplanting - 5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Weed once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Cauliflower is prone to attack by caterpillars and aphids. Cauliflower flowers can also be prone to fungal disease and mildew. When watering, try to avoid wetting the maturing flowers. See IPM manual for appropriate treatment.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into nursery before seeding.

40g/m2 worked into soil before transplanting.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest Cauliflower when flowers are large and firm.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Cauliflower does not store long. After harvest, keep stems wrapped in a damp cloth, or keep submerged in water. Eat or sell cauliflower within 12-24 hours of harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Allow cauliflower to stay in the ground until past the point of harvest.

The flowers will bolt, creating seed pods that are very similar to cabbage. Harvest pods when they start to turn yellow, and allow them to dry in the shade. After they are fully dry, shatter the pods and winnow off the chaff.

Seed Storage – Cauliflower has a hard, durable seed and can be saved for 1 year or more. Be sure to store seed in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with tight-fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Cauliflower has perfect flowers, but is outbreeding and self-incompatible. When saving cabbage seed, it is important to have as many flowering plants as possible to ensure large quantities of seed. CAUTION: Kale, broccoli, cabbage, collards, Brussels sprouts, and kohlrabi are all cultivars of Brassica oleracea and will cross breed if flowering in the same area at the same time. If growing any of these vegetables within 1km, remove plants that you do not want to enter the gene pool before they go to flower. In Senegal it is uncommon for gardeners to grow cauliflower, let alone to allow it to go to seed, and is therefore unlikely that you will come into crossbreeding problems from neighboring gardens.

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Varietal Selection Heat/Drought Tolerance – Cauliflower is a cool weather-loving crop and does not do well in high heat or with lack of water. When selecting cauliflower for seed look for plants that do not show signs of wilting during the hot part of the day.

General Information Cauliflower is a relatively unknown crop outside of the major urban areas along the coast. Before planting on a large scale, identify a potential market and assess whether or not cauliflower is worth the time, labor, and money investment.

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Cucumber Varieties Poinset High Mark II (hybrid) NewMarket

Victory (hybrid) Dasher (hybrid) Breso (hybrid)

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 85-120days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 1m (on ground) 50cm (on trellis)

Rainy Season

85-120days

N/A

1m (on ground) 50cm (on trellis)

Spacing – Row Between -row: 1.5m (on ground) Within-row: 40cm (on ground) Between-row: 50cm (on trellis) Within-row: 50cm (on trellis) Between -row: 1.5m (on ground) Within-row: 50cm (on ground) Between-row: 50cm (on trellis) Within-row: 50cm (on trellis)

Other Names Latin Cucumis sativus Pulafuuta N/A

Wolof N/A Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord N/A Mandinka/Jahonke N/A

Fulakunda N/A French Concombre

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Bed

Direct seed in pockets

3,500

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Direct 30g

Seeding Depth

Notes

2-3cm

Plant 2 seeds per pocket, then thin to 1 plant per pocket when plants are 10cm tall. Re-seed if necessary.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 3-8kg

Soil and Amendments Soil – All soil types, rich in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance - Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Cucurbitaceae Other Members Include: gourd, watermelon, squash, zucchini, cantaloupe, honeydew, and luffa.

Companions – Bean, corn, pea, radish, okra, lettuce.

Antagonists – Potato 88

Intercropping Suggestions – If allowed to sprawl on the ground, cucumbers make poor partners in any intercropping scheme. If properly trellised, there are a large number of intercrops that can work well.

Cucumber intercropped with root crops – Place a cucumber trellis (see section on vegetable support) in the center of the garden bed. Direct seed cucumber at 50cm line spacing. Direct seed carrot, turnip, radish, or beet in lines between the two rows of cucumber. Direct seed one line of root crop on the outside of each row of cucumber. As the cucumber starts to grow, make sure that it begins to climb the trellis, freeing space for the other root crops to grow.

Cucumber intercropped with cabbage - Place a cucumber trellis (see section on vegetable support) in the center of the garden bed. Transplant one row of cabbage down the center of the bed at 30cm spacing. Direct seed cucumber in two rows at 50cm spacing on either side of the cabbage. Direct seed lines of root crops, or transplant lettuce in a single line on the outside edges of the bed. As the cucumber starts to grow, make sure that it begins to climb the trellis, freeing space for the other root crops to grow.

Cucumber intercropped with lettuce - Place a cucumber trellis (see section on vegetable support) in the center of the garden bed. Transplant lettuce at 10cm line spacing throughout the entire bed.

Direct seed cucumber in two rows at 50cm spacing. As the cucumber starts to grow, make sure that it begins to climb the trellis, freeing space for the lettuce. As the lettuce starts to crowd into each other, pull out every other head in staggered rows. The end result should be lettuce planted at 20cm hexagonal spacing. When those heads are mature, cut them at the base instead of pulling the whole head out. Wait for heads to reform and then pull them for a third harvest. At this point the cucumber should be covering the trellis and producing fruit.

Cucumber intercropped with okra – At the beginning of the hot season, direct seed okra and cucumber at 60cm spacing with 20cm between the okra and the cucumber. When the cucumber starts to send out tendrils, train them to climb the okra.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 7.5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Mulch 10-15cm around base of plants. If cucumbers are not trellised, apply 20-25cm mulch underneath fruits to keep them dry. Cucumbers are particularly prone to fungal attacks. Make sure that mulch does not come into contact with plant stems.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Cucumbers are susceptible to a wide variety of pest and disease problems including fruit flies, red melon beetles, caterpillars, beetles, stink bugs, aphids and white flies. Consult IPM manual for proper control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into soil before seeding.

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Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest cucumbers when skin starts to smooth and turns a dark green color. If the color starts to pale, they are turning over-ripe.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Store cucumber in a cool, dry place. Cucumbers will store for 3-4 days after harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – To harvest cucumber seed, leave the cucumbers on the vine until well past the time you would pick them for consumption. A mature cucumber will turn yellow, and the outer rind will get tough and leathery, similar to squash rind. Cucumber seed is encased in a gelatinous sack and must undergo a fermentation process to become viable. Place cucumber seeds into a bowl and add an equal amount of water to seed. Place in a safe, cool place for 2-4 days. The mixture will smell terrible, and may form a skin of mold across the surface of the water. After 2-4 days most of the seeds should have sunk to the bottom. Fill the bowl the rest of the way with water and then drain. Wash the seeds thoroughly in a sifter screen and then allow to dry in the shade.

Seed Storage – Store cucumber seed in a cool dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid. If stored properly, cucumber seed should stay viable for 8-10months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Cucumbers have imperfect flowers and are insect pollinated. Cucumbers will readily cross with any other variety of cucumber. Caution is advised if neighboring farmers or gardeners are growing hybrid varieties of cucumber. Hand pollination is highly recommended for maintaining seed purity (see section on hand pollination). Cucumbers will NOT cross pollinate with melon, watermelon, or squash.

Varietal Selection Marketability – In Senegal, cucumbers are primarily eaten in fresh green salads. Early in the growing season, try to identify plants that produce bitter fruit and destroy them. Only save seed from sweet tasting cucumber as cucurbatacins (the chemical compound responsible for bitterness) are toxic to humans.

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Eggplant (Gambia: Garden Egg) Varieties Black Beauty Mbeung Mbeung Early Prolific Violette Longue Violett Grosse Indienne Kalenda F1 (hybrid)

Typical Season Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 160-180days

Time in Nursery 30-50 days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 75cm Within-row: 50cm

Other Names Latin Solanum melongena Pulafuuta Batanse/Patanse

Wolof Batanse/Patanse Sereer Batanse/Patanse

Pulaar du Nord Batanse/Patanse Mandinka/Jahonke Patanso/Patansee

Fulakunda Batanse/Patanse French Aubergine

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

23,000

4g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Seed 6g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 2 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery rows. Thin to 1 plant per space when plants have 2 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 2.5-4kg

Propagation Tips Transplant eggplant to a depth that submerges any semi-lignified part of the stem. Strip any leaves that fall below this point. If the transplant runs the risk of wilting after transplanting strip all of the leaves except for the top most 2 sets. When stripping leaves pinch them off with fingernails or use a sharp, clean knife. Never pull off leaves as this can damage the stem. If the transplant has a significant bend in the stem, plant the stem horizontally so that the portion of the stem that emerges from the soil is vertical and straight.

Soil and Amendments Soil – All soil types, rich in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance - Medium

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Solanaceae Other Members Include: Pepper, tomato, tomatillo, jaxatu, nightshade, potato, and tobacco.

Companions – bean, onion, potato Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting eggplant at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low-level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce.

Care and Maintenance Watering – Nursery: 2L/m2 daily After Transplant: 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10 – 15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Eggplant is susceptible to fruit flies, caterpillars, leafhoppers, rust, nematodes, and spider mites.

Consult the IPM manual for control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 work into nursery before seeding.

50g/m2 work into soil before transplantation.

25g/m2 top-worked at 40, 60, and 80 days after planting.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest eggplant when fruits are a deep purple and firm. If the color starts to dim to a duller shade of purplish brown, this is the last point that they can be consumed. Harvesting begins about 60 days after transplanting and continues for an additional 60-120 days.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Once picked, eggplant can store for 3-5 days.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – When harvesting eggplant for seed, leave the fruit on the vine past the point of harvest for consumption. The eggplant will turn brown and leathery when it is fully mature. Cut mature fruit into chunks and soak in water for 12-24 hours. Once the chunks have been soaked place them in a round bowl a few at a time and use a spoon to mash the seeds from the pulp. Fill the bowl with water so the pulp and nonviable seeds will float to the top while the viable seeds sink to the bottom.

Pour off the pulp and nonviable seeds. Place viable seeds on a sifter screen or glass surface and leave in the shade to dry.

Seed Storage – Eggplant seed is harder than the seeds of other members of the Solanaceae family but is still susceptible to humidity problems in storage. Store in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid. If saving seed in the rainy season when ambient humidity is high, mixing a teaspoon of powdered milk in with the seed will help absorb moisture.

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Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Eggplants are inbreeding plants with perfect flowers that are primarily self-pollinating.

However, the flowers are large enough that insect pollination does occur. Because of this, it is common for two varieties of eggplant to cross-pollinate. When saving seed it is a good idea to bag flowers before they open or isolate plants from other varieties for at least 100m. NOTE: Jaxatu is a different species of eggplant but there is some confusion over whether or not it can crossbreed with standard eggplant. Use bags, or physical isolation if saving seed for eggplant and jaxatu at the same time.

Varietal Selection Marketability – Like many vegetables in Senegal, the ones that sell best are the ones that are the proper size for the lunch bowl. Avoid saving seed from extremely large eggplant. Because it is impossible to tell the size of the eggplant while it is still flowering, use the isolation method, or bag and mark many flowers and then harvest only the marked eggplants of the proper size.

Pest and Disease Resistance – Eggplant, like all members of the Solanaceae family are highly susceptible to nematodes and spider mites. When saving seed, look for plants that show signs of resistance to these two pests.

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Hibiscus/Roselle (The Gambia: Sorrel) Varieties (Flowers)

Typical Season Year round

Varieties Local

Varieties (Leaves) Varieties Local

Typical Season Year round

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 130 days

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 60-120 days

Time in Nursery N/A

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Hexagonal 20cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 60cm Within-row: 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 25cm Within-row: 15cm

Other Names Latin Hibiscus sabdariffa

Pulafuuta Folere

Wolof Bissap Sereer Fassap

Pulaar du Nord Folere Mandinka/Jahonke Kucaa/Daa

Fulakunda Folere French Oseille de Guiné

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct seed in pockets

1,800

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Seed 78g

Seeding Depth

Notes

2cm

Seed 2 seeds per pocket. Thin to 1 plant per space at 10cm height.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – Leaves – 1-2kg; Dried Flowers – 50-60g

Soil and Amendments Soil – Grows in all soil types, prefers soils that are rich in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder Salinity Tolerance - High

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into soil before seeding.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Weed once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

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IPM – Hibiscus is susceptible to caterpillars, aphids, altise, downy mildew, cercosporiose nematodes, and leaf burn. Consult the IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting Leaves – Harvest leaves as needed for home use or sale as needed.

Flowers – 35-40 days after start of flowering.

Vegetable Processing and Storage Leaves – Hibiscus leaves are generally cooked fresh. Leaves store for about 24 hours after being picked.

Flowers – White hibiscus flowers are generally cooked fresh and do not store for more than 48 hours once picked. Red hibiscus flowers are generally dried in the shade for later use in hibiscus juice or tea.

Dried hibiscus flowers can be stored for many months.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – For seed harvesting, leave the flower on the plant until well past the point that you would want to harvest for human consumption. When the seed pod inside starts to dry and crack open, harvest the pods, allow them to dry in the shade, and then crack them all the way open.

Seed Storage – Store hibiscus seeds in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid.

Hibiscus seed can be stored for 6 months to 1 year before viability decreases.

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Malvaceae Other Members Include: Okra Intercropping Suggestions Traditional Intercropping – Traditionally in Senegal hibiscus is planted in lines around the edges of fields during the rainy season and around the edges of garden beds throughout the year. If properly spaced and thinned this can be a very good practice. Hibiscus tends to attract beneficial insects to the garden and can act as a low level wind break or shade provider to more sensitive plants such as lettuce or young seedlings and transplants. Hibiscus is also sometimes interspersed with field crops by adding a few seeds into the machine seeder.

Standard Intercropping Scheme – When planting hibiscus at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce.

Hibiscus and Cabbage – Hibiscus and cabbage can go well together. Caterpillars and mealy bugs tend to gravitate more toward the hibiscus, leaving the cabbage alone. To intercrop hibiscus and cabbage: 1. Direct seed hibiscus at 40cm row spacing in a clean, double-dug garden bed.

2. When hibiscus plants are 25-30cm high, transplant cabbage transplants in the center of each square that the hibiscus forms.

3. Mulch around the plants.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Hibiscus has perfect, self-pollinating flowers, but can be cross pollinated with other varieties of hibiscus through insect pollination. For pure seed, isolate hibiscus crops by 1km or bag individual flowers before they open.

Varietal Selection – In Senegal, dark red hibiscus flowers, and greenish white hibiscus flowers are the most marketable. When saving seed, try to avoid cross-pollination between these two as they will result in an unmarketable pink hibiscus flower. If saving seed for leaf cultivation, look for plants that produce large, healthy dark green leaves.

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Lettuce Varieties Gina Mindello Brillantine

Pierre Benitte Trinity Blonde de Paris Minetto Eden

Typical Season Hot season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 60-100 days

Time in Nursery 20-25 days

Cold Season Hot Season Cold Season

60-100 days

Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

60-100 days

20-25 days 20-25 days 20-25 days

60-100 days

Spacing – Hexagonal 10cm (small heads) 20 cm (medium heads) 30cm (large heads) Same as Previous Same as Previous Same as Previous

Spacing – Row Between-row: 10cm Within-row: 10cm (small heads) Between-row: 20cm Within-row: 20cm (medium heads) Between-row: 30cm Within-row:30cm (large heads) Same as Previous Same as Previous Same as Previous

Other Names Latin Lactuca sativa Pulafuuta Salaat

Wolof Salaat Sereer Salaat

Pulaar du Nord Salaat Mandinka/Jahonke Salaato

Fulakunda Salaat French Laitue

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

88,200

2.5g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 5,00010,000 plants

Seed 11-22g

Seeding Depth

Notes

0.8mm

Seed in lines and thin to 1cm spacing OR broadcast seed nursery, scratch into surface, and thin to 1cm.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-2kg

Propagation Tips Transplant to the depth of the root collar. Try not to submerge any true leaves in soil. If transplants are running any risk of wilting, remove any larger leaves before transplanting. Lettuce will take better if it is transplanted in the evening instead of the morning.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers silty soil that is high in organic matter, but will grow in most soils. Lettuce is not tolerant of soil or water salinity or acidity.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder Salinity Tolerance - Medium 96

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Asteraceae Other Members Include: Endive, chicory, artichoke, sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke Companions – Carrot, radish, cucumber, onion, garlic, strawberry Planting Suggestions Tight Spacing – Planting lettuce at 10cm hexagonal spacing will yield small heads that will sell for between 25 and 75 fcfa per head. The benefit of this spacing system is that the heads are harvested before the leaves have a chance to turn bitter. This system can be particularly useful if growing lettuce during the hot season when lettuce tends to turn bitter and bolt before a head forms.

Medium Spacing – Planting lettuce at 20cm hexagonal spacing will yield medium sized heads that will sell for between 50 and 150 fcfa per head. This spacing offers a nice balance between the benefits of the tight and wide spacing.

Wide Spacing – Planting lettuce at 30cm hexagonal spacing will yield large heads that will sell for between 100 and 200 fcfa per head. If growing lettuce in the hot season it tends to turn bitter and bolt before reaching a mature size. This system also does not maximize use of garden space while the lettuce is maturing.

The Triple Harvest Scheme – It’s possible to find a profitable balance between the tight spacing and medium spacing by transplanting lettuce on 10cm row spacing. Once the lettuce has grown to the point that it is beginning to overcrowd, harvest the lettuce by pulling out every other head of lettuce in staggered rows. The lettuce remaining in the bed should now be at 20cm hexagonal spacing. Leave these heads in the bed until they are beginning to overcrowd and then harvest them by cutting the head of lettuce at the base, leaving 3-4 of the lower leaves remaining. A second head will grow back.

Leaves from these heads need to be tasted daily to monitor for leaf bitterness. As soon as the leaves show signs of bitterness, harvest the entire bed by removing the plants. The first harvest should yield 25-75 fcfa per head. The second harvest should yield 50-150 fcfa per head. The third harvest should yield an additional 25-75 fcfa per head.

Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme – Lettuce works well when intercropped with any taller growing vegetables that will provide shade. For any vegetables that are planted at standard 40cm spacing, 2-3 lines of lettuce can be planted between diagonal rows at 10-20cm hexagonal spacing.

Lettuce and Cucumber - Place a cucumber trellis (see section on vegetable support) in the center of the garden bed. Transplant lettuce at 10cm line spacing throughout the entire bed. Direct seed cucumber in two rows at 50cm spacing. As the cucumber starts to grow, make sure that it begins to climb the trellis, freeing space for the lettuce. As the lettuce starts to crowd into each other, pull out every other head in staggered rows. The end result should be lettuce planted at 20cm hexagonal spacing. When those heads are mature, cut them at the base instead of pulling the whole head out.

Wait for heads to reform and then pull them for a third harvest. At this point the cucumber should be covering the trellis and producing fruit.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily. Avoid watering lettuce in the heat of the day as the leaves are prone to sun burn.

Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Lettuce is susceptible to caterpillars, septoriose, and nematodes. Lettuce is not as adversely affected by nematode infestation as tomato, pepper, eggplant, jaxatu, and bean. Consult IPM manual for further information on appropriate pest control.

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Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into nursery 25g/m2 worked into soil 1 week before transplantation 25g/m2 worked into soil 20 days after transplantation 40g/m2 worked into soil 40 days after transplantation

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest lettuce 15-80 days after transplantation depending on the desired head size.

Cutting the head from the base instead of pulling it out by the roots will allow for a second harvesting from the same plant. If growing a second head, monitor daily and harvest as soon as any signs of bitterness occur.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Harvest lettuce heads, rinse them off and shake them free of water.

Lettuce wilts quickly after harvest, but wilting can be postponed by keeping the base of the heads submerged in water. If traveling long distances, wrap lettuce in a damp (not wet) cloth with plenty of ventilation. Lettuce will store for no longer than 36 hours once harvested.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – As soon as lettuce has a fully formed head, the leaves will begin to turn bitter, and it will send up a central stalk that will produce yellow flowers. This process is called bolting.

The petals will then fall off, and dandelion like seeds will form inside after about 12 days. Once the seed clusters have fully formed shake the flower heads into a bowl or bucket. This can be done daily for approximately 14 more days. Shake the harvested seed vigorously to detach the fluff from the seed and blow on it gently to winnow. Lettuce seed is harvested dry so there is no need to wash or dry it after harvest.

Seed Storage – Store seed in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with tight-fitting lid. If storing seed in the rainy season when humidity is an issue, mix 1 teaspoon of powdered milk in with the seed to absorb moisture. If stored properly, lettuce seed should maintain viability for 4-8 months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Lettuce is an inbreeding plant with self-compatible perfect flowers but can still be crosspollinated by insects. If saving lettuce for seed, separate by at least 15m from other species or bag flowers before they open.

Varietal Selection Marketability – In Senegal, although most of the available varieties of lettuce found are head forming varieties they are not typically eaten in head form as iceberg is in the United States. When selecting plants to save seed, look for individuals that form large wide leaves. Plants that are slow to form heads also have fewer problems with fungal disease, because it is easier for the interior to dry after watering.

Pest and Disease Resistance – If you know there is or has been a nematode problem in your growing area, save seed from plants that show little sign of nematode damage.

Heat and Drought Tolerance – When lettuce is stressed due to heat or drought it will bolt before forming a marketable head. Save seed from plants that are slow to bolt despite heat and drought conditions.

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Mint Varieties Ordinaire Fass Menthe (Peppermint) Morocan

Typical Season Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) Perennial

Time in Spacing – Nursery Hexagonal 5-10 10-15cm days (cuttings)

Spacing – Row Between-row: 15cm Within-row: 10-15cm

10-

Other Names Latin Mentha spp.

Pulafuuta Nana

Wolof Nana Sereer Nana

Pulaar du Nord Nana Mandinka/Jahonke Naanaa

Fulakunda Nana French Menthe

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery

Cuttings

N/A

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplants 4,500 10,000 plants

Seed N/A

Seeding Depth

Notes

N/A

When planting on a large scale, use the hydroponic nursery system for best results.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 100g every 2 weeks

Propagation Tips Mint has difficulty setting viable seed in the tropics. The easiest way to propagate mint is by dividing the roots and transplanting whole clumps. If only cut mint is available (from the market for instance) mint can be propagated by cuttings. To propagate mint by cuttings follow the following steps: Conventional Mint Propagation 1. Select stems or runners that are semi-lignified.

2. Use a clean, sharp knife to cut the stems or runners into lengths that contain at least 4 nodes.

3. Remove all leaves except the uppermost 2 sets.

4. Try not to damage stems and look for nodes that are already producing root hairs.

5. Plant mint directly into the soil at appropriate spacing OR place in a hydroponic nursery for 5-10 days and transplant at appropriate spacing once roots have established. NOTE: Success rates when planting mint directly in beds can be as low as 20-30%. Success rates when using the hydroponic nursery system are often 90-95%. See section on vegetative propagation.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Mint tolerates all soil types but prefers light, well-draining soil that is extremely high in organic matter. Mint is also highly suitable for container gardening and works well in substratum composed of 1 part compost to 2 parts peanut shell and/or rice hull.

Amendments – When growing mint in beds, use standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash. Although mint grows well in substratum while in containers, avoid adding peanut shells or rice hulls directly to the soil, as this can attract termites.

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Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Mint is a perennial and can turn into a weed if planted in standard garden beds. It is not recommended to work mint into typical crop rotation cycles. If planting in beds, plan ahead to make it a permanent mint bed.

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Lamiaceae Other Members Include: Basil, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, thyme, lavender, lemon balm Companions – Tomato, eggplant, pepper Intercropping Suggestions Mint as an Edible Ground-Cover – While generally inappropriate for growing in large garden beds that are not permanently dedicated to mint production, mint can be intercropped with other vegetables when grown in containers. Furthermore, mint can be a good ground cover around larger perennial plantings that will receive water throughout the year, such as Banana, Papaya, Guava, or Pomegranate.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/1m2 daily Mulching – Because mint is planted at a tight spacing and tends to spread across the surface of the ground, mulching is generally unnecessary.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Mint is resistant to most pests and can be used as a pest repellent for many garden insects.

However mint can be susceptible to whiteflies, flea beetles, and caterpillars. See IPM guide for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 before transplanting.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Depending on the variety mint can be harvested when it is 10-20cm high. Cut back to ground level using a sharp knife or scissors. Try not to damage the main runners of the plant.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Mint tends to wilt quickly once it has been harvested. After harvest, place mint stems in a bowl of water to prevent wilting. If traveling long distances, wrap mint in a damp (not wet) cloth. If properly cared for, fresh mint will last 2-4 days after cutting. For use in tea, mint is often dried. To dry mint, hang in a dry, shady place. Dry mint, if kept in a cool dry place, preferably in a glass jar with tight fitting lid, will store for 2-4 weeks before losing flavor.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – N/A Seed Storage – N/A

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – N/A Varietal Selection – N/A

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Moringa (Horseradish/Drumstick Tree) Varieties Local Variety

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 40-60days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 10cm

Spacing – Row Within-row: 10cm Between-row: 10cm

Other Names Latin

Wolof

Pulaar du Nord

Fulakunda

Moringa oleifera Pulafuuta Nebedai

Nebedai Sereer Nebedai

Nebedai Mandinka/Jahonke Nebedayo/Jambo Yirro

Nebedai French Ben Aille

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct Seed (pockets)

400

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A for intensive beds

Seed 2,500g

Seeding Depth

Notes

2-3cm

Plant 1 seed per pocket.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1kg every 40-60 days

Propagation Tips NOTE: Moringa has a wide variety of uses and propagation methods. For the purposes of the Gardening in Senegal and The Gambia Manual all information provided is for moringa intensive beds. For information on other uses and propagation methods, consult the Agroforestry Manual or the Health and Nutrition Manual.

Moringa Intensive Beds Moringa is a perennial tree with highly nutritious, tasty leaves. While it is typically grown as a tree, it can also be grown as an annual or biennial vegetable crop. The most efficient method for growing moringa as a vegetable is the Moringa Intensive Bed method. A moringa intensive bed is a standard double dug garden bed of any length that is planted with moringa at close 10cm spacing. The leaves can then be continuously harvested over the life of the plants. For best results throughout the year, direct seed moringa at the beginning of the rainy season so that it is well established in time for the dry season.

Moringa intensive beds are also excellent at stabilizing soil when planted on berms. When using moringa intensive beds for soil stabilization plant in hexagonal spacing.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Moringa prefers sandy or loamy soils but tolerates clayey soils so long as there is good drainage.

Moringa requires little nitrogen and will grow in depleted soils, but does best in soil that is high in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder or giver (Research is on-going concerning Moringa’s nitrogenfixing abilities.)

Salinity Tolerance - Medium

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Moringaceae Intercropping Suggestions – As moringa will stay in the soil for one or more years, it is difficult to work into intercropping systems with other annuals that are on a much shorter time span. That said, moringa is an excellent member of the garden when used as an alley cropping species are interspersed within the garden. See the agroforestry manual for more details.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Because moringa is spaced so closely in an intensive bed, and the stems are prone to fungal disease if too moist, mulching moringa intensive beds is not recommended.

Weeding – Weed once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Moringa is susceptible to nematodes, aphids, and spider mites. See IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest moringa when it is 1.2m high. Use a sharp, clean knife, or hand clippers to cut the stalks down to 20cm in height. Stalks should grow back to 1.2m in height every 40-60 days.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Moringa leaves are cooked fresh or dried and turned into powder for use as a nutritional supplement.

Fresh Leaves – Wash leaves and strip from stems. Fresh leaves will wilt 1-4 hours after harvesting.

Moringa Powder – Harvest leaves and dry them in the shade without washing (wet leaves tend to mold before they dry fully). Once leaves are fully dry, strip the dry leaves from the stems. Pound the leaves into a fine powder and then sift through a fine mesh screen to remove any stems that had stayed attached to the leaves. Store powder in a cool, dry place preferably in a glass jar with a tight fitting lid. If properly stored, moringa powder will keep for 4-6 months.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Harvest seeds when pods are fully mature and begin to dry. If the pods do not crack open easily they are not fully mature. Fully mature seeds will be hard and dark brown to black. If the seeds are very light brown or white they are not viable.

Seed Storage – Store seeds in a cool dry place. If properly stored, seeds will remain viable for 4-6 months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Moringa is an inbreeding plant with perfect, self-compatible flowers. Insect cross-pollination is possible, but flower bagging, or isolation is generally unnecessary as there is only one variety of moringa grown in Senegal.

Varietal Selection Suitability for Moringa Intensive Beds – If there are several trees in the moringa bed that take particularly well to coppicing, mark them. After two years or so, carefully uproot them and transplant them in a place where they can grow to maturity. Seeds harvested from these trees will be more likely to do well in intensive beds.

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Okra Varieties Puso Pop 12 Clemson Spineless Emerald Green Local Varieties

Typical Season Cool Season (Less productive) Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 125-160 days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row

Preferred during Rainy Season

125-160 days

N/A

40cm

Between-row: 5090cm Within-row: 4050cm

Between-row: 5090cm Within-row: 4050cm

Other Names Latin Abelmoschus esculentus Pulafuuta Kanje/Taku

Wolof Kanja Sereer Kanja

Pulaar du Nord Kanje Mandinka/Jahonke Kanjo

Fulakunda Kanje/Taku French Gombo

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct Seed (pockets)

1,800

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplants N/A

Seed 100g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1.5-2cm

Plant 2-3 seeds per pocket. Thin to 1 plant per pocket when plants are 1015cm tall.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-3kg

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers light, well-drained soil, rich in organic matter. Will tolerate heavier soils.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder.

Salinity Tolerance – Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Malvacea Other Members Include: Hibiscus, jute, cacao Companions – Pepper, cucumber Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting okra at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, lettuce, and cabbage.

Okra as a wind break and shade provider – When growing vegetables that require small amounts of shade and are susceptible to wind damage (such as lettuce and carrot), okra (like corn) can be grown in 1 row at 40cm spacing along the edge of the bed to provide shade and function as a wind break.

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Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height. Mulching before the seedlings reach the appropriate height can damage them as the mulch gets blown around in the wind, or increase the likelihood of fungal disease.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Okra is susceptible to caterpillars, aphids, altise, downy mildew, crosporiose fungus, wilting fungus, and nematodes. Consult the IPM manual for proper identification.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 20g/m2 before seeding.

30g/m2 at 30, 50, and 70 days after thinning.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Okra is able to harvest at 50-65 days after seeding and the harvesting period lasts for 55-110 days. Mature pods will range from 12-20cm and need to be harvested before becoming fibrous.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Pick or cut pods from stalk. Do not wash until immediately before cooking as excess moisture might cause them to rot in storage. Once picked, okra will last for 3-5 days.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Allow pods to mature past the point of harvest for consumption. When pods contain viable seed, they will turn brown and begin to split open. Harvest pods before they have completely opened or seed will spill to the ground. Allow pods to fully dry in the shade and then shake seed free.

Seed Storage – Okra seed is harvested dry and requires little special attention in storage. Store in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with tight fitting lid. If stored properly, okra seed will remain viable for 6-12 months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Okra is an in-breeding, self-pollinating plant with perfect flowers, but is highly prone to insect crosspollination. To prevent crossing, bag okra flowers before they open. Remove the bags and mark the pods with a piece of string once the flower has withered and begins to fall off.

Varietal Selection Marketability – In Senegal and The Gambia there are many cultivated and local varieties of okra, ranging from long and thin to short and squat, to purple in color. Talk to local vegetable sellers and members of the community to find out what is most marketable in your area. Select seed to save accordingly.

Spinelessness – Certain types of okra produce pods that have spines which cause skin irritation upon handling. Select spineless pods when saving seed.

Pest and disease resistance – Okra is susceptible to a wide host of pests. When saving seed, look for plants that show a specific resistance to the type of pest or pests that are most prevalent in your area.

Cool temperature tolerance – Okra in Senegal and The Gambia is primarily a hot and rainy season crop and prices per kilo increase dramatically toward the end of the cool season and beginning of the rainy season. If growing okra during the cool season, select seed from plants that have high yields despite cooler temperatures.

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Onion, Bulb Varieties Violet de Galmi Yakaar Red Creole Golden Creole Sonsa (salt tolerant, thrip resistant)

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season (Mixed Results)

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 110-150days

Time in Nursery 4055days

Spacing – Hexagonal 10-15cm

Spacing – Row

Rainy Season

110-150days

4050days

10-15cm

Between-row: 10cm Within-row: 10cm

Between-row: 10cm Within-row: 10cm

Other Names Latin Allium cepa Pulafuuta Basale/Jabaa/Linene

Wolof Soble Sereer Soble

Pulaar du Nord Basale/Soble Mandinka/Jahonke Jaabo

Fulakunda Basale/Jabaa/Linene French Oignon

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

29,000

3.5g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplants 10,000 plants

Seed 60g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Sow 1-2 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery rows. Thin to 1 plant per 23cm after 20 days.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 3-5kg

Propagation Tips Traditional Propagation Transplant at 40-55 days. Before transplanting cut or pinch off greens to about 5-10cm above the bulb.

Transplant so that the bulb is fully under the surface of the soil with about 3-7cm of green above the soil surface.

The “Seed” Onion Method Typically onion is seeded in the nursery after the end of the rainy season and then is harvested toward the end of the cool season. Because of this, onions are in abundance during the hot season and the beginning of the rainy season. To get a jump on the growing season and produce onions at a time of year when the market is not saturated, it is possible to create “seed” onions. A “seed” onion is a partially mature onion that can be stored for a number of months and then is re-planted so that it can finish maturation in a relatively short amount of time. To make seed onions: 1. Seed onion nursery in February.

2. Transplant them in March.

3. Stop watering them when the onion bulbs get to be about the size of a ping-pong ball.

4. Pull them and finish drying them in the shade.

5. Plant them in August or September so that they will be ready to bring to market before other members of the community have their onions out of the ground.

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Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers well-draining, loamy soils rich in organic matter. Tolerates heavier soils as long as flooding does not occur. Rocky or pebbly soils can create unmarketable blemishes. Most varieties do not tolerate soil salinity.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder.

Salinity Tolerance - Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Amaryllidaceae Other Members Include: Leek, shallot, green onion (bunching onion), Egyptian walking onion, garlic, chives, and garlic chives Companions – Beet, strawberry, tomato, lettuce, leek, cabbage, eggplant.

Antagonists – Pea, bean.

Intercropping Suggestions Intercropping for small-scale production – Onion has a compact bulb and a narrow profile leaf structure that makes it ideal for intercropping with a wide variety of crops. Typical intercrops with onions include lettuce and onion: lettuce, carrot, and onion; onion and cabbage; and onion and tomato or onion and eggplant. However, in Senegal when onions are of proper size to harvest, they are typically left in the ground as watering is slowly reduced to nothing to allow them to dry and cure before harvest. Because of this practice it can be extremely difficult to intercrop onions with any long cycle plants. Only lettuce has a short enough cycle to ensure there will be no harvesting conflicts at the end of the season.

Onion and Lettuce – Onion and lettuce work extremely well as an intercrop. There are a variety of patterns that can be followed. One that works is planting lettuce in rows at 10cm within-row and 15cm between-row spacing, and then planting a row of onions between each row of lettuce at 10cm within-row spacing. The lettuce is on a short enough cycle that it can be harvested before the onions are mature. Often times there will be enough time for a second round of lettuce to be transplanted and harvested before the onions are mature.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Onions are typically planted so far apart that they are difficult to mulch without encouraging fungal attacks on the young stems, or the mulch damaging young plants when blown around in the wind.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Onion is resistant to most pests and can be used in organic pest repellents, however they can be susceptible to thrips and rose roots. See IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

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Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before Harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 before seeding 25g/m2 before transplantation 30g/m2 at 20, 40, and 60 days after transplantation

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Traditionally in Senegal, when onions have reached a harvestable size, gardeners will wean them off water over the course of a couple of weeks to allow them to dry in the soil. At this point they are harvested and brought to market. Alternatively, it is possible to harvest onions without curing them in the soil by allowing them to dry in the shade. While this method works well, it may be more susceptible to rotting if dried improperly. If harvesting onions for immediate consumption, they do not need to be dried first.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Once onions are properly dried, store them in a mesh or burlap bag that allows for air flow (orange onion sacks are commonly available in Senegal). If stored properly, onions will keep for 6-8 months.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Onion is a biennial plant, which makes harvesting seed difficult for most volunteers.

Seed Storage – Store onion seed in a cool dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Because onion takes two years to set seed it is unrealistic for a Peace Corps volunteer to attempt an onion-breeding program.

Varietal Selection – N/A

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Onion, Green (Bunching Onion, Spring Onion, or Scallion) Varieties

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Local

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 110-150days (Usually propagated by division of offsets)

Time in Nursery 4055days

Spacing – Hexagonal 5-10cm

Spacing – Row Within-row: 5-10cm Between-row: 510cm

Other Names Latin Allium cepa Pulafuuta Jaba Jamba

Wolof Soble Vert/Jaba Jamba Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord Soble Vert/Jaba Jamba Mandinka/Jahonke Jaaba Jambo

Fulakunda Jaba Jamba French Ciboule

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 1m2 Nursery

Nursery or Division by offsets

30,000

3.5g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 20,000 plants

Seed 120g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed can be difficult to find in Senegal and the Gambia. Green onion is generally propagated by division of offsets.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 0.25kg

Propagation Tips Green onions are typically propagated by division of offsets. Because most green onions are sold in vegetable markets with their root still attached they can still be used as transplants. Simply divide each bunched bulb that has a separate root system, cut the greens back to 5-10cm and transplant at 5cm spacing. Within 30-60days they will re-bunch and can be re-divided, rapidly increasing potential production.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Green onion prefers loamy soils rich in organic matter. Will tolerate heavier soils as long as flooding does not occur. Does not respond well to soil salinity.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder.

Salinity Tolerance – Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Amaryllidaceae Other Members Include: Leek, bulb onion, shallot, garlic, chive, garlic chive, Egyptian walking onion.

Companions – Beet, strawberry, tomato, lettuce, leek, cabbage, eggplant.

Antagonists – Pea, bean.

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Intercropping Suggestions Green onion takes up little space both in, and above ground and can be intercropped with almost anything. It can be used around the edges of raised beds to help control soil erosion when watering by hand, or interspersed throughout a bed wherever it will fit.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Green onions are spaced so closely together that that mulching can damage young plants as the mulch is blown around in the wind or by encouraging fungal attack. Often a light mulch will settle passively in a bed of green onion from wind deposited leaf litter. This can be left where it falls.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Green onions are resistant to most pests and can be used in organic pest repellents, however they can be susceptible to thrips and rose roots. See IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 before seeding 25g/m2 before transplantation 30g/m2 at 20, 40, and 60 days after transplantation

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest green onions when leaves are about the thickness of a pencil and there are 3-10 offsets per bunch. For market sale, pull onions gently from the soil so that their root systems remain attached. For home consumption cut back onion greens to 5-10cm above the soil surface and leave bulbs to grow back. Re-divide bulbs when overcrowding occurs.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Green onions will begin to wilt within 3-4 hours of harvesting. For sale in the market place onion bunches in a bowl of water, or wrap roots in a damp (not wet) cloth. If stored in water that is changed daily, green onions will keep for 7-14 days after harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Depending on the age of the propagule at the time of transplantation, it may begin to form a seed head after transplanting. Seed heads should be harvested when they are fully mature but before they are fully dry. Finish drying seed heads in the shade on fine screen. Once seed heads are fully dry, shatter them into the screen and winnow away the chaff.

Seed Storage – Seed should be stored in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Green onion has perfect, inbreeding flowers, but can still be insect cross-pollinated. In Senegal and The Gambia is unlikely that other types of Allium cepa will be flowering nearby. However flower heads can be bagged prior to development if insect cross-pollination is a concern.

Varietal Selection – Because green onions are typically propagated by division of offsets they are genetic replicas of the parent plant and varietal selection is unnecessary.

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Pepper, Green (US: Bell Pepper, The Gambia: Sweet Pepper) Varieties Yolo Wonder B Earliest Red Sweet Tambel

Typical Season Cold Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 120-180days

Time in Nursery 30-45 days

Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

120-180days

30-45 days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm

Between-row: 40cm Within-row: 40cm

Other Names Latin Capsicum annuum Pulafuuta Kani Salat/Kani Diima

Wolof Kani Salat/Kani Diima Sereer Kani Salat/Kani Diima

Pulaar du Nord Kanni Salat/Kani Diima Mandinka/Jahonke Kani Salat/Kani Diima

Fulakunda Kani Salat/Kani Diima French Poivron

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

15,900

6.3g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Direct 8.8g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 2 seeds 23cm apart in line.

Thin to 1 plant per 2-3cm when plants have 4-6 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-3kg (Yolo Wonder B), 1-2kg (Earliest Red Sweet)

Propagation Tips Transplant green pepper to a depth that submerges any semi-lignified part of the stem. Strip any leaves that fall below this point. If the transplant runs the risk of wilting after transplanting strip all of the leaves except for the top most 2 sets. When stripping leaves pinch them off with fingernails or use a sharp, clean knife. Never pull off leaves as this can damage the stem. If the transplant has a significant bend in the stem, plant it horizontally so that the portion of the stem that emerges from the soil is vertical and straight.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers loamy soils that are rich in organic matter. Will tolerate sandy or clayey soils if they are high in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder: pepper requires little nitrogen but is a heavy user of phosphorus and potassium.

Salinity Tolerance - Medium

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Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Solanaceae Other Members Include: Eggplant, tomato, tomatillo, jaxatu, nightshade, potato, and tobacco.

Companions – Basil, okra.

Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting green pepper at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce.

Care and Maintenance Watering – Nursery: 2L/m2 daily After Transplantation: 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Green pepper is susceptible to false pink worm, fruit flies, downy mildew, bacterial scab, viral disease, sun burn, and nematodes. Refer to the IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into nursery before seeding.

40g/m2 worked into bed before transplanting.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest green peppers when fully formed and deep green. It is possible to allow them to fully mature to the point that they turn red, orange, or yellow, but these are less desirable in the marketplace and do not store for as long or transport as well. Harvest starts 60-80 days after transplanting and continues for an additional 60-90 days.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Pick and wash peppers, discarding any that show signs of rot or insect infestation. Green peppers will keep for 2-3 days after harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Green peppers must be fully mature to produce viable seed. When green peppers have matured fully, they will turn red, orange, or yellow. Pick them when they start to show signs of age, such as wrinkling, or dimming in color. Cut open peppers, remove the core, and place in a round bowl. Use a spoon to mash the seed away from the core. Fill the bowl with water. The pulp and nonviable seed will float to the surface while the viable seed sinks to the bottom. Pour off the water to remove the pulp and nonviable seed. Place the viable seed on a sifter screen or glass/ceramic surface to dry in the shade.

Seed Storage – Pepper seed will remain viable for 6-12 months if stored in a cool, dry place, preferably a glass jar with tight fitting lid. If saving pepper seed in the rainy season when ambient humidity is an issue, mix a teaspoon of powdered milk in with the seed to absorb moisture.

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Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Green pepper is an inbreeding plant with perfect flowers. It is self-compatible, but insect cross-pollination is common. Because the gene that is responsible for making peppers hot is dominant, it is important to bag green pepper flowers before they open or isolate them from hot peppers by at least 150m.

Varietal Selection Marketability – Save seed from plants that remain sweet tasting. If green peppers show any sign of spice, do not save the seed.

Pest and Disease resistance – Peppers are highly susceptible to fruit flies and nematodes. Save seed from plants that show signs of resistance to these two pests.

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Pepper, Hot Varieties Small, fleshy fruit Safi Small, pointed fruit Salmon Large, fleshy fruit Big Sun “Bombardier Tyson Chili Peppers Chili Red Sucette de Provence Jaune de Burkina Faso Santaka

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season Cool Season Hot season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 80days with 140day harvest cycle 80days with 140day harvest cycle 80days with 140day harvest cycle

Time in Nursery 4560days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row

4560days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 80cm

4560days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 80cm

Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

80days with 140day harvest cycle

4560days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 80cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 80cm

Other Names Latin

Wolof

Pulaar du Nord

Fulakunda

Capsicum annuum Pulafuuta Ñamako

Kani Sereer Kani

Gile Mandinka/Jahonke Kano

Gile French Piment

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

15,900

6.3g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Seed 8.8g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 2 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery row. Thin to 1 plant per 23cm when plants have 4-6 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 800g-1.5kg

Propagation Tips Transplant hot pepper to a depth that submerges any semi-lignified part of the stem. Strip any leaves below this point. If the transplant runs the risk of wilting after transplantation, strip all of the leaves except for the top most 2 sets. When stripping leaves pinch them off with fingernails or use a sharp, clean knife. Never pull off leaves as this can damage the stem. If the transplant has a significant bend in the stem, plant it horizontally so that the portion of the stem that emerges from the soil is vertical and straight.

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Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers loamy soils that are rich in organic matter. Will tolerate sandy or clayey soils if they are high in organic matter.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder: pepper requires little nitrogen but is a heavy user of phosphorus and potassium.

Salinity Tolerance – Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Solanaceae Other Members Include: Eggplant, tomato, tomatillo, jaxatu, nightshade, potato, and tobacco.

Companions – Basil, okra.

Intercropping Suggestions Standard Intercropping Scheme - When planting hot pepper at 40cm hexagonal spacing, it is possible to intercrop with a wide variety of other non-competitive root crops and low-level vegetables such as carrots, radishes, turnips, beets, and lettuce.

Care and Maintenance Watering – Nursery: 2L/m2 daily After Transplantation: 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Green pepper is susceptible to false pink work, fruit flies, downy mildew, bacterial scab, viral disease, sun burn, and nematodes. Refer to the IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into soil before seeding.

25g/m2 before transplantation.

15g/m2 20 days after transplantation.

15g/m2 once a month until the end of harvest.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest hot peppers when they are fully ripe. At this point they will turn yellow, orange, or red, depending on the variety. Harvest can start as early as 60 days after transplanting and can continue for as long as one year, or until harvest begins to decline.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Pick and wash peppers, discarding any that show signs of rot or insect infestation. Fresh hot peppers will keep for 3-4 days after harvest. The smaller varieties of hot pepper are usually dried in the sun or shade, and then pounded into powder. Pepper powder can be stored indefinitely if kept in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight fitting lid.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Hot peppers must be fully mature to produce viable seed. When hot peppers have matured fully, they will turn a deep red, orange, or yellow, depending on the variety. Pick

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them when they start to show signs of age, such as wrinkling, or dimming in color. Cut open peppers, remove the core, and place in a round bowl. Use a spoon to mash the seed away from the core. Fill the bowl with water. The pulp and nonviable seed will float to the surface while the viable seed sinks to the bottom. Pour off the water to remove the pulp and nonviable seed. Place the viable seed on a sifter screen or glass/ceramic surface to dry in the shade. WARNING: Be sure to wash your hands thoroughly after handling hot peppers.

Seed Storage – Pepper seed will remain viable for 6-12 months if stored in a cool, dry place, preferably a glass jar with tight fitting lid. If saving pepper seed in the rainy season when ambient humidity is an issue, mix a teaspoon of powdered milk in with the seed to absorb moisture.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Hot pepper is an inbreeding plant with perfect flowers. It is self-compatible, but insect crosspollination is common. If saving seed in proximity to other varieties of pepper that are flowering, bag flowers before they open and remove them as soon as fruits begin to form. Make sure to mark any fruits that will be saved for seed.

Varietal Selection Marketability – Save seed from plants that produce very spicy peppers. Hot peppers that are not hot have little market value in Senegal and the Gambia.

Pest and Disease resistance – Peppers are highly susceptible to fruit flies and nematodes. Save seed from plants that show signs of resistance to these two pests.

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Daikon Radish (Chinese Turnip) Varieties

Typical Season Cold Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Navet Chinois

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 21-63days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 10cm

Spacing – Row Between-row: 20cm Within-row: 10cm

Other Names Latin Raphanus sativus Pulafuuta N/A

Wolof N/A Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord N/A Mandinka/Jahonke N/A

Fulakunda N/A French Navet Chinois

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Direct Seed in 9,920 lines

Seed for 10m Nursery Row N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Direct 200g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Sow 2 seeds every 5-10cm. Thin to 1 plant per 10cm at 2-3 weeks.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-2kg

Soil and Amendments Soil – Daikon Radish grows best in sandy soil that is rich in organic matter. Can be grown in heavier soils if they are well worked and high in organic matter. Rocky or pebbly soils can lead to unmarketable root blemishes.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder Salinity Tolerance - Low

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Brassicaceae Other Members Include: Cabbage, kale, collards, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, horseradish, mustard greens, rutabaga, turnip, Chinese cabbage, watercress Companions – Pea, nasturtium, lettuce, cucumber Antagonists – N/A Intercropping Suggestions Traditional Senegalese Intercrop – In Senegal, daikon radish and/or turnip is planted in lines along the edges of garden beds. This technique works especially well because the radishes grow so quickly that they can provide small amounts of shade to other fresh seedlings or transplants. The radishes are then harvested before they create competition for the other crops.

Standard Intercropping Scheme – Daikon radish works well in any intercropping scheme that incorporates lines of root crops that are direct seeded in-between larger vegetables that have been transplanted or direct seeded at 40cm spacing, i.e. eggplant, pepper, jaxatu, okra, bissap, etc.

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Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Radishes are placed so closely that mulching between them can be problematic for young seedlings. By the time the radishes are more mature, their leaf canopy is so tight that the mulching is more or less unnecessary. Freshly seeded beds can be mulched to help keep soil temperatures down and retain moisture, but the mulch must be removed as soon as the seed start to germinate (1-4days after planting). Remove mulch gently, without damaging the young seedlings.

Weeding – Weed once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Radishes have few pest problems, but can be susceptible to caterpillars, aphids, and mildew. See the IPM manual for further information.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into the soil before seeding.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest Radishes 35-50 days after seeding when they are noticeably mature. Mature Daikon Radishes will begin to emerge as much as 10-15cm from the soil surface.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – After harvest, remove the greens and wash the root. Daikon radish can store for 4-6 days’ time as long as it stays cool and does not dry out. If transporting long distances, wrap radishes in a damp (not wet) cloth.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – Once daikon radish is mature, it will bolt, creating flower sets and then seed pods that are similar to cabbage. Harvest pods when they start to turn yellow, and allow them to dry in the shade. After they are fully dry, shatter the pods and winnow off the chaff.

Seed Storage – Daikon radish has a larger, soft shelled seed that can be stored for 6 months to 1 year. Be sure to store seed in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with tight-fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Radish has perfect flowers, but is outbreeding and self-incompatible, requiring insects for pollination. When saving radish seed, it is important to have as many flowering plants as possible to ensure large quantities of seed. Daikon radish will crossbreed with any other variety of radish that is present and therefore must be isolated by at least 1km. In Senegal, it is uncommon for neighboring farmers to allow their radish to go to seed which makes crossbreeding unlikely. NOTE: daikon radish will NOT crossbreed with other members of the Brassicaceae family such as cabbage, kale, collards, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, horseradish, mustard, turnip, or Chinese cabbage.

Varietal Selection – When saving seed for radish, look for plants that show signs of pest and disease resistance, or heat and drought tolerance. There are no particular traits that need to be improved upon for marketability.

General Information For volunteers familiar with turnips and radishes in the United States, there is often confusion between the two in Senegal. What is commonly referred to in Senegal as “navet Chinois” meaning Chinese turnip, is actually daikon radish. Navet is turnip. Daikon radish has glossy, ovate leaves, and larger, misshapen spherical seed. Turnip has fuzzy, serrate leaves, and the seed is almost indistinguishable from cabbage seed. The roots themselves are more or less indistinguishable and are used interchangeably in Senegalese cuisine.

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Sweet Potato (The Gambia: Potato) Varieties Local Varieties Ndargu (Red Skin) Walo (White Skin)

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 100 – 180days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 45cm

Spacing – Row Within-row: 30cm Between-row: 60cm

Other Names Latin Ipomoea batatas Pulafuuta Pute/Patat

Wolof Patas/Patat Sereer Patas

Pulaar du Nord Fatata/Patata Mandinka/Jahonke Patasso/Patatto

Fulakunda Pute/Patat French Patate Douce

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Cuttings

N/A

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 450-500 plants

Seed

Seeding Depth

Notes

N/A

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 2.5-5kg

Propagation Tips Sweet potato is propagated by cuttings. Cut vines into 15-20cm lengths and strip all but 1 pair of leaves.

Plant in soil to a depth of 7.5-10cm. At least 3 nodes should be under the surface of the soil.

Sweet potato is a perennial that has low level sprawling vines. This can make it difficult to integrate into standard garden beds. More commonly sweet potato is grown in berms about 1m wide and 35-50cm high. The berm system makes harvesting easier at the end of the growing season.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers deep, loamy soil rich in organic matter. Tolerates sandy soils if moisture levels are maintained. Tolerates heavy soils if flooding is not an issue.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder. Sweet potato can be grown in standard garden beds as part of a crop rotation system. However, the roots will re-sprout if not completely removed after the growing season. This can cause weed like problems when growing other vegetables.

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Convolvulaceae Other Members Include: Morning Glory Intercropping Suggestions Sweet Potato as an Edible Ground Cover – While difficult to intercrop with standard garden vegetables, sweet potato can make an excellent perennial ground cover for other perennials that will receive year-round watering. It works especially well planted on cuvette berms around Banana or Papaya.

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Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm after planting. Once sweet potato is established the vines act as ground cover and additional mulching is unnecessary.

Weeding – Once every two weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Sweet Potato is susceptible to turtle beetle, caterpillars, mosaic virus, and nematodes. See IPM Manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/m2 worked into soil before seeding.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting Tubers - Harvest sweet potatoes between 100 and 180 days after planting. Early-harvested potatoes tend to be smaller but are more tender. Leaving the tubers in the ground longer will result in a higher per-kilo yield, but the larger tubers may be too fibrous for marketability. Some varieties have longer cycles than others. Sweet potato tubers tend to be between 1 and 20cm below the surface of the soil. In high berms or very loose soil, tubers can be as deep as 35-40cm. Use a shovel or hand-hoe to gently unearth tubers. If harvesting for personal consumption it is possible to harvest just a few sweet potatoes at a time to ensure a year-round supply.

Leaves - Most commonly sweet potato is grown for its edible tuber, however the leaves are edible as well. In many parts of Senegal and The Gambia the leaves are used in leaf sauces. Leaf harvest starts about 30 days after transplanting and can continue indefinitely so long as the sweet potato receives sufficient watering.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Try to harvest sweet potatoes without damaging the exterior, which makes them less marketable and reduce the storage life. Rub off the majority of the soil. Washing sweet potatoes before storage can increase the potential for rot if not fully dry before storage. If stored in a cool, dry place, sweet potatoes will keep for approximately 14 days.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – N/A Seed Storage – N/A

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Tomato Varieties Nematode Resistant, Medium Fruit Xewel I Nawet Cherry Tomato Xina Small Fry – Hybrid Ninja – Hybrid Mongal – Hybrid (Med Fruit) Large, Round Fruit HOPE – Hybrid UHN 52 – Hybrid Elongated Fruit Orbit Romitel Rotella Roma VFN Roferto Rossel

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 110-150days

Time in Nursery 2540days

Spacing – Hexagonal 40cm

Spacing – Row

110-150days

2540days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 50cm

Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season Cool Season

110-150days

2540days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 50cm

110-150days

2540days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 50cm

Cool Season

110-150days

2540days

40cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 50cm

Within-row: 40cm Between-row: 50cm

Other Names Latin

Wolof

Pulaar du Nord

Fulakunda

Lycopersicon lycopersicum Pulafuuta Tomat

Tomat

Tomat

Tomat/Mentenagi

Sereer Mette

Mandinka/Jahonke Mentengo/M

French Tomate

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Nursery

38,800

2.5g

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant 600-700 plants

Seed 3.6g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1cm

Seed 1-2 seeds every 2-3cm in nursery rows. Thin to 1 plant per space when plants have 2-3 true leaves.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 0.25-1.5kg

Propagation Tips Tomatoes do best in the nursery when sown into a well-draining, nutrient rich soil-less medium. A good mix is 1 part compost to 2 parts peanut shells or rice hulls. See the substratum section for further details.

Transplant tomato when plants have 4-6 true leaves. Plant to a depth that submerges any semi-lignified part of the stem. Strip any leaves that fall below this point. If the transplant is running the risk of wilting after transplantation, strip all of the leaves except for the top most 2 sets. When stripping leaves pinch them off with fingernails or use a sharp, clean knife. Never pull off leaves as this can damage the stem. If

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the transplant has a significant bend in the stem, plant the bend horizontally so that the portion of the stem that emerges from the soil is vertical and straight.

Pour a small amount of water in the transplanting hole just before placing the tomato transplant. Fill the hole around the transplant quickly so that the soil around the root system is fully saturated.

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers deep, loamy soils that are extremely high in organic matter. Tomato will tolerate other soil types as long as they are well amended.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Heavy feeder.

Salinity Tolerance - Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Solanaceae Other Members Include: Eggplant, pepper, tomatillo, jaxatu, nightshade, potato, and tobacco.

Companions – Chive, onion, carrot, garlic, parsley, marigold Antagonists – Kohlrabi, potato, fennel, cabbage Intercropping Suggestions Tomato and lettuce – Because tomato tends to vine in irregular patterns and needs to be staked, caged, or trellised, it can be a difficult crop to fit into an intercropping scheme. However, lettuce can be intercropped with tomato because the growth time of lettuce is short enough to harvest before it becomes overcrowded by the tomato. Transplant tomato at 40cm hexagonal spacing. Transplant lettuce in rows between the rows of tomato at 10cm spacing. When the lettuce starts crowding, harvest every other head in staggered rows leaving the lettuce in a 20cm hexagonal pattern. Harvest lettuce a second time when they begin to re-crowd. At this point the tomato should be reaching full height. Do not re-transplant lettuce.

Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/1m2 daily Mulching – Mulch to 10-15cm once plants reach 20cm height.

Weeding – Once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Tomato is highly susceptible to a wide host of pests including, Caterpillars, spider mites, , downy mildew, , stemphyliose, bacterial scab, tomato end rot, nematodes, fusarium wilt, verticillium wilt, pical decay, sun burn, mosaic virus, leaf curl virus. See IPM manual for appropriate control methods.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/1m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before Harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40g/1m2 worked into nursery before seeding 40g/1m2 worked into bed before transplanting 30g/1m2 at 20, 30, and 50 days after transplantation

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Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – For transportation and sale in the market, harvest tomatoes before they are fully mature.

They should be a dark orange, but not a deep red. Fully ripe tomatoes are prone to bruising and rotting. If harvesting for immediate personal consumption, it is preferable to leave them on the vine until they are fully mature.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Store tomatoes in a cool dry place. Tomatoes will keep for 2-5 days after harvest depending upon how ripe they were at the time of harvest.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – When saving tomato seed, harvest when they are fully ripe. Tomato seed must undergo a fermentation process in order to become viable. To achieve this, squeeze tomato pulp into a bowl. Add an equal quantity of water to the pulp. Cover the bowl and allow it to sit in a cool place for 2-4 days. When the tomato pulp has a thick layer of mold over the top, pour off the liquid. Rinse and re-rinse the seed until it is clean. Make sure to pour off any seeds that float to the surface as they are not viable. Dry the viable seeds in the shade on a metal screen or glass surface.

Seed Storage – Store tomato seed in a cool, dry place preferably in a glass jar with tight fitting lid. If properly stored, tomato seed will keep for 4-8 months.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Tomatoes are inbreeding, self-compatible plants with perfect flowers, but insect crosspollination is possible. To ensure that cross-pollination does not occur, bag flowers before they open. Be sure to remove the bags once the fruits begin to form.

Varietal Selection Nematode Resistance – Tomato is highly susceptible to nematode attack. When selecting plants to save seed, look for nematode resistance.

Mosaic and Leaf Curl Virus - Tomato is highly susceptible to Mosaic and Leaf Curl Virus. When selecting plants to save seed, look for mosaic and leaf curl virus resistance.

Marketability – There are many tomato varieties available in Senegal and The Gambia. Before purchasing or saving seed, talk to work partners and vegetable vendors to find out what varieties are more desirable in your area.

General Climatic Compatibility – Tomato grows best between 26.5 C and 37.8 C (80-100 F). If growing in the hot season, or in regions where cool season temperatures are at the high end of this range, select seed from plants that still produce well despite high temperatures.

General Information Tomato Pruning – As tomatoes reach a certain height, 25-40cm, they will start to form branches. The production of these branches takes valuable energy away from the main stem’s ability to produce fruit. For best results from tomato plants, make sure to pinch or cut off branches as they begin to form.

Tomato Support – If left to themselves, tomato plants will vine across the ground. When they do this, they take up unnecessary ground space and become more prone to soil borne diseases. To give them better support, use the staking or caging methods as explained in the body of the manual.

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Turnip Varieties

Typical Season Cool Season Hot Season Rainy Season

Everest

Cycle (Seeding to Harvest) 35-70days

Time in Nursery N/A

Spacing – Hexagonal 15-20cm

Spacing – Row Within-row: 15cm Between-row: 1520cm

Other Names Latin Brassica rapa Pulafuuta N/A

Wolof N/A Sereer N/A

Pulaar du Nord N/A Mandinka N/A

Fulakunda N/A French Navet

Propagation Information Propagation Method

Seeds Per 100 Grams

Seed for 10m Nursery Row

Direct Seed (lines)

38,600

N/A

For 100m2 Bed Space Transplant N/A

Seed 22g

Seeding Depth

Notes

1-1.5cm

Seed in 1-2 seeds every 15-20cm in lines. Thin to 1 plant per space 2 weeks after germination.

Potential Yield per 1m2 – 1.5-2kg

Soil and Amendments Soil – Prefers sandy soils, high in organic matter. Can tolerate heavier soils as long as there is good drainage. Rocky or pebbly soils may leave unmarketable pits or blemishes on the exterior of the root.

Amendments – Standard double-digging amendments: compost (manure if compost is unavailable), charcoal powder, wood ash.

Place in Crop Rotation Cycle – Light feeder.

Salinity Tolerance - Medium

Intercropping and Companion Planting Family – Brassicaceae Other Members Include: Cabbage, kale, collards, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, horseradish, mustard greens, rutabaga, radish, Chinese cabbage, watercress Companions – Pea, nasturtium, lettuce, cucumber Antagonists – N/A Intercropping Suggestions Traditional Intercrop – In Senegal, turnip is planted in lines along the edges of garden beds. This technique works especially well because the turnips grow so quickly that they can provide small amounts of shade to other fresh seedlings or transplants. The turnips are then harvested before they create competition for the other crops.

Standard Intercropping Scheme – Turnip works well in any intercropping scheme that incorporates lines of root crops direct seeded in between larger vegetables transplanted or direct seeded at 40cm spacing, i.e. eggplant, pepper, jaxatu, okra, bissap, etc.

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Care and Maintenance Watering – 5L/m2 daily.

Mulching – Turnips are placed so closely that mulching between them can be problematic for young seedlings. By the time the turnips are more mature, their leaf canopy is so tight that the mulching is more or less unnecessary. Freshly seeded beds can be mulched to help keep soil temperatures down and retain moisture, but the mulch must be removed as soon as the seed start to germinate (1-4days after planting). Remove mulch gently, without damaging young seedlings.

Weeding – Weed once every 2 weeks. Spot weed as necessary.

IPM – Turnips have few pest problems, but can be susceptible to caterpillars, aphids, and mildew. See the IPM manual for further information.

Fertilization Compost/Manure Tea Dosage: 2.5L/m2 Frequency: Every 2 weeks once plants are 15cm tall. Stop 2 weeks before harvest.

NPK Dosage: 40kg/m2 worked into the soil before seeding.

Harvesting, Seed Processing, and Storage Harvesting – Harvest turnips 35-70 days after seeding. The harvesting period can last for as long as 30 days from initial maturity.

Vegetable Processing and Storage – Pull turnips from the ground and either brush the dirt off, or wash them and then dry them with a towel. Do not store turnips while they are still wet, or they may rot. If transporting long distances, keep turnips in a burlap sack or rice sack. Once turnips have been harvested, they will keep for 2-4 days. Store in a cool place.

Seed Harvesting and Processing – To harvest turnip seed, allow them to stay in the ground until they bolt. The plant will form small seed pods from the flower sites similar to cabbage or radish. Harvest the seed pods when they start to turn yellow, but before they are fully dry. Allow to dry in the shade and then shatter the seed pods into a sack. Winnow off the chaff.

Seed Storage – Store turnip seed in a cool, dry place, preferably in a glass jar with a tight fitting lid.

Breeding and Varietal Selection Breeding – Turnips are self-incompatible, out-breeding plants that require insects for pollination. Because of this, one or more turnips must be kept for seed production in order to obtain viable seed. The more seeding turnips the greater the chances for viable seed production. Isolate turnip from other flowering varieties by at least 1km. In Senegal and The Gambia it is unlikely that there will be flowering turnips within this radius.

Varietal Selection - When saving turnip seed, remove any turnips that are small or show signs of pest or disease, before they go to seed.

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GLOSSARY A-frame – A tool made from three sticks, string, and a rock, used to find contour lines on a landscape, or to level the surface of berms and swales.

Aerobic – Meaning “requiring air” in this context refers to oxygenated decomposition in compost or organic fertilizers.

Alley cropping – An agroforestry technique that uses lines of nitrogen fixing trees planted in-between field crop or garden plots. Alley cropping is most efficient when planted on contour.

Anaerobic – Meaning “lacking air” in this context refers to un-oxygenated decomposition in compost or organic fertilizers Angiosperm – Any plant that produces a flower and a seed-containing fruit.

Annual – Plants that are started from seed and produce seed themselves within one growing season.

Anther – The bulbous tip of the stamen responsible for disseminating pollen.

Asexual Reproduction – Non-sexual reproduction, such as plants which are cloned from vegetative growth, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes, etc.

Basin – A cement structure designed to hold water for more efficient watering in the garden.

Berm – A long, low mound of earth laid out dead level on the downslope side of a swale.

Berm and Swale, Standard – A berm and swale laid out dead level along the contours of the landscape to slow sheet flow and mitigate soil erosion. Standard berms and swales are typically used in-between field crop or garden plots with alley cropping lines planted along the tops of the berms.

Biennial – Plants that require two growing seasons to complete a life cycle, usually exhibiting vegetative growth during the first year and producing seed during the second year.

Boomerang berm – A semi-circular berm and swale laid out off-contour on the downslope side of a planting and then leveled across the top of the berm. Boomerang berms are typically used in sequence to capture water and organic matter within the root-zone of a tree.

Bolting – When certain leafy vegetables such as lettuce, turnip, radish, or cabbage send out a seed stalk. Bolting typically results in leaves turning bitter and unmarketable.

Catchment basin – Also known as a cuvette, a catchment basin is a depression in the earth surrounded by a berm on all sides. Catchment basins are typically used for holding handdelivered water to freshly planted trees.

Chaff – Pieces of stem, leaf and other debris that may be mixed with seed before the winnowing process.

Check dam – An earthen barrier laid out dead-level perpendicular to the direction of water flow within an erosion channel. Check Dams are designed to slow the flow of water while allowing overflow to remain within its original course.

Chlorophyll – The green pigment responsible for plant photosynthesis.

Clone – A plant or group of plants produced from the same genetic parent using vegetative propagation (asexually) instead of from seed (sexually).

Coppiceable – The ability of certain plant species to generate new growth after a significant portion of the stem or trunk is removed.

Cotyledon – Part of the seed embryo and often the first embryonic leaves to appear after germination.

Cover crop – Any crop grown for the purpose of protecting the soil from the sun during an offseason.

Clay – The smallest division of mineral soil particle responsible for giving soil a “sticky” texture.

Closed-loop Production System – A production system that attempts to recycle all outputs back into production inputs, thereby eliminating system waste.

Cultivar – An abbreviation of “cultivated variety”. See Variety.

Cuvette – See catchment basin.

Dicotyledon – Also known as “dicot” refers to the plants with two cotyledon leaves. This group includes most common garden vegetables.

Diversion swale – A swale laid out just slightly offcontour with the purpose of slowly directing water to a desired location.

Earthwork – Permeable landscaping that slows, spreads, and sings water flow, captures organic matter, and mitigates soil erosion. Earthwork techniques include berms and swales, basins, check dams, stone bunds and gabions, and terraces.

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Equilibrium point – The point at which the price of a good is in perfect harmony with the demand for that good allowing for profit maximization.

Erosion channel – A gully or arroyo, in which water flow has been concentrated in a specific route exacerbating surrounding topsoil erosion issues.

Family – A category of taxonomic classification ranking above a genus, forming a group of plants that includes one or more similar genera.

Filament – The shaft portion of the stamen responsible for delivering pollen to the stamen.

Gabion – A stone bund caged in Chain-link fencing placed perpendicularly to the flow of water in large erosion channels.

Genera - The plural of genus.

Genus – A category of taxonomic classification ranking above a species, which forms a group of closely related species.

Germination – The sprouting of a seed, which marks the beginning of plant growth.

Green manure – Any cover crop that is turned into the soil to add organic matter.

Gymnosperm – Any plant that produces a seed without producing a flower or fruit. Common examples are cone-bearing conifers.

Heirloom Vegetable - A non-hybrid vegetable variety that has been passed down from generation to generation.

Humus - The most refined form of organic matter and the main component in compost and healthy soils.

Hybrid - The offspring of a cross between parent varieties (usually of the same species) that are genetically different.

Hydroponic – Any soil-less growing system in which plant roots are exclusively submerged in water.

Impenetrable barrier – A type of live fencing that uses unpalatable, non-thorny species planted very closely together.

Imperfect Flower – A flower that contains only male or female reproductive parts. Cucurbits such as cucumber, melon, squash, are the most common garden vegetables with imperfect flowers.

Inbreeding Plant – A plant that can set viable seed without the pollen of another plant.

In-cycle value added – Processes such as cooking, or packaging that add value to agricultural produce without extending shelf-life.

Inputs – Any material, resource, idea, or amount of time used or expended on a project.

Interspersed trees – An agroforestry technique that uses small, dappled shade-bearing fruit and nitrogen fixing trees to enrich garden soil and create a favorable microclimate for garden vegetables. Typical trees used to this purpose include papaya, pomegranate, pigeon pea, moringa, and china pride.

Lignified – The portion of a plant stem or trunk that has become “woody”.

Linear Production System – A production system in which most secondary outputs are considered wastes and are not recycled back into primary production inputs.

Live Fencing – An agroforestry technique that uses trees to create a physical barrier to human and animal traffic.

Live fence post – A type of live fencing that uses living trees as the support for non-living fencing material such as chain-link, chicken wire, bamboo crinting, or millet stalks.

Loam – An ideal combination of sand, silt, and clay.

Loam provides a soil structure that is perfect for most garden vegetables.

Market study – An assessment of local markets to determine which products will fetch the highest profits.

Monocotyledons – Plants with a single cotyledon.

This grouping includes many field crops and some garden vegetables such as, corn, millet, sorghum, rice, onion, garlic, and banana.

Mulch – Any material placed on the surface of the soil to protect it from the sun, retain soil moisture, reduce soil temperature, and suppress weed growth.

Nodes, Nematodes – The brown, bulbous balls that develop on plant roots when root-knot nematodes colonize the root system.

Nodes, Nitrogen Fixation – The balls that develop on the roots of nitrogen-fixing trees when nitrogenfixation occurs.

Nodes, Stem – The growth points on plant stems where leaves and branches form, or where roots form in the case of vegetative propagation.

Nonviable – Seed that has poor chance of germination due to improper storage or immaturity.

Open-Pollinated: Non-hybrid plants produced by crossing two parents from the same variety, which in turn produce offspring just like the parent plants.

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Outbreeding Plant – A self-incompatible plant that requires the pollen of another plant to set viable seed.

Out-of-cycle value added – Processes such as storage, canning, or food transformation that add value to an agricultural product while extending the shelf-life.

Outputs – Any material, resource, idea, or amount of time that comes out of a project.

Ovary – The part of a flower that transforms into the fruit upon pollination.

Ovule – A rudimentary seed that has not yet been fertilized.

Perennial - Any plant which lives more than two years, usually producing flowers and seeds from the same root year after year.

Perfect Flower – A flower that contains both male and female reproductive parts within the same flower.

Photosynthesis – The chemical process whereby plants convert sunlight into chemical energy.

Pistil – The female portion of a flower, which consists of an ovary, style and stigma.

Pollen: The male spores or dust-like grains of reproductive material produced by the anthers.

Pollination, hand – The act of manually pollinating a flower by brushing a pollen laden anther against the pistil of the female portion of the flower.

Propagation – Increasing the number of plants by vegetative means or by planting seeds.

Propagule – Any piece of vegetative mater used in vegetative propagation such as a bulb, rhizome, tuber, offset, or cutting.

Radicle – The embryonic portion of a seed that develops into the root.

Root collar – The semi-lignified threshold between a plant’s root system and its stem or trunk.

Sand – The largest classification of mineral soil particle responsible for giving soil a “gritty” texture.

Self-incompatible – Refers to plants that cannot pollinate themselves, require pollen from neighboring plants of the same species to set viable seed.

Semi-lignified – The partially woody part of a plant stem.

Serrate – A description indicating the rough saw-like edges of certain types of leaves.

Sheet flow – The horizontal, dispersed spread of water over the landscape.

Silt – The middle classification of mineral soil particle responsible for giving soil a “silky” texture.

Soil Crust – The hard surface layer that can form on top of garden soils that have poor soil structure, or are inadequately watered.

Specie – The units of taxonomic classification into which a genus is divided, each of which forms a maximum interbreeding group of plants that is reproductively incapable of crossing with other species.

Spillway – A rock reinforced overflow route used to channel water out of an earthwork.

Stamen –The male reproductive portion of the flower containing both the filament and the anther.

Stigma – The portion of the pistil that receives the pollen grains during fertilization.

Stone bund – A permeable rock barrier laid out perpendicular to the flow of water within an erosion channel.

Style – The elongated portion of the pistil that connects the stigma and the ovary.

Swale – A long, shallow trench laid out dead level on the upslope side of a berm.

Taxonomy – A system of arranging plants into related groups based on common characteristics, in descending order from most inclusive: kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Terminal Bud – The topmost growth point on a plant.

Thorny Hedge – A type of live fencing that uses thorny trees to create a barrier to human and animal traffic.

True-to-Type – A plant (or group of plants) that conforms exactly to the known characteristics of that particular variety, the basis or standard for comparison.

Variety – Closely related plants with nearly identical characteristics which form a subdivision of a species.

Vegetative Propagation – Reproduction by asexual methods, not from seed.

Viable – Seed that has a high germination rate.

Watershed – The portion of the landscape from the highest point to the lowest point in which water flow is unaffected by any other part of the landscape.

Windbreak – An agroforestry technique that uses trees to reduce the force of wind in an agricultural space.

Zhai Hole – A small hole, usually about 25cm in diameter, heavily amended with soil amendments and planted with field crops or garden vegetables.

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Print References/Suggested Readings

Online resources

Gaia’s Garden by Toby Hemenway: On of the most accessible introductions to permaculture available. While much of the techniques listed in this book are appropriate more for North America, the theory, and the approach is highly appropriate for agricultural activities in Senegal.

ECHO Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization (ECHO) is a Christian organization that equips people with agricultural resources and skills to reduce hunger and improve the lives of the poor. ECHO has a wealth of information and serves as a networking center for those working on all over the world in agricultural development. ECHO's useful resources are listed below, and you will find all of its technical documents and networking opportunities available at www.ECHOcommunity.org. As a Peace Corps Volunteer, you can order up to 10 seed packets per year from ECHO's seedbank at no charge when you sign up at ECHOcommunity.

(1) ECHO Development Notes (EDN): A quarterly publication which shares practical information for growing food under difficult conditions. Available to ECHOcommunity members at no charge.

(2) ECHO Seedbank: A germplasm bank of over 300 varieties of useful plants, each uniquely suited for difficult growing conditions in Tropical and Subtropical climate zones.

Development workers in the field can order 10 packets of seed each year at no charge.

(3) Regional West Africa Impact Center and biannual Conference in Burkina Faso: ECHO's Regional Office in West Africa is anticipated to be set up by 2014. This Impact Center will focus on promoting sustainable hunger solutions uniquely suited for the challenges of a Sahelain context.

Peace Corps had a significant presence at the conference in 2012 with 14 Volunteers representing Peace Corps Senegal.

(4) ECHO Technical Response Unit: A group of agricultural consultants with extensive field experience based at ECHO's Office in Ft. Myers, FL. This consulting team meets weekly to research agricultural questions from field practitioners.

They can be reached at http://echonet.org/content/questionTru (5) Other ECHO Publications: Amaranth to Zai Holes (1996) and Agricultural Options for the Poor (2012) consolidate much of the information from EDN into topical categories. ECHO Technical Notes provide thorough implement instructions for specific techniques and/or appropriate technologies.

How to Grow More Vegetables by John Jeavens: An excellent guide to intensive market gardening, double-digging, and seasonal planning. Most of the specific information on vegetables is researched for North America and should not be trusted for gardening in Senegal.

Perennial Vegetables by Eric Toensmeier: An incredibly broad guide to edible perennial plants which are highly suitable for Senegal if potentially hard to find. Each perennial vegetable bio has valuable propagation information, and many are accompanied by high-resolution photos.

The Plant Propagator’s Bible by Miranda Smith: A fully illustrated step by step guide to all types of vegetative propagation.

Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond Volume 2 by Brad Lancaster: This book is an excellent, well-illustrated guide to permeable water catchment systems and erosion control techniques. Many of the techniques taught in this book have been adopted by PC Senegal for use in volunteer training and field extension.

The primary focus of volume 1 is on urban and suburban water harvesting theory and is inappropriate for use in Senegal.

Seed to Seed by Suzanne Ashworth: An exhaustive guide to vegetable breeding, seed selection, and seed saving. This contains everything you would ever want to know about the history of vegetables, vegetable speciation, and vegetable breeding requirements.

Two Ears of Corn by Roland Bunch: A longstanding classic of the development world, Two Ears of Corn should be a pre-requisite for Americans working in agricultural extension in the developing world.

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e.g.s beehive designs for the tropics, water harvesting through sand dams.

ECHO Technical Notes and Amaranth to Zai Holes are both available at ECHOcommunity members. www.echonet.org www.echocommunity.org

Agromisa Agromisa is an agricultural research and development institute that specializes in developing world agriculture. Agromisa provides well-illustrated instructional guides on topics ranging from gardening, to field crop production, to small-animal husbandry. All agrodoks are available in English and French. www.agromisa.org

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Index A Acacia Nilotica .............................. 43 Aeration ........................................ 16 Aerobic.................................. 45, 138 A-frame................................. 41, 138 Agricultural Calendar ................ 4, 65 Agroforestry8, 42, 48, 109, 138, 139, 140 Alley cropping ....................... 42, 138 aloe vera ................................. 27, 62 Anaerobic........................ 44, 45, 138 Angiosperm................................... 13 Annual .................................. 14, 138

B

Closed-Loop Production ................ 55 Compost . 1, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 44, 45, 55, 56, 60 Corn .. 6, 8, 13, 33, 34, 35, 47, 49, 63, 65, 78, 93, 112, 139 Cover Cropping ................... 3, 38, 56 Cowpea .................................. 37, 38 Crop rotation ................................ 37 Cucumber ... 4, 26, 35, 49, 92, 93, 94, 102 Cultivar ............................. 48, 85, 90 Cuttings .....................2, 28, 105, 129

D Dakar.............................................. 6 Deforestation ................................. 7 Desertification ................................ 7 Development organizations ........... 7 Dill ......................... 26, 37, 38, 49, 54 Direct Seeding .................... 2, 26, 27 Double-digging ....................... 10, 11 Dry Pan ......................................... 30

Bakel ............................................... 6 Bamboo .......................... 27, 40, 139 Banana ................... 43, 61, 106, 130 Basil ..23, 24, 37, 38, 49, 54, 60, 106, 121, 124 Basin ................................... 3, 40, 56 Bean. 4, 26, 37, 38, 49, 77, 78, 90, 93 Beet .................. 26, 38, 84, 115, 118 Beneficial Habitat ......................... 31 Berm, Boomerang ................. 39, 138 Berms .................................. 3, 39, 56 Biennial ................................. 14, 138 Biochar.......................................... 20 Biomass .......................... 6, 7, 12, 55 Bissap.................... 26, 37, 38, 84, 98 Bitter Tomato ............ 4, 8, 23, 49, 80 Broccoli ............................. 37, 38, 49 Bulbs ........... 13, 14, 27, 28, 115, 119

Earthworks ......................... 3, 39, 41 Ecosystem Damage ...................... 46 Egg Shells ............................... 17, 20 Eggplant . 4, 8, 14, 23, 34, 37, 38, 49, 80, 95, 96, 97, 121, 124, 132 Element ........................................ 55 Erosion 11, 12, 16, 30, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 59, 64, 118, 138, 139, 140 Erosion Channel........................ 3, 40 Euphorbia balsamifera ................. 43

C

F

Cabbage..4, 8, 23, 37, 38, 49, 83, 84, 85, 89, 99, 126, 135 Caging........................................... 43 Calcium ....................... 14, 17, 20, 21 Carbon ............. 10, 12, 13, 17-20, 46 Carrot.....4, 8, 26, 38, 60, 86, 87, 102 Casamance ................................. 6, 7 Cashew ........................................... 7 Cassava ................... 8, 14, 27, 28, 73 Celery ...................................... 26, 49 Cereal production ........................... 7 Charcoal............ 7, 12, 20, 21, 22, 43 Check Dam ............................ 40, 138 Chemical fertilizer ......................... 46 Chemical-industrial agriculture....... 8 China Pride.................................... 43 Cilantro ................. 26, 37, 38, 49, 54 Clay ........................................... 9, 10 Climate Change............................... 7

Faidherbia albida ........................... 7 Fatick .............................................. 7 Ferlo ............................................... 6 Fertilizer, Chemical ............. 7, 44, 46 Fish ..................................7, 8, 17, 47 Flower........................... 13, 139, 140 Freshwater ..................................... 7 Fruit ................................ 13, 62, 131 Fruit trees .......... 6, 36, 39, 41, 60, 62 Function.................................. 56, 60

E

G Gabion .......................................... 40 Garlic .... 13, 14, 27, 78, 84, 102, 115, 118, 132, 139 Germination ... 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 24, 26, 31, 32, 35, 66, 86, 135, 138, 139, 140

Ginger ............................... 13, 14, 27 Givers ...................................... 37, 57 Grassland ........................................6 Growing Container .................... 3, 52 Guava.................................... 43, 106 Guild........................................ 61, 62 Gymnosperm.................................13

H Heavy feeders ...............................37 Heirloom Variety ...........................47 Herbs........................... 27, 28, 52, 76 Hibiscus ....... 4, 8, 34, 49, 98, 99, 111 Humus ............................... 1, 10, 139 Hybrid variety ...............................50 Hydroponic............................ 28, 139

I Impenetrable Barrier............. 42, 139 Imperfect Flowers .........................48 Intercropping ................ 2, 33, 34, 35 International Aid .............................7 Interspersed Trees................. 42, 139 Irrigation ....... 6, 7, 12, 40, 45, 62, 65

J Jatropha curcas .............................43

K Kale ............................. 37, 38, 49, 90 Kaolack ...........................................6 Kedougou .................................... 6, 7 Kohlrabi........................... 37, 38, 132 Kolda ......................................... 6, 10

L Lablab ..................................... 37, 38 Leaf ............................... 13, 130, 133 LeafLlitter ............ 12, 39, 42, 56, 118 Leek ................... 23, 37, 38, 115, 118 Lemon Grass ........................... 27, 62 Lettuce ... 4, 8, 23, 24, 34, 35, 37, 38, 49, 51, 54, 101, 102, 103, 115 Leucaena ........................... 36, 43, 56 Light Feeders .................................37 Lilies ..............................................14 Linear Production ..........................55 Live Fence Posts ............................42 Live Fencing...................................42 Livestock ....................... 6, 12, 42, 52 Loam ...............................................9

130

M Magnesium............................. 14, 16 Mango .........6, 36, 41, 60, 63, 64, 70 mangrove ....................................... 7 Manure .. 3, 12, 17, 20-22, 38, 44, 45 Marigold ....................................... 23 Matam ............................................ 6 Mboro ............................................. 6 Melon ......................... 26, 37, 38, 49 Mesh Cloth.................................... 24 Micro Climate ............................... 57 Microgardening ........................ 3, 52 Millet .... ..6, 8, 12, 13, 17, 42, 47, 49, 65, 139 Mint…. ......14, 27, 28, 52, 54, 62, 66, 105-107 Monocropping .......................... 2, 33 Moringa ..5, 8, 26, 37, 38, 43, 56, 60, 108- 110 Mulch .................... 23, 31, 32, 41, 56

N N, P, K ........................................... 14 Natural Resource ............................ 7 Niayes ................................... 6, 7, 47 Nitrogen.... 10, 16-20, 22, 34, 37, 38, 42, 43, 45, 46, 55, 56, 61-63 Nitrogen, Atmospheric.................. 37 nitrogen-fixing .............................. 10 nodes ............................ 28, 105, 129 Nursery, Vegetable 2, 23, 24, 25, 35, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 89, 90, 92, 95, 96, 98, 101, 105, 108, 111, 114, 117, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 129, 130, 131, 135 Nutrients, macro........................... 14 Nutrients, Micro................ 14, 36, 37

O Offsets ...................................... 2, 27 Okra 5, 8, 26, 34, 37, 38, 49, 99, 111, 112, 113 Onion 5, 8, 23, 38, 49, 114, 115, 116, 117 Organic Fertilizer ...................... 3, 44 organic matter . 9, 10, 11, 16, 20, 22, 32, 37-41, 44, 46, 62, 64 Ovule ............................................ 12 Oxygen............ 10, 13, 18, 24, 32, 44

P Papaya .................... 43, 62, 106, 130 Parsley .................. 26, 37, 38, 49, 54 Peanut ....6, 8, 11, 12, 17, 47, 78, 79, 106, 131

Peanut Basin .................................. 6 Pepper .. 5, 8, 23, 38, 49, 80, 96, 111, 120, 121, 123, 125 Perennial .......................14, 105, 140 Perfect Flower .............................. 48 Permaculture.......3, 4, 15, 16, 55-58, 61-63 Pesticides.................................. 8, 73 Phosphorous................................. 14 Pigeon Pea, Cajanus Cajan ..... 43, 62 Pollination .........................3, 49, 140 Pomegranate ....................... 43, 106 Potassium ............................... 14, 21 Propagule ............................. 14, 119 Prosopis juliflora........................... 43

R Radish............ 5, 26, 37, 38, 126, 128 Recordkeeping ......... 4, 15, 66, 69, 70 Reforestation.................................. 7 Reproduction, Asexual.......... 14, 138 Reproduction, Sexual.................... 14 Rhizomes .........................14, 27, 138 Rice... 6, 8, 13, 17, 31, 45, 47, 49, 78, 85, 106, 131, 137, 139 Richard Toll .................................... 6 Root ...................................... 13, 140

S Salt ..................................12, 46, 114 Sand ......................................... 9, 10 Sand Dunes..................................... 6 Season, Cold ................................. 38 Season, Rainy ........................... 8, 38 Seaweed Tea ............................ 3, 45 Seed Coat ............................... 12, 16 Seed Selection .......................... 3, 47 Senegal River Valley ....................... 6 Shake Test .................................. 1, 9 Silt ............................................ 9, 10 Sinker Roots............................ 11, 13 Slope Finder .................................. 41 Soil Amendments…. .... 11, 12, 20-22, 33, 36- 38, 44, 46 Soil Compaction ....................... 2, 32 Soil Crusting ......................16, 23, 31 Soil Cultivation ......................... 1, 21 Soil Fertility.............. 7, 10, 36, 44, 46 Soil Formation .......................... 1, 10 Soil Mix ..................................... 3, 53 soil pH ......................... 10, 20, 22, 36 Soil Structure .....................10, 20, 36 Soil Texture................................. 1, 9 sorghum ............ 6, 8, 13, 47, 49, 139 spacing12, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 44, 52, 59, 62, 66, 67

Spacing Hexagonal ........... 29, 34, 35 Spacing, Row............... 27, 29, 34, 35 spillway ................................... 41, 42 Squash .................. 26, 37, 38, 49, 78 St. Louis ........................................... 6 Stacking Functions. ....................... 56 Staking .......................................... 43 Stem ...................................... 13, 139 Stone Bund .................................... 40 Subsoil..................................... 11, 22 Substratum ......................... 3, 53, 54 Sulfur....................................... 12, 14 Sustainability ...................... 7, 62, 63 Swale, Diversion ............................ 39 Swales ................................. 3, 39, 56 Sweet Potato.. ......... 5, 8, 14, 27, 28, 35,37, 38, 61, 129, 130

T Tambacounda ................................. 6 Tap Root ....................................... 11 Terrace ...................................... 3, 40 Thiés.......................................... 6, 47 Thinning ........................ 2, 25, 31, 67 Thorny Hedge................................ 42 Tomato 4, 5, 8, 23, 37, 38, 49, 80, 84, 106, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134 Topsoil .............................. 11, 21, 22 Transplanting .......... 2, 25, 26, 66, 90 Trellising ....................................... 44 Tubers ........................... 27, 130, 138 Turnip5, 8, 26, 37, 38, 126, 128, 135, 136

V Vegetative Propagation .... 2, 27, 140 vetiver grass............................ 27, 62

W Waste............ 53, 55, 62, 65, 66, 138 Water Spinach ............ 23, 37, 38, 49 Water, Conservation ....................... 8 Water, Drinking .............................. 7 Water, Surface ................................ 7 Watering ........... 2, 23, 25, 30, 66, 67 Watermelon ............................ 26, 38 Weed Control ................................ 31 Weeding.................. 2, 25, 31, 66, 67 Wetlands......................................... 6 Windbreak .................................... 42 Windbreaks ......................... 7, 42, 61 Wood Ash.......................... 17, 20, 25

Z Ziguinchor ....................................... 6

131

132

Apendix A: Observation and Recording Project Notebook Examples Project Log Example Start Date of Project: 10 July Project Name: St. Louis Talibé Garden Project Work Partner(s) and Contact Info: Babacar Cissé (77 555 55 55), Moudu Ndiaye (N/A), Chiekh Diakité (N/A), Amar Diop (77 555 55 55) Site & location: Daara Serigne Fall, Corniche Community Members Served: (broken down by number, age, and gender) 36 boys age 6-15, 0 men, 0 girls, 0 women Project description: The Daara Serigne Fall is home to 36 Talibé. I am working with Babacar Cissé a local talibé advocate to start a garden in an empty lot across the street from the Daara. Moudu Ndiaye the responsible Maribou at the talibé center is very excited about the project and has offered full support.

Neighbor Amar Diop has offered us the use of his well in his compound next door, and Chiekh Diakité, the neighbor on the other side, has gardening experience and offering part time garden services free of compensation.

The space is an empty lot 18m x 25m and is surrounded on three sides by single story walls. Over shading is not an issue.

The space will need to be cleared of garbage and rubble, a fence and gate will need to be installed on the open side, and a basin will need to be installed to hold water that is piped from Amar Diop’s well.

Project goals include starting a market and container garden so the Talibé can generate income for the daara through the sale of mint, and can supplement their own diets through vegetable production with a focus on eggplant, tomato, cabbage, green onion, and sweet potato.

Site Observation Checklist □ History of the Land: Neighbor’s Knowledge, Ancien’s Photos, Personal Archaeology (dig some holes), What was here before? – garden, building site, wood lot, grazing land, garbage heap, market, etc. □ Water Source: Well, City Water, Cistern, Rain fall, River, Seasonal Pond? Is your water source reliable year round? Does it ever cut out for days at a time? Where is it located in association with your garden? □ Rainfall amounts and Seasonal Changes: Dates of first and last rains

□ Micro-Climates: Cool, Hot, Wet, Dry, Sheltered, and exposed Spots □ Areas of shade and sun and how they very over the course of the year. □ Soil Quality: Drainage, Heavy or light, Sand or clay, rocky, rich or depleted, amount of organic matter, stable or slumping, compacted? □ Soil life: Earthworms, ants, termites, nematodes, etc. □ Rocky Outcrops, Boulders, Gravel

□ Wind Direction, intensity, and change over seasons □ Average and Record Seasonal Temperature Highs and Lows: Transition dates from wet season to cool season to hot season □ Points of sunrise and sunset and their change over the seasons/ Cardinal Directions □ Shape of Landscape and Water Flow: Topography, Slope, Flooding zones, Drainage patterns. How does water flow

□ Nearby plantings that may affect your site (now or when fully grown): Baobabs?

Mahogany? Eucalyptus? □ Are there water pipes in the ground? □ Local Resources: Sources of Organic matter (Manure, food wastes, fish wastes, green/dry grasses, peanut shells, millet chaff, charcoal powder, etc.), soil, sand, building materials, seeds (wild, other gardeners, stores), nurseries (local

I

Apendix A: Observation and Recording on the landscape when it rains? Are there clear erosion points? Does rain water flow in from off site? If so, where is it coming from? Road runoff? Runoff from surrounding fields? If so are the farmers using pesticides/chemical fertilizers? □ Existing Vegetation: species present, opportunistic or noxious plants, rare species, and their state of health. □ Animals: Sheep, goats, cows, pigs, cats, chickens, ducks, birds, lizards, frogs, spiders, snakes, bees, wasps, flies, mosquitoes, insect pests, beneficial insects

ornamentals, Eaux et Forets), Information Resources (local gardeners who know their stuff, Peace Corps staff and other volunteers, Internet) □ Location of structures on site and nearby – Houses, fences, and walls, etc. What is their effect on the surrounding site: shade, water runoff, windbreak, etc? □ Traffic and its frequency, heavy or light, pedestrian traffic, children or adults, people who don’t know not to walk in beds.

Daily Entry Example 2 Nov. 2012 – Work partner watered - Started lettuce nursery, weeded beds 3-6, turned compost, purchased 2 carts of manure, noticed whiteflies in the mint beds – sprayed with hillbilly breath, will spray again the day after tomorrow 3 Nov. 2012 – work partner and I watered, had production meeting with work partner – decided to focus on hot peppers and onions for cold season production, weeded beds 7-12, noticed a crack forming in the water basin 4 Nov. 2012 – Work partner and I watered, Talked to mason about repairing the basin, sprayed mint beds with hillbilly breath – whitefly population seems to be dwindling, Made new compost pile Planned Activity Example 2 Nov. 2012 – Start lettuce nursery, continue weeding beds, turn compost, buy manure – 2 carts 3 Nov. 2012 – Hold production meeting, continue weeding 4 Nov. 2012 – Hire Mason to repair basin, spray hillbilly breath for whiteflies, continue weeding 5 Nov. 2012 – Mason coming to fix basin, continue weeding, purchase seed and start hot pepper nursery Planting Log Example Crop: Lettuce Variety: Eden Nursery Bed #: 3, 4, 5, 6 Number of square meters of nursery: 4 Date Nursery was Prepped: 25 Oct. 2012 Date Nursery was Seeded: 2 Nov. 2012 Date Nursery was Reseeded: N/A Date Nursery was Thinned: 9 Nov. 2012 Garden Bed #: 6,7,8,9 Number of Square Meters of Garden Bed: 12 Date Direct Seeded or Transplanted: 18 Nov. 2012 Date Re-Direct Seeded or Re-Transplanted: 20 Nov. 2012 Date of Direct Seed Thinning: N/A Notes and Observations: No problems with the nursery, the germination rate was good, seed density was good. No need to re-seed. We did have some dieback issues immediately after transplanting – we transplanted at the hot part of the day, and rats ate a portion of the transplants. The second transplanting had a much higher survival rate as we transplanted in the evening and poured a small amount of water in each planting hole prior to transplanting. We also set a trap next to the rat hole and caught 3 rats over 5 days – no sign of rodent damage since then.

II

Apendix A: Observation and Recording Service Journal Examples Example Activity Entry Date: 22 July 2010 Activity: Permagarden training Location: Ndarang Community Women’s Garden, Soto, Kafrene Region Partners(s): Assan Diallo, Antu Ndaw, PTA Youssoupha Boye, PCVL Ian Freeburg, PCV Ben Magen, PCV Mike Kelley, PCV Chris Peterson Attendees: 32 Breakdown: Women: 22 Men: 9 Boys: 1 Service Providers: 1 (male) Description: PCVs Magen and Kelley conducted a full day training on the benefits of Permagardening and composting. The morning started with an introduction on the importance of water capture and erosion control followed by a demonstration on how to make A-frames. We then broke into smaller groups led by Youssoupha, Magen, Kelley, Freeburg, and Peterson and installed earthworks surrounding the garden area. In the garden we installed and leveled double dug terraces. In the afternoon we discussed the importance of berm protection with spillways and plantings and then broke up into groups again to practice what we had just discussed. Lunch was provided by the community work partner, Assan Diallo. All supplies, tools, and facilities were also supplied by Mr. Diallo.

Specific Installations: 3 contour berms, 1 boomerang berm, 2 check damns in an erosion channel, 8 spillways, 4 1mx3m double-dug terraces, 3 banana trees, 15 leucaena outplanted, 30 pigeon pea direct seeded, 15 china pride direct seeded, 50 vetiver transplanted Comments: The attendees took good notes and participated, but not all were willing to get their hands dirty in the practical exercise. Lunch was excellent, and probably boosted attendance.

III

Appendix B: Project Logistics During your service, you may decide to work on a project that requires infrastructure improvement, including buildings, fences, basins, gravity fed basins, plumbing, and/or wells. Before starting any funded project assess your community’s level of motivation. Are they simply asking for a funded project without demonstrating prior motivation to try to install the desired improvements themselves? Or are they a hard working group that has struggled with start-up capital, but has still attempted improvements without outside assistance?

It is also important to assess the material needs of the project. As yet, this appendix discusses only industrial products. The materials listed here may not always be the most appropriate choice for every situation. For example, if you community can install a fence without a grant using pole-wood and bamboo crinting, that may be the right choice. Conversely, sometimes locally made materials are extremely hard on the local environment and contribute greatly to deforestation and local climate change. Always think about the options at your disposal and balance them according to cost, availability, durability, and environmental impact.

NOTE: Any prices listed in this appendix are meant to serve as a rough guide.

Prices will differ from region to region and are subject to change over time.

Always get price quotes from local retailers and labor providers before submitting any budget proposals.

General Costing Raw Material Costs Material Cement (50kg) Chain-link Fence (25m) T-bars #30(6m) I-beams (1m) Poly Pipe (16mm) per meter Attaching Wire (1kg) Tension Wire (1kg) Corrugated Roofing (1 sheet) Sand (1 cart load) Gravel (1 cart load) Rebar #8 Rebar #6 Roof Rafters (4m) Nails – all sizes (1kg) Rust-proof Paint Paint Thinner

Price Per Unit (cfa) 3,800 – 4,500 26,000 – 35,000 6,000 4,000 400 1,000 1,000 2,500 1,000 1,000 1,800 1,200 5,500 800 1,750 700

Local Name (Senegal) Cement Grillage Fer -T#30 (piquet de cloture) Fer-IPN Tuyau Anjou Fil de Fer Attache Fil Tension Zinc Sable Gravier (Beton) Fer #8 Fer #6 Poutrelle Clous (Pointes) Anti-rouille Diluant

V

Appendix B: Project Logistics Tools Tool Shovel – round (head only) Shovel – square (head only) Pick (head only) Large Hoe (head only) Rake (head only) Small Hoe (with handle) Machete Pole Saw Hedge Clipper Hand Clipper Mason Bucket Watering Can Plastic Barrel (100L) Metal Drum (100L) Plastic Sheeting (m) Hand Sprayer (2L) Pitch Fork Scale (50kg) Measuring Tape (50m) Backpack Sprayer (20L) Garden Door (2mx1.2m) Window Shutter (1mx1m)

Price Per Unit (cfa) 1,500 1,500 2,500 2,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 6,000 6,000 1,000 6,000 7,000 5,000 – 8,000 250 7,500 2,500 15,000 3,000 – 10,000 30,000 – 50,000 35,000 15,000

Labor Project Brick Making (per brick)

Cost (CFA) 25-35

Masonry Work (per day) Roof Installation (16m2)

Fence Posts (per post) Corner and Tension Posts (per post) Chain-link Installation per meter Well Digging (per meter for the first 5 meters) Well Digging (per meter between 6-10m) Well Digging for ever meter past 10m

3,000 – 5,000 25,000

300-500

Local Name (Senegal) Pelle Ronde Pelle Carree Pioche (Pique) Grande Dabba Rateau Petite Dabba Coupe-coupe (jass) Scie Branche Cisaille á Haie Secateur Seau Macon Arrosoir Fut Plastique Fut Metalique Impermeable Pulverisateur á Main Fourche á Fumier Balance Ruban Pulverisateur a Dos Portail Fenetre Persienne

Notes Labor prices vary from project to project.

Masons capable of more complicated work such as basins or structural elements will charge more for their labor.

Metal fence posts are sold in 6m bars and must be cut into 2m lengths and have holes drilled into them before use.

600-1000 125 - 200 15,000 20,000 – 25,000 30,000 – 35,000

Rocky soils will be more expensive Rocky soils will be more expensive

VI

Appendix B: Project Logistics Masonry Work Sand 1 cart of sand = 10 wheelbarrows Bricks – Full Full bricks are used for building basins and the foundations of walls and buildings. Bricks are generally made on site rather than purchased pre-made.

Full Brick Formula – 1bag of cement (50kg) + 3 wheelbarrows of sand = 20-25 full bricks o

NOTE – The above formula is the standard cement mix in most areas. For stronger bricks use only 2 wheelbarrows of sand. Less sand results in fewer bricks and results in greater expenditure on cement.

Bricks – Hollow Hollow bricks are used for building the above-ground portions of walls. They are NOT suitable for basins or building foundations. ALWAYS use full bricks for basins or building foundations.

Hollow Brick Formula - 1bag of cement (50kg) + 3 wheelbarrows of sand = 30-35 hollow bricks o

NOTE – The above formula is the standard cement mix in most areas. For stronger bricks mix in less sand. Less sand results in fewer bricks and results in greater expenditure on cement.

Calculating # of bricks required Brick Formula (linear meter) – 1 linear meter = 2.5 bricks OR 1brick = 40cm long NOTE: This formula will vary slightly depending on the thickness of the mortar used by the mason.

Mortar should generally be between 3-5cm thick.

Brick Formula (vertical meter) – 1 vertical meter = 5 layers of bricks OR 1brick = 20cm high NOTE: This formula will vary slightly depending on the thickness of the mortar used by the mason.

Mortar should generally be between 3-5cm thick.

Wall Formula #đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘›đ?‘’đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x;  đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘Ľ  2.5 = #đ?‘?đ?‘&#x;đ?‘–đ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘  đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘&#x;  đ?‘™đ?‘Žđ?‘Śđ?‘’đ?‘&#x; Â

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= #đ?‘™đ?‘Žđ?‘Śđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘“đ?‘˘đ?‘™đ?‘™  đ?‘?đ?‘&#x;đ?‘–đ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘

= #đ?‘™đ?‘Žđ?‘Śđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  ℎđ?‘œđ?‘™đ?‘™đ?‘œđ?‘¤  đ?‘?đ?‘&#x;đ?‘–đ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘

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VII

Appendix B: Project Logistics Mortar Mortar is the cement mix that is spread between layers of brick to adhere them together. Mortar should be between 3-5cm in thickness when spread between bricks.

Cement mix – 3.5 wheelbarrows of sand for 1 sack of cement Coverage – 6m2 Columns Columns are rebar-reinforced vertical structures that help tie together and strengthen portions of wall.

Cement Mix – 2 wheelbarrows of sand and 4 wheelbarrows of gravel for 1 sack of cement Rebar needs – 2½ rebar #8 for 7m of column Coverage – 7m of column Façade Façade is the smooth cement surface that covers the brick core. It is used as both an aesthetic lining on buildings, and as a waterproof interior on basins.

Cement Mix – 3 wheelbarrows of sand for 1 sack of cement Coverage – 7m2 Poured Cement Floors Most buildings will have a poured concrete floor.

Cement Mix – 3 wheelbarrows of sand = 6 wheelbarrows of gravel for 1 bag of cement.

Coverage – 7m2 10cm thickness.

Roofing Materials Rafters – Rafters generally come in 4m lengths that can be cut down the middle to make 2 rafters. Rafters are generally spaced 65cm apart.

Corrugated Sheeting – 1 sheet per 1m2 Walls Cement walls in Senegal typically have foundations that are 2-3 layers of full-bricks deep and are 10-14 layers of hollow-bricks high. Every 4m there are rebar-reinforced columns that offer additional support.

Each column requires 11/4 bars of rebar #10. Including the cement mortar required to adhere bricks to each other, each brick is 40cm long and 20cm high.

Standard Brick Wall with Rebar-reinforced Columns

VIII

Appendix B: Project Logistics Example: Cement wall (12m long by 2m tall) o

Full Bricks (for foundation): Linear Calculation - 12𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 2.5𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 = 30𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

o

Full Bricks (for foundation): Vertical Calculation -

o

Full Bricks (for foundation): Total Needed – 2𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑥 30𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 = 60𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

o

Full Bricks (for foundation): Cement Required -

o

Full Bricks (for foundation): Sand Required –

= 2𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

= 3𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

3𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 3𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 9 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 o

Hollow Bricks: Linear Calculation – 12𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 2.5𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 = 30𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

o

Hollow Bricks: Vertical Calculation –

o

Hollow Bricks: Total Needed – 10𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑥 30𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 = 300𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

o

Hollow Bricks: Cement Required -

o

Hollow Bricks: Sand Required –

= 10𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

= 10𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

10𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 3𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 30 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 o

Mortar: Cement Required -

o

Mortar: Sand Required –

= 4 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

4 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 3.5𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 14 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 o

Columns: Cement Required - 4𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑥 2.5𝑚 = 10𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 10𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 7𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

o

Columns: Sand Required – 2𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 4𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

o

Columns: Gravel Required 4 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 8 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑙 IX

Appendix B: Project Logistics o

Columns: Rebar Required -

o

Façade: Cement Required –

o

Façade: Sand Required -

Â

Â

= 1.5       1.5  đ?‘Ľ  2.5đ?‘š  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘&#x;đ?‘’đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x; = 3.75đ?‘š  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘&#x;đ?‘’đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x;

 Â

Â

 Â

Â

=  4  đ?‘ đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘›đ?‘Ą

3đ?‘¤â„Žđ?‘’đ?‘’đ?‘™đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x;đ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘¤đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘ đ?‘Žđ?‘›đ?‘‘  đ?‘Ľ  4  đ?‘ đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘›đ?‘Ą = 12  đ?‘¤â„Žđ?‘’đ?‘’đ?‘™đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x;đ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘¤đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘ đ?‘Žđ?‘›đ?‘‘ Example Budget (Wall: 12m long x 2m tall) Material Cost per Unit (cfa) Cement 4,000 Sand (1cart) 1,000 Gravel (1cart) 1,000 Rebar#8 1,800 Labor (for bricks) 30 Labor(Construction) 20,000

# of Units 23 6 1 4 300 1 Total

Subtotal (cfa) 92,000 6,000 1,000 7,200 9,000 20,000 135,200

Buildings Building a finished structure requires the hiring of a mason for the foundation, walls, and flooring, as well as the hiring of a carpenter for the roof. Both must be contracted separately. NEVER assume that a mason’s  price  quote  will  include  any  roofing or electrical work. For the walls and foundation, the information for walls seen above applies. When working with a mason on a building project, keep the following points in mind: The foundations of buildings should be made from full bricks and should be at least 3 layers deep.

In addition to a column every 4m, buildings should also have rebar-reinforced columns at the corners.

For a standard building rooftop there should be a slope of at least 2 layers of brick. Most frequently this means that the high side of the building is between 2.6m and 2.8m and the short side of the building is between 2.2m and 2.4m.

When calculating the quantity of hollow bricks needed, calculate for the high wall. Some bricks will break during construction and having a few extra will make the process easier.

The slope of the rooftop should bisect the prominent direction of the wind. If it does not it may detach and fly away during a heavy rain storm.

Doors should be placed on the high wall NOT the short wall.

Windows should be placed no closer than 50cm from the roof.

Once the walls are finished the earth around the foundation needs to be re-graded so that water does not settle against the foundation.

X

Appendix B: Project Logistics Example: Tool Shed 3.5m x 4m x 2.6m high with 1 door [2m tall x 80cm wide] and 1 window [1m x 1m]

o

Bricks Required 4𝑚 + 4𝑚 + 3.5𝑚 + 3.5𝑚 = 15 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 per layer 15𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑥 2.5𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 40𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟

= 3 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

3𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑥 40𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 = 120𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠

= 13𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

13𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑥 40 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 = 520ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠 o

Cement Required – Use Calculations as seen above

XI

Appendix B: Project Logistics Example – Budget: tool shed with exterior facade Materials Price per unit (cfa) Cement (50kg) 4,000 Sand (1 cart) 1,000 Gravel (1 cart) 1,000 Rebar #8 1,800 Rebar #6 1,200 Rafters (4m) 5,500 Corrugated Roofing (1 sheet) 3,000 Nails #6 800 Nails #8 800 Galvanized Wire (1kg) 1,000 Attaching Wire (1kg) 1,000 Metal Door (2m x 80cm) 30,000 Metal Window Shutter (1m x 1m) 15,000 Labor (Brick Making) 30 Labor (Mason) 1 Labor (Carpenter) 1

# of units 35 11 2 6 2 3 14 2 2 3 1 1 1 640 40,000 25,000 Total

Subtotal (cfa) 140,000 11,000 2,000 10,800 2,400 16,500 42,000 1,600 1,600 3,000 1,000 30,000 15,000 19,200 40,000 25,000 361,1000

Basins Basins are small cement reservoirs placed in a location in the garden that facilitates convenient handwatering. They are generally filled either by garden hose, or are gravity fed by water that is poured into a feeder basin. When building basins, keep the following points in mind: ALWAYS use full bricks when building basins Basins are usually between 1.6m2 and 2m2 and 80cm tall. A basin that is any higher than 80cm tall is difficult to reach into when filling watering cans. If working with garden partners who are small adults or children, 60cm is often an appropriate basin height.

Measurements for basins are based on the INTERIOR dimensions. A 1.6m2 basin will have a footprint of 2m2 including the width of the bricks.

The holding capacity of the basin should be calculated to allow for at least 1 full day of watering and should be kept full at all times to safeguard against unforeseen water shortages such as city water being cut or the well becoming temporarily unaccessable.

For larger spaces it is recommended to build 2 or 3 smaller basins placed conveniently in the garden rather than 1 very large basin.

For structural integrity the basin should be sunken 20cm (1 layer of bricks) into the ground with a rebar-reinforced poured-cement bottom. This makes the total height of the basin from brick base to brick top 80-100cm (60-80cm above ground) or 4-5 layers of brick.

NO rebar-reinforced columns are necessary for the corners.

Basins require an interior façade but NOT an exterior façade.

XII

Appendix B: Project Logistics NOTE: Many work partners will want to install basins that are larger than 2m2. Basins this large have a number of problems and should not be installed. As mentioned above, if working in a large garden space, build multiple small basins rather than one large basing. Problems with large basins include: Increased surface area – The greater the surface area of exposed water, the more evaporation can occur increase water use.

Diminished structural integrity – Large basins hold large amounts of water which puts large amounts of pressure on the walls of the basins. The larger the basin, the easier it is to crack under the pressure of the water.

No increase to watering footprint – A larger basin does not increase the footprint around the basin that can be conveniently watered. To use all of that water you would need to make farther and farther return trips with a watering can. Strategically placed small basins are more convenient for watering.

Increased cost –The garden needs a fixed amount of water based on the size of the garden. The size of the basin does not make it easier or harder pull enough water, or less expensive to draw it from the tap. If only building one basin, save some money by building a smaller basin.

Calculating Necessary Water Holding Capacity and Corresponding Basin Dimensions 1m3 = 1000L #đ?‘ đ?‘ž. đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘Ľ  đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘ đ?‘–đ?‘›  ℎđ?‘’đ?‘–đ?‘”â„Žđ?‘Ą  (đ?‘–đ?‘›  đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘ )  đ?‘Ľ  1000 = #đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  ℎđ?‘œđ?‘™đ?‘‘đ?‘–đ?‘›đ?‘”  đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘–đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ś  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘ đ?‘–đ?‘› o 1.6đ?‘š  đ?‘Ľ  1.6đ?‘š =  2.56m2 o 2.56m2 x .8m basin height = 2.048m3 o 2.048m3 x 1000 = 2,048L #đ?‘ đ?‘ž. đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘‘  đ?‘ đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘’  đ?‘Ľ  7đ??ż  đ?‘¤đ?‘Žđ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x; = #  đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘  đ?‘›đ?‘’đ?‘’đ?‘‘đ?‘’đ?‘‘  đ?‘“đ?‘œđ?‘&#x;  1  đ?‘‘đ?‘Žđ?‘Ś  đ?‘œđ?‘“  đ?‘¤đ?‘Žđ?‘Ąđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘–đ?‘›đ?‘” o Example: 200m2 đ?‘Ľ 7L water = 1,400L of water A basin that is 1.6m x 1.6m x 8cm tall will hold more than enough water for 200m2 of bed space.

Bricks Required – Use the calculations for full bricks as seen above.

Cement Required o Bricks – Calculate cement needs for full bricks. When calculating the number of bricks needed for basins use the EXTERIOR dimensions of the basin. o Mortar – Use calculations as seen above. o Floor and Interior Façade – Use Calculations as seen above.

Rebar Required – Depends on the type of project and the floor that is installed. Talk to your mason about a solid cement foundation with a rebar grid or a partial brick foundation. Both types work so go with the type that the mason is more comfortable with.

XIII

Appendix B: Project Logistics Example Diagram: Basin – 1.6m x 1.6m

Example Budget: Basin - 1.6m x 1.6m Material/Equipment/Labor Cement, 50kg Rock, Cart Load Sand, Cart Load Rebar # 8 Labor - Basin Labor - Bricks

Price Per Unit 4,000 1,000 1,000 1,800 15,000 30

# of Units 8 5 5 4 1 80 TOTAL

Subtotal (CFA) 32,000 5,000 5,000 7,200 15,000 2,400 66,600

Feeder Basins Feeder basins are small basins that are attached to wells, or are built within easy reach of them. Feeder basins are designed to work with gravity to passively feed simple basins that have been strategically placed in gardens for convenient watering. The construction of feeder basins are simple, but there are a few very important points to remember if they are to function properly: Drop in elevation is required for water to flow from the feeder basin to the simple basin. There must be at least a 40cm drop per 25m between the intake pipe in the feeder basin and the output pipe in the simple basin to achieve adequate water flow.

The Output pipe in the simple basin MUST be attached to the TOP of the basin. If it is attached to the bottom of the basin, the pressure that builds as the basin fills will inhibit flow and prevent the basin from filling completely.

Feeder basins do not need to be large. A 40cm3 interior is sufficient to hold water as it flows out and feeds the simple basin downhill.

Feeder basins should not be built so high that water cannot be easily poured into them. Anything taller than 1.2m will be difficult for many smaller people to use comfortably.

Flexible black poly pipe is preferable to PVC. Only use PVC pipe if poly pipe is unavailable.

XIV

Appendix B: Project Logistics The pipe that runs from the feeder basin to the simple basin should be buried in the ground to protect it from foot traffic and the sun. However, the pipe line should be clearly marked above ground to prevent accidental damage when digging in the garden.

Full Bricks should be used for the construction of Feeder basins.

The base of the feeder basin should be entirely filled with hard packed earth up to base of the open portion of the basin. The open portion is then lined with a cement façade.

Feeder Basins do NOT need an exterior façade.

Feeder Basin Material Needs Cement Required o Full Bricks – Calculate the number of full bricks needed based on the calculations above.

When calculating the number of bricks needed for basins, use the EXTERIOR dimensions of the basin. o Mortar – Use the calculations seen above. o Façade – Use the calculations seen above.

Pipe Required o Pipe - Three measurements are required for the piping: 1. Measure the distance between the intake on the feeder basin to approximately 15cm beneath the surface of the ground.

2. Measure the distance from the feeder basin to the simple basin.

3. Measure the distance from the output on the simple basin to approximately 15cm beneath the surface of the ground. o Elbows – Four elbows are required, two for the right angles on the feeder basin and two for the right angles on the simple basin.

Feeder Basin Diagram 80cm x 80cm

Feeder Basin Model Budget 80cm x 80cm Material/Equipment/Labor Cement, 50kg Sand, Cart Load Connecting Pipe (per meter) Elbow Labor – Division Basin Labor - Bricks

Price Per Unit 4,000 1,000 600 2,500 8,000 30

# of Units 2 5 40 4 1 60 TOTAL

Subtotal (CFA) 8,000 5,000 24,000 10,000 8,000 1,800 56,800

XV

Appendix B: Project Logistics Chain-link Fencing There are a variety of non-living fences that are commonly used in Senegal. On a village level, dead wood fences are commonly used. Dead wood fences, while less expensive, contribute to deforestation and succumb to termites very quickly. Chain-link fence with metal posts offer the longest lasting protection of any non-living fence. However, not even chain-link lasts forever. All non-living fences should have a live fence planted just inside the perimeter. When building chain-link fences you need four basic components, Chain link, Standard Fence Posts, Tension Posts, and Corner Posts: Chain-link Chain-link is sold in 25m rolls. Whenever possible try to use garden spaces that are divisible by 25. For instance, a garden perimeter that is 80m will require the purchase of 100m of chain-link, therefore try to reduce the perimeter of the garden to 75m or increase it to 100m. Only purchase high quality Chain-link.

Standard Posts There are a number of types of metal bars that can be purchased for use as fence posts. The type of post that works best is the T-bar. A T-bar is distinguishable by the “T” shape that can be seen when looking at the ends of the bar. When making standard posts, keep the following points in mind: 1. Buy #30 T-bars Finished Standard Posts 2. T-bars are sold in 6m lengths. They then have to be taken to a metal worker to be cut into 2m sections for the fence posts.

3. Each post must have holes drilled into it to allow for attaching wire to pass through. There should be three holes per post. The holes should start 15cm from the top of the post with 60cm between holes leaving 65cm between the third hole and the base of the post.

T-bar – cut into 3 posts

Tension Posts Tension Posts are standard posts that have had angled support bars welded to the sides to strengthen them.

They are placed every 20m in the fence line so that tension wire can be attached. Without tension posts, standard posts run the risk of bending and weakening during the instalation process. When making tension posts, keep the following points in mind: 1 tension post requires 1 standard post and 2 1.5m T-bars.

The T-bars or “support” bars should be welded 75cm from the top of the standard post at rough 45 degree angles, leaving 75cm between the base of the support bars and the base of the post.

XVI

Appendix B: Project Logistics Corner Posts Corner Posts are similar to tension posts, but the support bars are welded on at a 90 degree angle to support the tension from both sides of fencing. When building corner posts, keep the following points in mind: 1 corner post requires 1 standard post and 2 1.5m Tbars for support.

The support bars should be welded 75cm from the top of the standard post at rough 45 degree angles, leaving 75cm between the base of the support bars and the base of the post.

The bases of the support bars and the post should form a 90 degree angle to support the corner of the fence.

Calculating for Fence Posts When calculating for fence posts remember that you need 1 corner post in each corner and a standard fence post every 2.5m with a tension post every 20m. Each corner and tension post requires 5m of T-bar, 1 2m bar and 2 1.5m bars.

Calculating for Cement, Sand, and Gravel 1 bag of cement will fill 10-12 post holes. Mix sand and cement according to the ratios for mortar seen in the Masonry section. To save on cement, fill the holes with laterite gravel. 1 cart of rock will fill 10-12 post holes.

Calculating for Wire and other Materials Attaching Wire – Attaching wire is used to fix the chain-link to each post. 1kg of attaching wire will secure 18 posts.

Tension Wire – Tension wire is thick, galvanized wire that is used to keep tension in the fence between fence posts. 1kg of wire will run approximately 20m of fencing.

Rust Protection Paint and Paint Thinner – Metal posts need to be painted to prevent them from rusting. Before using the paint, dilute it with paint thinner. A new pot of paint will be about half to 1/3 empty. Fill the pot the rest of the way with paint thinner and then stir until it is well mixed. 1 pot of paint will cover 16-18 posts. 1 bottle of paint thinner will dilute 2 pots of paint.

XVII

Appendix B: Project Logistics Model Calculation: 1 hectare (400 linear meters of fence) Chain-link:

= 16𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘

Corner Posts: A field with 4 corners requires 4 corner posts = 4 2m posts and 8 1.5m support bars.

Tension Posts: If each side of the hectare = 100m

= 5𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 3𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

3𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑥 4 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 12𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 12 tension posts require 12 2m posts and 24 1.5m support bars.

Standard Posts: If each side of the hectare = 100m 100𝑚 = 40 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 − 5𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 35𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 2.5𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 35𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑥 4 = 140𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 Total T-bars Required: o 2m T-bars: 140𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 + 12 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 156 2𝑚 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 156 2𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 52 6𝑚 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 3 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 6𝑚 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑟 o

1.5m T-bars (support bars for corner and tension posts) 16 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 32 1.5𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 32 1.5𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 8 6𝑚 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 4 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 6𝑚 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑟

XVIII

Appendix B: Project Logistics Model Fence Budget: 1 hectare (400 linear meters) Material/Equipment/Labor T-bars (6m) Chain-link (25m) Cement (50kg) Sand (1 cart) Gravel (1cart) Attaching Wire (kg) Tension Wire (kg) Rust Protection Paint Paint Thinner Gate (2m x 1.5m) Labor (Post Holes) Labor (Fence Installation)

Price Per Unit 6,000 30,000 4,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,750 700 45,000 200 60,000

# of Units 60 16 15 5 15 9.5 20 12 6 1 172 1 TOTAL

Subtotal (CFA) 360,000 480,000 60,000 5,000 15,000 9,500 20,000 21,000 4,200 45,000 34,400 60,000 1,114,100

Fence Installation Most fence projects are implemented by hired labor with experience installing fencing. However, it is a good idea to be familiar with the implementation process.

1. Paint posts and gate.

2. Dig post holes. Post holes should be 50cm deep and about 30cm in diameter. ALWAYS use a post-hole digger or strong metal rod to dig post holes. This creates a narrow profile hole that will require less cement to fill.

NEVER use picks or shovels to dig post holes as the holes will be very wide and require larger quantities of cement.

3. Mix Cement for corner posts.

4. Place corner posts. Use a mason level to make sure that they are straight in all directions.

5. Fill the corner post holes with gravel and pour in Cement. Wait 2-4 days for cement to dry fully.

6. String twine or thin rope between two corner posts to serve as a guide for the remaining posts.

7. Mix cement. Only mix 1 bag at a time to prevent waist.

8. Place the tension posts and standard posts at appropriate spacing and cement them in. Wait 2-4 days for them to dry. Continue on to the other sides of the fence.

9. NOTE: Posts should be sunken 50cm into the ground. Try to be as precise as possible with the depth of the post holes. If posts are not sunken into the ground at a regular height it may present problems when attaching the chain-link.

10. NOTE: be sure to leave space for the gate.

11. Once all of the post holes have been cemented in, roll out the chain-link one roll at a time. Use the attaching wire to secure the chain-link to the fence posts.

12. Once the chain-link has been attached weave the tension wire through and use the tension posts to make sure the wire is as tight as possible.

Finished Fence Line

XIX

Form 1 Farm Costs Log A record of the materials you purchase for each production bed or field Season: Year: Field/Bed:

Farmer Name:

Seeds/Transplants (Record on Form 2 as well) Purchase Date Crop Variety

Amount Purchased

Cost per Unit

Total Cost

Total Cost of Seeds/Transplants: Fertilizers/Pest Control Purchase Date

Material and Brand

Source

Amount

Cost per Unit

Total Cost

Total Cost of Fertilizers/Pest Control: Hired Labor Activities Performed

Name

Rate Per Hour or Day

Percent of Harvest (Estimated Market Value)

Hours or Days Worked

Total Amount Paid

Total Cost of Hired Labor: Water: Electric/Gas Pump Date or Type of Pump: Months of Gas or Electric Bill

Electric: Price per Kwh

Electric: Kwh Used

Gas: Price per Liter

Gas: Liters Purchased

Total Cost

Total Cost of Water Pump: Water: City Water Months of Bill

Price per Cubic Meter

Cubic Meters Purchased

Total Cost

Total Cost of City Water: Input Materials Transportation Date

Type of Transport

Origin

Destination

Number of Persons Travelling

Price per Person

Material Transport Fees

Total Cost of Input Materials Transportation:

Total Cost

Form 1 Farm Costs Log A record of the materials you purchase for each production bed or field Season: Year: Field/Bed:

Farmer Name:

Post-Harvest Transportation Date

Type of Transport

Origin

Number of Persons Travelling

Destination

Price per Person

Material Transport Fees

Total Cost

Total Cost of Post-Harvest Transportation: Tool/Material Repair and Replacement Date of Repair Tool or Material

Years Owned

Repair Cost

Replacement Cost

Total Cost

Total Cost of Tool/Material Repair and Replacement: Storage or Tool/Machine Rental Storage or Tool or Machine Rental Rate per Day Rented or Month

Days or Months Rented

Total Cost

Total Cost of Storage and Tool/Machine Rental: Loan Interest Loaner

Amt. Borrowed

Interest Rate

Start Date of Loan

Months until Repayment

Repayment Amount

Total Cost of Loan Interest: Other Costs: Total of Other Costs: Total Farm Costs for the Year:

Total Cost of Interest Payments

Formulaire 1 Journal des Dépenses Un récit des matériaux vous avez acheté pour chaque planche ou champ Saison: Année: Champ/Planche:

Nom d’Agriculteur:

Graines/Transplants (Recordez sur Formulaire 2 Aussi) Date d’Achat Récolte Variété Quantité Achetée

Prix Unitaire

Coût Total

Coût Total des Graines/Transplants: Engrais/Gestion des Maladies Matériau et Nom Date d’Achat de Marque

Source

Quantité/ Somme

Prix Unitaire

Coût Total

Coût Total d’Engrais/de Contrôle des Insectes Nuisible: Main d’Œuvre Name/ Nom

Activités Exécutées

Taux Horaire /Journalier

Pourcentage de Récolte (Valeur Estimée du Marché)

Nombre de Jours/d’Heures Travaillé

Somme Payée

Coût Total de Travailleurs Utilisé: Eau: Pompe Electrique/à Gaz Type de Pompe: Electrique ou à Gaz

Date de la Fracture

Electrique: Prix par KwHeure

Electrique: Kw Utilisé

Gaz: Cout par Litre

Gaz: Quantité Achetée

Coût Total

Coût Total de la Pompe à Eau: Eau: Robinet Mois de la Facture

Prix par Mètre Cube

Quantité/Nombre de Mètre Cube Acheté

Coût Total

Coût Total du Robinet: Transport des Matériaux Date

Type de Transport

Origine

Destination

Nombre de Personnes qui y Voyagent

Prix du Ticket par Personne

Prix de Transport des Matériaux

Coût Total du Transport des Matériaux:

Coût Total

Nom d’Agriculteur:

Formulaire 1 Journal des Dépenses Un récit des matériaux vous avez acheté pour chaque planche ou champ Saison: Année: Champ/Planche:

Transport des Récoltes Date

Type de Transport

Origine

Nombre de Personnes qui y Voyagent

Destination

Prix du Ticket par Personne

Prix de Transport des Matériaux

Coût Total

Coût Total du Transport des Récoltes: Réparation et Remplacement des Outils et du Matériel Date de Outil ou Année Réparation Matériel d’Appropriation

Coût de Réparation

Coût de Remplacement

Coût Total

Coût Total de Réparation et de Remplacement: Le Stockage ou la Location des Outils et des Machines Le Stockage ou Outils et Machine Le Taux Journalier ou Mensuel Loués de la Location

Nombre de Jours/Mois de Location

Coût Total

Coût Total du Stockage ou de la Location des Outils et des Machines: Intérêt sur Emprunts Prêteur

Somme Empruntée

Taux d’Intérêt

Date de Démarrage du Prêt

Date de l’Échéance

Somme à Rembourser

Coût Total d’Intérêt sur Emprunts: Autres Coûts: Coût Total d’Autres Coûts: Dépense Totale pour l'Année:

Coût Total de Paiements d’Intérêt

Farmer/Farm Name:

Form 2 Farm Seed and Planting Stock Record A record of seed and plants you purchased for use Year:

Garden Seed and Planting Stock Information Crop

Variety

Supplier

Price Paid

Amount Used

Seeding Density

Amount Remaining

Estimated Storage Time for Remaining Seed

Nom d’Agriculteur:

Formulaire 2 Registre de Stockage des Semis et Plants Un récit des semis et plants vous avez acheté Année:

Information sur le Stockage des Semis et Plants du Jardin Récolte Variété Fournisseur

Prix de Revient

Quantité Utilisée

Densités des Semis

Quantité Restante

Temps de Stockage Estimatif des Semis

Form 3 Inputs and Activities Log A record of the materials, practices and equipment you use for each farm bed/field. Record cost inputs on Form 1 Farmer/Farm Name: Bed/Field: Sq.Meters/Hectares: Season: Year: Crop(s):

Land Preparation Date

Activity

Materials Used

Time Spent

Total Time Spent on Land Preparation: Seeding/Transplants Date Crop/Variety Planted/Transplanted

Seeding Rate/Transplant Spacing

Time Spent

Total Time Spent on Seeding/Transplants: Fertilizers/Pest Control Material Applied/Brand Date or Source

Rate/ Amount

Notes

Time Spent

Total Time Spent on Fertilizers/Pest Control: Thinning Date

Method of Thinning

Total Time Spent on Thinning:

Time Spent

Form 3 Inputs and Activities Log A record of the materials, practices and equipment you use for each farm bed/field. Record cost inputs on Form 1 Farmer/Farm Name: Bed/Field: Sq.Meters/Hectares: Season: Year: Crop(s):

Weeding Date

Weeding Method

Projected Date of Next Weeding

Time Spent

Total Time Spent Weeding: Watering Date

Watering Method

Amount Used/Cubic Meters

Time Spent

Total Time Spent Watering: Other Activities Date

Activity

Materials Used

Total Time Spent on Other Activities: Harvest: Use Form 5 to record harvest information.

Additional notes and observations:

Time Spent

Formulaire 3 Journal des Contributions et des Activités Un récit des matériaux, pratiques, et équipements que vous utilisez pour chaque planche/champ. Enregistrer les dépenses à Formulaire 1 Planche/Champ: Mètres Carrés/Hectares: Saison:

Nom d’Agriculteur : Récolte(s):

Année:

Préparation de la Terre Date

Activité

Matériaux Utilisés

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Le Nombre d’Heures/de Jours Dédié à la Préparation des Terres: Semis/Transplantation Date

Récolte/Variété Cultivée

Le Taux de Semis/L’Espacement Entre les Plants

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Le Nombre d’Heures/de Jours Dédié aux Semis/Transplantation: Engrais/la Gestion des Maladies Matériaux Appliqué/ Nom Date de Marque ou Source

Taux/la Somme

Notes

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Le Nombre d’Heures/de Jours Dédié aux Engrais/la Gestion des Maladies: Éclaircissage Date

Méthode d’Éclaircissage

Le Nombre d’Heures /de Jours Dédié au Éclaircissage:

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Nom d’Agriculteur : Récolte(s):

Formulaire 3 Journal des Contributions et des Activités Un récit des matériaux, pratiques, et équipements que vous utilisez pour chaque planche/champ. Enregistrer les dépenses à Formulaire 1 Planche/Champ: Mètres Carrés/Hectares: Saison:

Année:

Désherbage Date

Méthode de Désherbage

Date Prévue pour le Prochain Désherbage

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Le Nombre d’Heures/de Jours Dédié au Désherbage: L’Arrosage Date

Méthode d’Arrosage

Volume d’Eau Utilisé

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Le Nombre d’Heures /de Jours Dédié à l’Arrosage: Autres Activités Date

Activité

Matériaux Utilisés

Le Nombre d’Heures/de Jours Dédié à d’Autres Activités: Récolte: Utilise le Formulaire 5 pour enregistrer les informations de la moisson.

Des Observations et Notes Supplémentaires:

Le Temps Mis/Passé/Dédié

Form 4 Farm Pest/Disease Monitoring Log Use this form to keep track of all damage done to a field or bed due to pests and diseases Farmer/Farm Name: Bed/Field: Sq.Meters/Hectares: Season: Crop(s):

Year:

Pest/Disease Monitoring: List date, type of pest/disease, and assessment of crop damage you observed Observation Date

Pest/Disease (note monitoring method if desired)

Additional Notes and Observations:

Type of crop damage

Extent of Crop Damage (Low, Medium, High)

Control Method

Control Date

Effective?

Formulaire 4 Journal de Contrôle des Insectes Nuisible et des Maladies Un formulaire pour noter tout le dégât subi par un champ/une planche à cause des insectes nuisible et des maladies Nom d’Agriculteur : Planche/Champ: Mètres Carrés/Hectares: Saison: Année: Récolte(s): Contrôle des Insectes Nuisibles/Maladies: Notez Date, Types d’Insectes/Maladies, et l'Evaluation des Dégâts que Vous Avez Observés Insectes Nuisibles/Maladie Type de Dégâts Niveau de Date Méthode de Date de (Notez la Méthode Subi par les Dégâts (Bas, Efficace? d'Observation Contrôle Contrôle d'Observation, Si Récoltes Moyen, Élevé) Nécessaire)

Notes et Observations Supplémentaires:

Form 5 Farm Harvest Record A record of your crop harvest for the entire year Season:

Farmer/Farm Name:

Harvest Date

Bed/Field

Crop(s) Harvested

Quantity

Additional Comments and Observations/Explanation of Losses:

Year:

Grade or Quality

Stored, Sold or Consumed

Nom d’Agriculteur: Date de Récolte

Planche/Champ

Formulaire 5 Registre de la Récolte Un registre de votre récolte pour une saison Saison: Produit(s) Récolté(s)

Quantité

Commentaires ou Observations Supplémentaires/Explication des Pertes:

Année:

Qualité

Stocké, Vendu ou Consommé

Farmer/Farm Name:

Date

Form 6 Market Load List Use this form to keep inventory of all of the produce you bring to market each day Market Location: Crop:

Amount Carried Over from Last Market Day

Quantity Harvested

Amount Eaten by the Family

Total Brought to Market

Quantity Sold

Amount Spoiled

Quantity Remaining

Formulaire 6 Journal de Récolte Apporté au Marche Utiliser ce formulaire pour noter votre inventaire de tout les récoltes vous apportez au marché chaque jour Nom D’Agriculteur: Lieu de Marché: Récolte:

Date

Quantité Totale Rapportée du Dernier Marché

Quantité Récoltée

Quantité Consommé par la Famille

Quantité Transportée au Marché

Quantité Vendue

Quantité Gâtée

Quantité Restante

Farmer/Farm Name: Date of Sale

Form 7 Market Load/Sales Record Use this form to record all your individual market sales. At the end of each market day, record your total sales on Form 8 Season: Year:

Market/Customer

Crop Sold

Quantity Sold

Price per Unit

Total Price

Formulaire 7 Registre des Ventes au Marché Noter chaque de vos ventes au marche. À la fin de chaque jour, noter le totale vendu sur Formulaire 8 Nom D’Agriculteur: Saison: Année: Date de Vente

Marché/Consommateur

Produit Vendu

Quantité Vendue

Prix Unitaire

Prix Total

Form 8 Total Market Sales Record Use this form to total your sales receipts from Form 7 for each market day to track your total annual sales Farmer/Farm Name: Year: Date of Sale

Date:

Market/Customer

Total Sales to Date:

Total Sales Receipts (CFA)

Nom D’Agriculteur: Date de Vente

Date:

Formulaire 8 Registre des Ventes Totale au Marché Additionner touts vos recettes des ventes sur formulaire 7 pour chaque jour des ventes afin de calculer vos ventes annuel Année: Marché /Consommateur

Total Vendu à Ce Jour:

Recette Totale des Ventes (CFA)