RESURRECTING SYRIA: FROM RUBBLE TO REPATRIATION Finding Temporal Permanence at the End of Displacement for Refugees Through Repatriation
Wreckage | Repair | Resurrection
RESURRECTING SYRIA: FROM RUBBLE TO REPATRIATION Finding Temporal Permanence for Refugees at the End of Displacement Through Repatriation Wreckage | Repair | Resurrection Sean McQueenie 201233663 Studio 05 PGDip Advanced Architectural Design Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering University of Strathclyde 16.11.20
Declaration
AB 964 Design Studio 5A MArch/PG Dip Advanced Architectural Design MArch Architecture Design International “I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.� Name: Sean McQueenie
Signed: Date: 16.11.20 I
Fig.1: From Segregation to Rapprochement Through Repatriation
Abstract
Over 13.2 million Syrians are currently forcibly displaced both internally and across Europe and the Middle East, the majority hosted in camps and cities in neighbouring territories. How can architecture be utilised to help stabilise and repatriate the region, providing permanent accommodation and prosperity for refugees, bridging the gap between temporary relocation and permanent settlement? An exploration of temporal rapprochement and repatriation, architecture is examined as the catalyst in protecting and empowering vulnerable communities via hands on involvement in community focussed interventions, providing for the needs of a recovering nation through an allegorical narrative of culture, fabric and society. Incorporating ideas which accommodate our collective tapestry of lived experience, this thesis will test the concept of versatile, customisable environments which allow for adaptability of space and simultaneous inclusion of multiple architectural styles and ideas. By establishing the parameters and tools by which Syria can rebuild, re-inhabit and repatriate, bringing much needed stability to the region, they are better placed to assist their neighbouring states, applying lessons learned so that fellow locals can harness this information and utilise it to up-skill, diversify and be empowered to live with increased autonomy, resilience and prosperity.
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Contents Declaration Abstract I
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III
I III
Introduction | The Refugee Crisis Forcible Displacement: Historic Issue, Contemporary Urgency Rapprochement & Repatriation Background | A Middle Eastern Context Regional Issues Focus Perspective: Through The Prism of War in Syria Routes to Europe Migrant Processing in the UK As it Stands: Current Support Mechanisms Promoting a Humane Approach Brief | Towards Repatriation
Humanizing & Rehabilitating Finding Temporal Permanence IV Framework | Supporting the Urgency Deriving Typology Through Human Need Chronology of Return Nature of the Spaces: Phase 2 - Intimate Nature of the Spaces: Phase 3 - Public Key Demographics Economy as Driver of Change A Portrait of Syria: Remnants of Civilisation V Network | Contextualising the Response Focal Point: Bridging From the Temporary to the Permanent A Framework for Site Selection Criteria Gateway Satellite Hubs VI Programme | Terms of Engagement Architectural Heritage & Identity Salvaging Craft | Intrinsic Resilience Through Design VII Conclusion | A Template for the Future Promoting the Familiar, Allowing for Innovation Resilience in the Face of Adversity Parameters for Design | Preliminary Brief Requirements Appendix I Methodology Bibliography List of Figures
1 1 5 7 7 13 21 23 25 27 31 31 33 35 35 37 39 41 43 47 51 53 53 55 65 67 69 69 87 91 91 92 93 95 98 100
“Architecture creates shelter and transforms the ordinary. Good architecture civilises and humanises, bad architecture brutalises,� Richard Rogers, 2017
VII
45.7million Internally Displaced People
26million Refugees
4.2million Asylum Seekers
3.6million Venezuelans Displaced Abroad
Fig.2: Global Displacement, 2019 | A representation of the key statistics of global displacement in 2019, where 1 ‘person’ represents approximately 1 million citizens
I
Introduction | The Refugee Crisis
Forcible Displacement: Historic Issue, Contemporary Urgency
Of the 79.5 million global citizens forcibly displaced at the end of 2019, 45.7 million were Internally Displaced Citizens (IDPs), meaning they were displaced within their native country. 26 million were recognised as refugees under the United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees’ (UNHCR’s) mandate which provides international recognition to those classed within this group, in order to ensure protection and adequate support, while more than 4 million more were asylum seekers who sought refuge in countries other than their own (UNHCR, 2020). Over a quarter of IDPs in a UNHCR/World Bank study in 2017 were living in nations so hostile that access to provide assistance was extremely difficult due to the ferocity of conflict in the region, such as Syria or Yemen. Forcible displacement generally occurs due to conflict, natural disaster or persecution. It can also occur due to poverty and lack of quality healthcare, education, employment or social opportunities, although this is usually considered as economic displacement or migration (World Bank. 2017; 18). Conflict is responsible for the highest number of citizens fleeing their home nation and presents a much more complicated issue due to the myriad factors at play across the political and social spectra, resulting in the affected fleeing farther afield (and more hastily) in their search for safety, while resolutions are often less straight forward, efficient and normally more time consuming. The meridian length of displacement is around 4 years, while the average is just over a decade. Forcibly displaced citizens are generally not afforded the same protections and rights as regular citizens, while have little to no opportunities to apply or improve their skills and situation, often seeking refuge in neighbouring countries that are not equipped to provide the required support. This results in the displaced being unable to take control of their personal situation as they lack the tools or access to the correct apparatus, stifling their ability to alleviate their situation and perpetuating their issues via a lack of self-empowerment. The World Bank study recognises that the prolonging of displacement also adversely effects the recovery of the displaced, while hampering host nationals’ perception of them and potentially harming the development of the host nation itself should problems persist with integration and access to education and employment. Poverty and destitution often arise as a critical issue as many displaced citizens are forced to flee without the majority of their finances or assets in order, then face surviving on or selling what little they leave with to sustain themselves, which is maintained or aggravated by a lack of economic and education opportunities in the host location, often exacerbated by language and cultural barriers.
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Fig.3: Stage 01 | Exclusion Displaced citizens often experience barriers accessing potential ‘host’ countries, both physically and in terms of what protection and support they are offered. The majority of the displaced are found in their origin nation, or in vast migrant camps in surrounding areas, cut off from regular society. They commonly also face barriers accessing vital facilities in their home nation when attempting to return 2
This can in turn encourage the displaced to resort to gaining financial or accommodation security through inadvisable or illicit means, leading to exploitation of these vulnerable groups: The term ‘wrong place’ is associated primarily with the employability and economic suitability match between a host country’s needs and a displaced person’s skill set, followed by difficulties adjusting to the local language and cultures: “In a culturally foreign environment, it is hard to achieve economic and social inclusion. Fortunately, most people flee to places that are fairly close geographically and that often have a degree of familiarity...Exceptions include Syrian refugees in Turkey and relatively large numbers hosted in other (OECD) countries.” (World Bank. 2017; 88). The ‘end’ of forced displacement is defined as when displaced citizens “...can once again enjoy the protection of a state in a durable and effective manner, whether through voluntary return to their country of origin, integration in their host country, or resettlement to a third country.” (World Bank. 2017; 99). Similarly, the ‘end point’ of displacement is considered as the “Moment when these vulnerabilities have been offset so that the displaced can take full advantage of available poverty reduction programs and reestablish their lives in a manner that is genuinely durable from a socioeconomic perspective.”
Fig.4: Stage 02 | Segregation Sketch of a back court, depicting scenario of a ‘gang’ of migrants unable to find employment through legal means, often resulting in migrants seeking income, security and shelter through illicit means, maintaining their precarious situation, resulting in further alienation from host communities. Migrants may choose to congregate for safety and camaraderie in the face of fears of intimidation or issues with language and cultural barriers 3
Fig.5: Factors Behind Forced Displacement | Conflict, persecution, natural disaster
Fig.6: Factors Preventing Return | Areas to Provide Opportunities War & destruction still prevalent; logistical and financial issues regarding travelling home or rebuilding adequate housing, amenities and support networks; fear of continued persecution; economic uncertainty; lack of opportunities; insufficient healthcare support
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Rapprochement & Repatriation
It is more beneficial for a displaced person to return to an environment which provides them with adequate opportunities, access to relevant services and a suitable home (Mehaffy & Salingaros, 2020). Barriers exist however to the End Point including the perpetuation of war and destruction in their homelands; logistical and financial issues regarding travelling home or rebuilding adequate housing, amenities and support networks; fear of continued persecution; economic uncertainty; lack of opportunities and insufficient healthcare support. A framework for repatriation is therefore required to bridge the gap between temporary ‘host’ accommodation and a sustainable, long-term, meaningful and successful permanent home, in order to achieve rapprochement between displaced nationals arriving home from different host settings or conditions - such as migrant camps or various integration schemes - and their native lands. What environments can architecture create which help improve the issues faced upon return; build resilience in the face of future disasters; and establish a sustainable link between the various temporary displacement locations and the permanence of home beyond the functional surroundings they are often accommodated in? How can architecture provide a sense of temporal permanence, promoting the wellbeing and empowerment of these vulnerable groups? By establishing the parameters and tools by which a nation can rebuild, re-inhabit and repatriate, bringing much needed stability to the region, they are better placed to assist their neighbouring states, applying lessons learned so that fellow locals can harness this information and utilise it to up-skill, diversify and be empowered to live with increased autonomy, resilience and prosperity. It is envisaged that a template can be created, whereby a set of rules or ‘terms of engagement’ are devised to guide the designs which are stitched into the existing or remaining fabric and which can be adapted to suit a range of contexts. By testing this proposal in a setting which has been exposed to some of the most extreme conditions in the world - by both natural and man-made factors - in the subsequent period of design in Semester 2, it is hoped that a baseline of an architectural template can be formulated which can be utilised as a framework for grass-roots rebuilding in a variety of similar settings, with a focus on common shared characteristics over specificities of context.
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YEMEN
Fig.7: Context Map | Middle East, Africa and Europe
SYRIA LEBANON
PALESTINE
Fig.8: Regional Map | Identified Middle Eastern Nations for Further Study 6
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Background | A Middle Eastern Context Regional Issues
Through preliminary research to identify global urgencies - displayed by the timeline chart on the following page - it became apparent that the majority of serious issues requiring urgent action were either located in, or stemmed from, the Middle East. Common themes between all global challenges faced fell under the categories of: Environment Destruction of important ecological sites and a lack of coherent, sustainable planning for the future Health Limited healthcare provision to deal with epidemics and pandemics, with particular regard to remote or poorly covered regions which rely heavily on strained and fragile healthcare systems often provided or supported by Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) Politics Several wars being serviced or funded by ‘Western’ nations through politics or sale of arms which accelerates environmental damage, increases displacement of vulnerable groups and decimates health services Society Lack of inclusion of, protection and equal rights for vulnerable or marginalised groups Pages 10 and 11 utilise the displacement situation in the worst effected nations in the Middle East, all 4 of which share similar cultural backgrounds and architectural identities, to outline the four key stages of destruction and development to describe what stage each nation is currently at. Each one of these stages presents in itself a complex set of challenges to be addressed. Syria was selected for further study as it is the only nation at the final stage of the process, emerging from the damage of war. It is envisaged that Syria is then viewed as the catalyst for (re)development in the region and can, if successful, support its neighbouring countries while they heal.
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Fig.9 | Key Events 2020
Environment
Health
Politics
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event-exodus-repair | evacuate-emigrate-rehabilitate Fig.10: Lebanon | Stage 1: Immediate Aftermath Citizens left searching for temporary accommodation following explosion
14.08.20 | Beirut Explosion
2016 | Pre-crisis
2019 | Political Issues
2020 | Explosion
2020 | Aftermath
Fig.11: Palestine | Stage 3: Relocated Majority of citizens now relocated out-with territory due to situation
2007 | Israel steps up surveillance of and attacks on Palestinian Territories
1960s | Post Oslo Agreement 10
2004 | Increased terrorism
2011 | Further segregation
2020 | Current day
EVERY TIMEL AR DIFFE
YONES’ LINES RE ERENT
Fig.12: Yemen | Stage 2: Displaced Exodus of citizens increases
01.06.20 | Crisis Declared by United Nations
2010 | Civil War
2019 | Displaced citizens
2019 | Aid
2020 | Aftermath
Fig.13: Syria | Stage 4: Repatriation Country begins to rebuild, paving the way for citizens to return when safe
2010 | Beginning of Civil War
1973
2009 | Pre-war
2019 | Post-war
2020 | Rebuild/Rebirth 11
2010
Caesar Civilian Protection Act
2019
17.06.20 2016
Fig.14 | Written by the US imposing sanctions on the Syrian government and its allies for violence against its people
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Focus Perspective: Through The Prism of War in Syria
Chronology of Current Affairs
Syria was identified as the catalyst for this thesis due to it being closest to ‘recovery’, in that it has been a year since the end of war - peak numbers of return to conflict effected areas are typically between one and three years after the restoration of peace (World Bank, 2017; p.105). It is also the nation with the highest number of displaced citizens in the world, both internally and externally, totalling 13.2 million; almost half of whom are Internally Displaced Citizens (IDPs) (UNHCR, 2019). The overarching urgency addressed by this thesis is one of repatriation: What can architecture do beyond providing functional shelter to assist and enhance the transition experience from temporary displacement location to permanent home? An overview of the devastation of war is provided on the following pages, focussing on the worst affected region in Syria - Al-Raqqa. This was conducted to provide a feel for the level of destruction and create a picture of what is left. The most recent development, as of June 2020, was the activation of the Caesar Civilian Protection Act (2020). Written by the United States, it is unique in its specificity regarding responsibility and sanctioning. Alongside the imposition of sanctions on the Syrian government for the perpetuation of violence towards its citizens, the following key points are sought by the act: • “End to Syrian and Russian aircraft bombing (of ) civilians • Iranian, Syrian and Russian forces, as well as entities connected to them, no longer restrict humanitarian access to besieged areas and allow for civilians to leave freely • All political prisoners are released, and the appropriate international human rights organizations are given full access to Syria’s prisons and detention facilities • Bombing of “medical facilities, schools, residential areas, and community gathering places, including markets” by Syrian, Russian, Iranian forces, as well as entities connected to them, ceases • The possibility for the safe, voluntary, and dignified return of Syrians displaced by the conflict is achieved • Accountability for “perpetrators of war crimes in Syria and justice for victims of war crimes committed by the Assad regime, including by participation in a credible and independent truth and reconciliation process,” (United States Department of State, 17.06.20) Unfortunately, these sanctions are expected to be a devastating blow to the financial wellbeing of those whom it seeks to protect: Innocent Syrians (Chulov, 2020). It is therefore imperative to design in a way that helps build financial resilience and self-sufficiency by diversifying produce and revenue generators.
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Amnesty International Reports on Human Rights Abuses in Syria
Fig.15 | A study of Amnesty International’s publications regarding the situation in Syria was carried out for a deeper understanding of the damage inflicted on the nation and the actors who played their part. Western nations such as the US and the UK are heavily implicated for both their inaccurate aerial warfare campaign against Daesh forces, and for their sale of arms to actors on both sides of the Syrian Civil War in 2010. A greater responsibility is therefore placed on these nations to assist in reparations
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2010
US-Led Coalition Bombardment
2019
06-08.17 2016
Fig.16 | Coalition forces bombard Raqqa to drive Daesh forces out, killing at least 2,000 civilians in the process
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2010
Daesh (IS) Forces Take Control
2019
13.01.14 2016
Fig.17 | IS forces take advantage of the fragile situation in Raqqa, during which time the city is declared as IS’ capital
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2010
Free Syrian Army and Jihadist Groups Overthrow Pro-Government Forces
2019
03.2013 2016
Fig.18 | The city became the centre of operations for Daesh (IS) forces following its liberation by the Syrian Free Army, who had teamed up with Jihadist forces and IS linked groups to defeat proregime forces
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2010
Beginning of Civil War in Syria
2019
06.2011 2016
Fig.19 | Following the government crackdown on peaceful protests against the Assad regime, the Free Syrian Army was established by defecting Syrian soldiers
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2010
Arab Spring Movement
2019
2010-11 2016
Fig.20 | A wave of protests, uprisings and rebellions beginning in April across several Arab nations were sparked due to the oppressive nature of the regimes in place which perpetuated poor living conditions for citizens
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Fig.23 | CYPRUS, ITALY, GREECE 34% of all refugees arriving in Europe by boat in 2015 were from Syria, transferring to larger boats off-shore and continuing on to one of three destinations at the hands of human-traffickers. Others risked their lives crossing between Turkey and Greece
Routes to Europe
Fig.21 | RAQQA, SYRIA US-led coalition forces bombard the city on the banks of the Euphrates between June and October 2017, after the city became the centre of operations for Daesh (ISIL)
Fig.22 | JORDAN, LEBANON, TURKEY Of the 13.2 million Forcibly Displaced Syrians, almost half are internally displaced; 3.6million are currently in migrant camps in Turkey, with 935,246 in Lebanon, 684,101 in Jordan, mostly in the notoriously inhospitable & remote ‘Berm’ region Fig.24 | GERMANY 614,098 Syrians are currently displaced in Germany, a destination country due to its perception as a welcoming safe haven for refugees. It has the highest resettlement quota in Europe, often the final destination for migrants who apply for Asylum upon arrival in other EU countries
Fig.25 | Routes to Europe Route information from InfoMigrants, 2017 Migration statistics from UNHCR Pop. Stats, 2020
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Visa Applicant An endorsement on a passport indicating that the holder is allowed to enter, leave, or stay for a specified period of time in a country for purposes such as to work, study, remain with family or for tourism
£
2 weeks-6 months | Application
Refugee A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of their nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail themselves of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of their former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unable to return to it
Entry granted Emergency | 7 days from submission to resettlement Urgent | 6 weeks Normal | 3 months
Asylum Seeker An individual who has sought international protection and whose claim for refugee status has not yet been determined. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. In order to claim asylum the person must have left their country of residence and be unable to return due to fear of persecution
Day 0 | Claims Asylum upon entry to UK
3-6 months | Selection missions by UNHCR to identify refugees in need of further support. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act (2002) provides the general framework for asylum and refugee status eligibility. Cases are submitted to the UK Home Office as part of resettlement programmes, with nations given a quota by the EU to fulfil each year
Transferred to previous transit nation when deemed a ‘Dublin Safe Third Country’ Case
6 months | Substantive asylum interview 0-5 days | Screening interview
Detained Indefinitely
‘Clearly unfounded’ claim;“Non-suspensive appeals’ case; No immigration status/app Enforcement Official; criminal conv
Months
Migrant Processing in the UK Fig.26 | An example of the treatment of displaced citizens upon their arrival in a ‘western’ nation, which has developed a specific policy to accept quotas set by the European Union to deal with the number of Syrians displaced across Europe
MRS UNHCR refers an unspecified number of refugees in need of resettlement to the Home Office under the Mandate Refugee Scheme. Mandate refugees do not benefit from the GPP integration programme but do receive the same benefits as other refugees
VCRS & Syrian VPRS The people arriving in UK under the Vulnerable Persons Resettlement Scheme are in desperate need of assistance and many have significant needs. It prioritises those who cannot be supported effectively in their region of origin: Women and children at risk; people in severe need of medical care; and survivors of torture and violence. The UK aimed to provide for 3,000 under the Vulnerable Children Resettlement Scheme, and 20,000 under the SVPRS scheme by 2020
1 year | After a 3 week intensive integration course, the Refugee Resettlement Integration Scheme assists refugees with finding appropriate accommodation and necessary facilities in their new community, with financial assistance over the 5 years of their Leave to Remain permits. After 6-9 months, they are provided with guidance in choosing the community they wish to settle in longer term
GPP The UK’s resettlement programme is referred to as the Gateway Protection Programme (GPP) which aims to take 750 people per year. Syrians made up the majority of those resettled through this scheme before Syrian VPRS was established
Positive | Refugee Status Granted Refugee status granted with 5 year Temporary Leave to Remain. Can now claim benefits, gain access to housing and apply for work Humanitarian Protection with almost same rights as a refugee except without Refugee Convention Travel Document - they must supply their own passport or travel documentation
6-9 months | Asylum decision
Other leave to remain
Applicants may be eligible for housing support and a monthly stipend while their claim is processed. They are not allowed to seek full benefits, housing or employment as they have not yet been granted leave to remain
plication pending when picked up by an Immigration viction
Negative | Denied Entry
Negative | Next Steps
Application Rejected Possible Appeals Appeals exhausted
Possible Appeals Detention Deportation
1 year
3 week integration course
1yr housing provision + 1 year assistance
5
4
3
2
1
Year 0
Financial support is available for the full 5 year Leave to Remain period
Fig.27 | Levels and timescales of support afforded to resettled persons in the UK
Fig.28 | Recently resettled Syrians arrive on the Isle of Bute, Scotland after a years long process leading to their identification through the Syrian Vulnerable Person Resettlement Scheme
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As it Stands: Current Support Mechanisms Every 6 months, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) conducts selection missions which identify those in need of support which cannot be provided by their home or host nation. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act (2002) provides the framework for asylum and refugee status eligibility. Cases are submitted to the UK Home Office as part of resettlement programmes, with nations given a quota by the EU to fulfil each year. There are currently 4 schemes through which the UK accommodates its yearly quota: Gateway Protection Scheme (GPP) Home Office Mandate Resettlement Scheme (MRS) Vulnerable Children Resettlement Scheme (VCRS) Syrian Vulnerable Persons Resettlement Scheme (Syrian VPRS) The people coming to the UK under the Vulnerable Persons Resettlement Scheme are in desperate need of assistance and many have significant needs. It prioritises those who cannot be supported effectively in their region of origin: Women and children at risk; people in severe need of medical care; and survivors of torture and violence. The UK aimed to provide for 3,000 under the Vulnerable Children Resettlement Scheme, and 20,000 under the 2014 Syrian VPRS scheme by 2020, and has since agreed to revise that quota upwards. What after the Integration Scheme ends? For those granted Refugee Status and Temporary Leave to Remain in the UK through the various resettlement schemes, they are sent on an intensive 2-3 week ‘Integration’ course to prepare them for life in their new surroundings. Housing is provided for the first year, with refugees free to choose where to live thereafter, and financial support available for up to 5 years. Outside of this, the onus is largely on refugees themselves, along with the various communities in which they’ve been moved into and associated local support groups. Local authorities can volunteer to host and support vulnerable displaced people although this depends on existing facilities and demand in the area. What after Leave to Remain ends? Once the five year Temporary Leave to Remain permit lapses, refugees may attempt to claim British Citizenship, often involving a fee and stringent tests. There is little support in the intervening period should refugees find themselves in an unwelcoming community or struggling to adjust to a radically different way of life. This is often exacerbated by the fact that the UK only considers the most vulnerable citizens as deserving of support through such schemes. In order to provide them with the support they require, if their origin nation is deemed unfit or unable to provide support, it means uprooting and sending them further afield, separated from their families, relocating them to an often alien environment.
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Step 1a | Host nationals educate arrivals on local customs & cultures to aid integration, while teaching how to teach construction and management skills, to prepare refugees to help rebuild when they are able to return
Step 1b | New arrivals educate host nationals on their cultures and high-level skills, providing support during emergency situations, such as pandemics, and help to diversify host nation’s perspective
Step 2 | When it is safe to return, ‘leaders’ return or visit origin nation to help establish parameters and conditions of rebuild and rehabilitation
Step 3 | With the rebuild underway and the country secure, the country can be repatriated by those who left, who in turn are passed on the skills to continue building, making manifest the changes they wish to see, empowering them to shape their own futures while instilling resilience against future challenges
Fig.29: Stage 03 | Integration Citizens from host and displaced nations benefit culturally, economically and psychologically from inclusion and integration 26
Promoting a Humane Approach
In order to allow for a more successful repatriation and safe end to forcible displacement, it is key to understand the flaws in the current system, which is displayed on the previous spread. As a critique of the current situation, an improved, more thorough and humane alternative is proposed to the current process, bridging the gap between current resettlement schemes and routes for migrants into the UK and a pathway back to their home country. While the UK alone does not have the capacity to support all displaced citizens, and resettlement is often seen as a last resort for the most vulnerable, it is critical that those who are afforded protection through these initiatives are provided with a level of support reflective of their needs. The schemes should also equip them with the skills to live a fulfilling life should they choose to settle in the UK long term, while providing an environment to learn key skills for their eventual repatriation, should that be achievable. It is proposed that those resettled in the UK through the various schemes are given the opportunity to integrate fully with local cultures, with a more rigorous system facilitating a knowledge exchange between new arrivals and residents of the host nation, which in turn promotes inclusion and helps to overcome issues with acculturation. Working within the 5 year Leave to Remain time frame granted to all refugees and successful asylum seeker claimants, this begins to address issues detailed on page one of the Introduction regarding the displaced being stuck in limbo with the uncertainty of not knowing when their situation will be resolved. This new, improved Integration Stage aims to provide them with support and a purpose throughout their time in the host nation. Such a situation also affords residents of the UK and other host nations a unique opportunity to learn from an expanded scope of cultures through exposure to those resettled, allowing for socio-economic development of the host nation. Given that those resettled through current schemes are usually the most vulnerable of the global displaced population, it is envisaged that a more robust system of physiological and psychological support will be provided to them throughout their time in-country. The advanced skills courses on this new, more humane cultural exchange programme detailed on the following pages builds resilience for the displaced citizens as it provides them with stability and purpose, often overlooked and lacking in their treatment by host countries. This means the displaced are able to plan for the future, maintain or improve existing skills, acquire new knowledge and provides them with a sense of hope, easing the transition between home and host community.
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RECIPROCAL EXCHANGE
Step 1 | Week 12-24 Getting to Know You A knowledge and cultural exchange is established between the new arrivals and the host nation. This has the dual purpose of helping new arrivals ‘fit in’ with their host community, while providing a chance for the host nation to expand their societal expertise
INTERMEDIATE SKILLS
Step 2 | Year 1 & 2 Tricks of the Trade After a settling in period, a more specific education begins around the 1 year mark, teaching the basic aspects of design, economics, healthcare, construction, infrastructure or management so that the resettled return home with knowledge of how to rebuild & pass on skills
Step 3 | Year 3 & 4 Mastering (Y)our Craft In return for their education, opportunities are provided to apply the skills learned and specialise to become leaders in their subject upon return. As the displaced prepare for repatriation, they establish connections locally to ensure a smooth transition of skills
1
FOUNDATION COURSE
Step 0 | Week 0-12 Heading Out My Door It is proposed that the current intensive Integration Course provided to newly resettled displaced persons in the UK is extended to three months, to cover basic language and cultural tutelage alongside navigating the maze of housing and financial hurdles and obligations
ADVANCED/SPECIALIST
Steps
4
12 WEEKS 1
3
4
12 WEEKS 1
3
4
1 YEAR 1
3
4
2 YEARS 2
Proposed Settings
Required Resources • Commitment of government at local authority through national level towards ensuring a welcoming and humane arrival • Provision of accommodation for the full 5 years of Leave to Remain
COMMUNITY HUBS
CAFES
HOUSING ASSOCIATIONS
LOCAL CHURCH HALLS
HEALTH CENTRES
LOCAL SCHOOLS (AFTER HOURS)
• Positive national press towards migrants arriving in the UK to end stigma • Support for resources of local authorities by the host populous and by government to ensure adequate provision of services and integration regardless of which local authority they settle under • An end to detention of vulnerable groups, or the need for them to travel to London to register Asylum claims and a clearer, more transparent and better regulated system while awaiting interviews/outcomes
TIE IN WITH EXISTING REAL WORLD PRACTICAL REGIONAL EDUCATION EXPERIENCE ‘ON THE ESTABLISHMENTS TOOLS’
Fig.30 | Integration Programme Suggested steps towards a new and improved, more holistic approach to integration and support for vulnerable resettled groups as a key stage before the repatriation process, based on a more humane, adequate provision of services in existing spaces and settings than that provided by the current system 29
Making change possible: a Transformation Fund for the NHS The Health Foundation and The King’s Fund
“A specific composition of details on surfaces, forms, and spaces generates a “biophilic effect.” Evolutionary adaptation tends to favor this complexity, which is the reason why these forms are often embedded into traditional designs... Biophilia and design patterns together promote a healing environment. Our body automatically recognizes geometrical signals that boost our natural immune and healing responses.” Mehaffy & Salingaros, 2020
Research report July 2015
Fig.31
Fig.32
Fig.33 30
III
Brief | Towards Repatriation
Humanizing & Rehabilitating
A body of research studies, both international and UK-based, was consulted to underpin the argument for repatriation over remaining in host nations. Current mental health trends in the UK and internationally are moving towards community based care and a de-institutionalised approach as it is shown to promote recovery times and prospects when service users are allowed to remain in familiar environments, surrounded by family (The Health Foundation, 2015). A 2020 paper by Mehaffy & Salingaros (shown opposite, middle) details the paradoxical theory that repatriation, or the recreation of ‘familiar’ environments significantly benefits the displaced, to a greater extent than previously acknowledged. Their study goes as far as to suggest the psychological, and in turn physiological health benefits outweigh the health risks associated with returns, such as in the case of the Babushkas of Prypryat near Chernobyl.
Fig.34: Stage 04 | Repatriation Return to country of origin when safe, after integration period in host nation ends 31
Fig.35 | Belloto’s Cityscape
Fig.36 | Another of Belloto’s Cityscape
It has been difficult to find a successful contemporary example of repatriation and architectural rehabilitation of a war-torn city in the Middle East as most regions are still effected by war. One of the best and most widely documented examples of recovery in the past century is Europe following both World Wars. A case study of Warsaw in Poland published in The Guardian (Mersom, 2016), helped gain insight into how a city may conduct the rehabilitation of its architectural fabric and encourage citizens to repatriate after the war had ended.
Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Warsaw is unique in that it was systematically destroyed by the Nazis after fighting had ended, in revenge for the heavy damage inflicted by the Polish resistance, in a similar way to which IS forces destroyed culturally significant buildings and landmarks in Syria. The rebuild effort shown in archive footage by British Pathe (1950) began immediately after the war and was led by Varsovians who had remained in the city. Supported by the rest of the nation, they began clearing the rubble and paving the way for the city to be restored.
32
Finding Temporal Permanence
Fig.37 | German Soldier, 1940s
Fig.38 | Present Day Centre of Warsaw
It is estimated that 85% of the city was destroyed, the rubble of which was used to restore the historic city centre. Rubble from surrounding cities was then used to re-establish residential neighbourhoods and other areas of the city. Polish writer Leopold Tyrmand reported that it was estimated that Varsovians inhaled four bricks a year.
Specialist builders and craftspeople were brought in from across the nation to assist. Planners consulted 200 year old paintings by Bernardo Belloto to understand what was there before destruction took place. Inaccuracies existed with these drawings, as some found the city to be ‘foreign’ upon their return as it was not how they remembered.
“One must love one’s city in order to rebuild it at the cost of one’s own breathing. It is perhaps for this reason that, from the battlefield of rubble and ruins, Warsaw became once more the old Warsaw, eternal Warsaw.”
There is however hope for Syria, as the Syrian Heritage Archive and other organisations have gathered extensive photographic and 3D libraries contributed to by the public to assist with the reconstruction process. 33
INDIVIDUAL
Sustenance | Souq (commerce + production)
Shelter | Home (safety + security)
0 YEARS
PRIMARY NEEDS
Friendships Counselling | Social spaces
SELF FULFILMENT PSYCHOLOGICAL Intimate Relationships Social Housing | Religious spaces
PHYSIOLOGICAL
PERSONAL
Accomplishment Production | Sport
3 YEARS
SECONDARY
Prestige Education | Work
SELF-ESTEEM
ULTIMATE AIM
COMMUNAL
Achieving Potential Arts | Education
5 YEARS
TERTIARY
Creative Outlet Culture | Arts
10 YEARS
PUBLIC
Health | Hospital
Fig.39 | Pyramid of Basic Human Architectural Needs 34
Energy | Production
IV
Framework | Supporting the Urgency
PE RM ANE NC E
Deriving Typology Through Human Need
E STABL ISHIN G
The adjacent structure of basic human architectural needs, based on Abraham Maslow’s paper The Theory of Human Motivation (Green, 2000; Originally Published in Psychological Review, 50; 370396) was drawn up as an enquiry into the potential urgencies faced by a returning population post-war. This study considers which buildings and elements of cities and infrastructure would be associated with each phase to promote a sustainable systematic reconstruction of the nation towards achieving permanence of place (temporal permanence) as an end to their displacement. Consulting this information allowed for the formulation of an informed prediction regarding the mid-term urgencies after the initial, short-term phase.
TR A N SITION ING
An ‘essential workers’ strategy to rebuilding, similar to that employed by many countries during their respective Covid-19 lockdowns, is utilised to establish which groups of needs are key to each phase and consolidate the primary and most urgently required types of architectural responses, be it typologies, infrastructure or public spaces and armatures, based on the necessary ingredients for the first phase of repatriation. The majority of the needs in this phase are similar to the requirements of basic provision met by refugee accommodation in host nations, or in migrant camps. Once these primary needs are satisfied, the main ‘wave’ of displaced citizens will return, typically between 1-3 years after the peaceful resolution of conflict, (World Bank, 2017; 88) as detailed on page 13. This thesis is concerned with the subsequent 2 phases, which aim to bridge the gap between the temporary, functional spaces which cater for these Basic Needs, and the final phase towards permanence, which concerns itself with Self-Fulfilment and the achievement of one’s full potential through pursuit of the arts, culture, sports and niche or specialist education.
TEMPOR ARY
This thesis aims to pave the way to achieve the ultimate desires and fulfilment. In order to achieve this, it must focus on providing a rigorously tested route-map based on a foundation of providing the correct infrastructure or framework to allow for the middle two sets of needs. The intermediate phases aim to meet the Psychological Needs of the returning population through the provision of spaces which are tailored to the secondary Belonging & Love stage of needs, and the tertiary needs of Esteem and Prestige. On the following spread, a phased return approach is detailed to highlight at what stages the population are expected to return, the requirements to provide for them, and how this links up to fulfilling the complete pyramid of human needs. The two subsequent spreads outline the spatial and atmospheric aspirations of both phases to provide a sense of what this thesis hopes to achieve in the design response period next semester. 35
2020
Phase
2035
Phase 2 | Intimate
2035
2020 2035
2030
PER MA NENCE
Phase 4 | Public
2035
LONG-TERM
10+ yr 2030
36
With secondary and tertiary needs met, the focus turns to artistic endeavours, entertainment and cultural celebration in the cities as Phase 3 growth spreads to satellite hubs and in turn, rural areas, providing them with increased autonomy & local governance
5-10 yr 2020
ESTABL ISH IN G
Phase 3 | Communal Majority of citizens who wish to return have now returned, including secondary & tertiary service providers. Focus is on longer term self-sufficiency and economic development with a focus on job creation and education opportunities beyond basic schooling
3-5 yr
FOCUS PERIOD
2030
Expansion of network to regional hubs can begin as demand increases around gateways due to growth in people returning to participate. City growth is supported by satellite hub & in turn supports satellite hub expansion to provide more permanent spaces for families
0-3 yr 2020
Gateway is established in or near existing infrastructure, production, trade and skill or workforce hubs. Time period is reflective of peak numbers of citizens returning in the aftermath of conflict. Priority is given to ‘essential’ personnel who will lead the rebuild
SHORT-TERM
2030
TR A N SITIONING
TE M P ORARY
Phase 1 | Individual
Fig.40: Chronology of Return Gateway Site Requirement
Hub Requirement
• Factories Building & construction • Infrastructure & transport Access to materials and exporting goods • Temporary accommodation Housing for ‘essential’ people • Trade spaces Clothes, tools and sustenance • Emergency healthcare • Temporary schools
Proximity to existing: • Dams & solar power stations For sustainable energy provision • Farm & agricultural land Cultivation of food and resource production • Mines & factories Raw materials & construction
• Housing & social space Establishing neighbourhoods & communities in anticipation of growth • Spaces for governance To document damage, establish parameters and maintain cohesion • Community healthcare Support for vulnerable groups returning in this phase
• Primary amenities follow from the gateway nodes outwards to support this phase of growth
• Education opportunities Enhancing & diversifying routes to professions • Workplaces Provide economic development through jobs for returned pop. • Sport Promote health & wellbeing Recreation & Leisure Cafes, libraries, dedicated religious space, non-essential shops
• Phase 2 spreads from the gateway locations to the satellite hubs and associated countryside towns and villages
• Arts & entertainment Platforms for expression, exploration and narrative • Specialist education Long term training to create and support the next generation of leaders through apprenticeships and doctoral level study • Culture Promoting the preservation and celebration of heritage
• Phase 3 spreads outwards from the gateway cities
37
Fig.41: Community Healthcare Support for vulnerable groups returning in this phase
Fig.43: Housing & Social Space Establishing neighbourhoods & communities in anticipation of growth 38
Nature of the Spaces: Phase 2 - Intimate
Fig.42: Produce Workshops and stalls for the sale of non essential items
Fig.44: Spaces for Governance To document damage, establish parameters, maintain cohesion and promote autonomy 39
Fig.45: Workplaces Provide economic development through jobs for returned population
Fig.47: Sport & Leisure Promote health & wellbeing 40
Nature of the Spaces: Phase 3 - Public
Fig.46: Recreation Cafes, libraries, dedicated religious space; non-essential shops
Fig.48: Education Enhancing & diversifying routes to professions 41
STATELESS WITHIN SYRIA
160,000
ASYLUM SEEKERS TO SYRIA FROM SYRIA
12,058 118,435
REFUGEES TO SYRIA FROM SYRIA
16,213 6,600,000
IDPs WITHIN SYRIA
6,624,354
Fig.49: Displacement Situation, Syria | Displaced Within Syria & From Syria Externally
GERMANY | 657,507
TURKEY | 3,610,673
LEBANON | 935,246 JORDAN | 684,101
IRAQ | 253,857
EGYPT | 129,694
42
Fig.50: Syrian Displacement Locations | 93% Live in Urban Areas, with 50% living in Poverty
6
5
4
3
2
1
POPULATION IN MILLIONS
90,550 77,212 597,152
0
SOLUTIONS RESETTLED + NATURALISED REFUGEES RETURNED REFUGEES RETURNED IDPs
Key Demographics The majority of displaced Syrians residing out-with the country are located in neighbouring Middle Eastern nations, namely Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt, with over a quarter of a million residing in Europe, from Greece to Germany and the UK. Approximately 93% of all the displaced live in urban areas, contributing to the rapid and unsustainable growth of cities in the Global South. Less than 5% of all displaced Syrian have found an end to displacement, either through naturalisation in their host nation, or through repatriation (UNHCR, 2020). If a city is thoroughly prepared to cope with future demand, it can provide support and create opportunities for all citizens to prosper (Rogers, 2017). Similarly, regional hubs and rural areas must be sustained and provided with the correct opportunities to persuade inhabitants to stay, as these areas are the primary production hubs of energy, food and natural resources, vital in supporting the nation. This thesis aims to focus on providing armatures for both sets of contexts during Phase 2 & 3 of the rebuilding process, in a way which seeks to work with the existing fabric and provide the circumstances which cater for sustainable growth. The largest exodus of Syrians in terms of age was from those in their 20s and 30s (UNHCR, 2020). This resulted in a ‘brain drain’, as the next generation of potentially skilled workers sought a better future elsewhere. This young generation are pivotal to the future of Syria, as the repatriation project will span a significant chunk of their working lives. It is therefore imperative to create an environment which encourages the youth to return, by providing them with varied education and employment routes, after using their time in integration programmes to become experts in the design, planning, construction and management of projects across the nation. It is also important to involve the older generations who have remained in the country, be it due to a lack of finance or a refusal to leave home despite the dire circumstances. It is expected that the older generations will play vital roles in leading the rehabilitation of Syria, helping to make the country ready for the mass-repatriation of their children and grandchildren. The elder generation will play a mentoring role while passing on vital craft skills to maintain the connection to familiar elements promoting a sense of safety and home for those who return, through a continued legacy of the rich architectural and cultural heritage of the nation. Of the 19.4 million Syrians who currently live in the country, displaced or at home, the majority are Muslim, although they are split between several ethnicities, each with its own region and culture. The thesis is mindful of this eclectic mix of citizens, many of whom have been involved in fighting alongside or against each other during the war. This thesis seeks to find rapprochement between the people and place, as well as between these groups of people, through an exploration of their unique cultures and views, to provide democratic pubic spaces in which parties from all backgrounds are accommodated.
43
6 5 4 3 2 1 PERCENT
URBANISATION
0
POPULATION
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 2000-05
05-10
10-15
15-20
YEAR
20-25
25-30
Fig.51 | Urbanisation v Population Growth
80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 MALE
40-44
FEMALE
35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0.25
PER MILLION OF POPULATION
44
Fig.52 | Age by Gender of Syria’s Population
0.5
0.75
1
POPULATION 19,398,448 OTHER LEVANTI KURD
ETHNICITY CIA, 2020
ARAB
ALAWITE
LANGUAGE ARABIC | §ىبرع Fig.53 | Ethnicity Fact Sheet
45
IN POVERTY | 82%
UNEMPLOYED | 50%
82% 50% Fig.54 | Poverty & Unemployment
AGRICULTURE | 17% INDUSTRIAL | 16%
SERVICE | 67%
Fig.55 | Labour Force of 3.767 Million 46
Economy as Driver of Change Of the 13.2 million Syrians currently displaced, half are unemployed and 4 in 5 are in poverty. An economic crash exacerbated by the civil war caused the average yearly income to drop to a few thousand dollars, while their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita fell to around 6% of the UK’s. At less than $3000 of GDP per capita and a heavy dependence on the oil industry no longer sustained due to the war, a lack of demand due to the decrease in population and lack of industry workers remaining in-country, and IS forces taking control of key oil producing regions, the country had to adapt to a more diverse output, further enhancing the need for strategic regional hubs in the rebuilding of the nation. Of the 3.8 million strong labour force currently in the country, the vast majority work in entry level, low paid service sector jobs in automotive assembly, textile manufacture and phosphate production. The northern regions of Syria along the banks of the Euphrates, and the coastal regions around Latakkia, are synonymous with agricultural production due their rich, fertile land, which is where the majority of the 400,000 who work in agricultural and food production roles are located. Approximately 300,000 work in various industrial roles in the southern and coastal regions. Concurrently, the service industry accounts for two thirds of the nations GDP, while agriculture only constitutes around 11%. This disparity between production and economic viability is something which the architectural framework of this thesis will address, by diversifying output and transitioning jobs and skills towards more meaningful, progressive roles to entice skilled Syrians to return, building socio-economic resilience to future uncertainty.
$2,900
$ Fig.56 | GDP per Capita
11%
68.5%
19.5% Fig.57 | GDP per Sector
47
OIL & FOSSIL DERIVATIVES
ENERGY
FRUIT & VEG
2008
METALS & RAW MATERIALS
COTTON
ANIMALS & MEAT
FABRIC & CLOTHES
Fig.58 | Exports Pre - War
OIL & FOSSIL DERIVATIVES
ENERGY
METALS & RAW MATERIALS
FRUIT & VEG
2017 COTTON
ANIMALS & MEAT
48
FABRIC & CLOTHES
Fig.59 | Exports Post - War
A heavy reliance on the oil sector pre-war in part contributed to the economic crash the country suffered in the early part of this decade. The majority of the oil fields are located in the semi-desert region south east of Damascus, which came under IS control for most of the intervening years. Cotton and food production, largely located in the rich, fertile lands to the north of the country along the banks of the Euphrates River, along with the mountainous regions between Damascus and Latakkia, were the nations second and third largest economic generators. Around 10% of the country’s total GDP was provided by each of these sectors, while the oil industry accounted for nearly two thirds of the nations’ export market. Following the collapse of the oil industry, Syria has been forced to adapt and is currently transitioning to renewable energy; it is currently able to sell surplus to neighbouring states. It has an abundance of largely unexploited potential for renewable energy from hydro-electric and solar power sources. It is important that designs generated by this thesis acknowledge and accommodate this by catering for regional hubs which are located near these resources. Fruit and vegetable production is now a larger contributor to the economy in comparison to pre-war purely because of the enforced turn away from fossil fuels. Raw materials, including metals, stone and phosphates also now make a more significant contribution to the economy, while cotton and textiles have declined after being severely effected by rampant conflict in the northern and western regions, alongside an exodus of the labour force associated with these roles as a result of the conflict. It is predicted that the rehabilitation process will require continued growth of the energy and food production industries to fuel the nation, while harnessing the supply and demand of metals and raw materials to assist with the extensive building work required.
49
Damascus Another bomb explodes behind a mosque
Aleppo Byzantine ruins after fight between rebel and pro-regime forces
50
Aleppo Governorate Rich, fertile countryside
Raqqa Governorate Power lines from the dam at Lake Assad
A Portrait of Syria: Remnants of Civilisation
Latakkia Power plant at the port
Fig.60: Anchor Point | Beacons Key landmarks are identified which represent anchor points to be utilised in rebuilding, tying the proposed network into existing settlements and infrastructure, such as electricity pylons, power stations and surviving ruins, incorporating all 4 geographical regions: Mountain, coastal, inland and desert 51
Fig.61: Suggestion of Phasing | From Urban Nucleus to Rural/Regional Hub
52
V
Network | Contextualising the Response Focal Point: Bridging From the Temporary to the Permanent
The focus of this thesis is on the mid-term of the repatriation process as detailed in the Chronology of Return chapter. Alongside an understanding of the present and predicted demographic and economic situations, it is important to understand the geographical and societal nature of Syria to select the best locations in which to base the proposals. This section takes a wide-ranging approach to analysing the country, through understanding its 4 terrain regions: Arid; coastal; mountain and wadi, or plains; with analysis of the political, cultural, and societal landscapes. In order to choose a specific context in which to operate and test the ideas of the thesis, the following criteria must be met by a potential location: • An existing city with ‘gaps’ where the required network of facilities outlined in the pyramid of architectural needs to aid with reintegration and recovery can be woven into the existing fabric, then utilised to support the next group of vulnerable displaced citizens; • Links to teaching, art and culture facilities, natural resources and production hubs to accommodate and provide for the demands of the population, as well as for materials and a labour force to physically rebuild; • Links to existing and potential transit hubs to promote international collaboration and trade. The adjacent image depicts the notion of the growth and rehabilitation of the cities radiating out to the regions and rural areas, promoting a rejuvenation of historical settlements and produce, which are viewed as key to the sustainable success of the nation. The overlaid orange form is an abstraction of both exploded ordnance and the Jasmine flower, which is the national plant of Syria. The form conveys the goal of the thesis to provide a positive take on the country, while optimistic of future development and an expansion of connectivity and societal prosperity on a regional, national and global scale.
53
Fig.62 | Topography
Key Arid, Desert, Hot Arid, Desert, Cold Arid, Steppe, Hot Arid, Steppe, Cold Temperate, Dry & Hot Summer Temperate, Dry & Warm Summer Fig.63 | Regions by Climate 54
Cold, Dry & Warm Summer
A Framework for Site Selection Criteria The wide variety of ethnic groups, religions, climatic factors and historical empires which have influenced the shape of Syria have contributed to a rich architectural heritage and identity. The Euphrates River which runs through the northern half of Syria is widely noted as one of the cradles of civilisation, settled in since at least as far back as the Egyptian empire as those under rule typically relocated to the region during plagues and droughts in their homelands. Archaeological work in the Arfin Valley in the Aleppo Governorate uncovered evidence of self-organising settlements dating back thousands of years (Massih & Nishiyama, 2018). This multitude of influence and conditions has led to a diversity of regional planning styles and construction techniques. There are two distinct lifestyles: Nomadic and Static. The Bedouin people typically live life on the move, migrating between fertile land from which they can sustain themselves. The required proximity to nature and agricultural land, alongside the necessity to continually seek out new land to cultivate and live from means they typically live life under the shelter of traditional tents which can be transported wherever they settle, roaming between a variety of terrain and climates, trading the product they’ve cultivated on their transient lands. The war marked a major increase in those living nomadically through necessity rather than choice, as refugee camps were built near international borders to accommodate the growing number of forcibly displaced citizens. The location of these camps and general conflict zones are highlighted in Figure 68, which points the general context of the thesis towards these existing concentrations of the population. The predominant lifestyle pre-war was static, where generations of families typically settled in the one permanent location in an established settlement. Residences in urban environments tend to be varied dependant on local climactic, geological and topographical conditions, usually constructed from a variety of stone. Housing is typically found in clusters around central courtyards, which perform several functions: Semi-private gathering space; cooling and shelter from hot temperatures; storage for plants which help regulate humidity; as a general living space for children to play and families to relax; and acting as an outdoor living space and shelter from the elements and streets. A 2004 paper by CORPUS Levante states that by the year 2000, there were over 80 settlements which were considered cities in Syria, the general locations of which are shown in Figure 65. Due to a rapid increase in urbanisation in the 1970s, Syria devised a new approach to governance to cater for the new focus on urban concentrations of the population. Two types of governance now regulate planning and development across the nation because of this change: Governorate Administration Syria is divided into 14 governorates, as displayed in Figure 64. The governate capital cities are ran by elected council members, which are led by a mayor who heads an Executive Bureau. Governorate level councils are elected through national elections, with a governor appointed directly by the national level government. They tend to have greater autonomy over regional cities as they have their own planning departments and advisors, making it easier to maintain a consistent approach to the urban design of these cities, while ensuring control over, and self-sufficiency of their resources. Ministry of Local Administration Regional cities tend to depend on the planning resources and legislation controlled and set out by the governorate administration. The paper notes that while the Ministry of Local Administration deals with matters regarding application of the Local Administrative Laws, planning decisions, particularly 55
Fig.64 | Regions by Governorate
Fig.65 | Population Concentrations & Existing Transit Hubs 56
Key Urban Rural
regarding housing and infrastructure, are taken by the Ministry of Housing. Together, these two bodies receive 10% of the total national budget. Furthermore, a dialogue exists between the city’s council and its inhabitants, whereby there are “...Neighbourhood committees and district clerks. The dialogue developed in these committees allows for an informal participation process. However, the true formal representation of residents is materialized in City Council elections, held every four years.” (CORPUS Levante, 2004; 8). This level of engagement bodes well for the potential to tap into community led interventions through various neighbourhoods across cities, providing inhabitants with increased autonomy to make the planning decisions required during the rehabilitation process. The report by however describes the issues surrounding a cohesive approach to design, as there is a strong command chain from national government down to regional governorates and city councils. Due to the nature of the current government and their tendency towards international, capitalist trends, this has led to a lack of consistency and involvement in the end product of the planning process, which has resulted in individual and community needs being overlooked, ignored or poorly managed. The report notes that of the few interventions which do occur, the majority are focussed on short term and preservation works rather than new, meaningful and necessary spaces or adaptions of the existing fabric. This is exacerbated by tight planning regulations and a shortage of qualified planners, hence the aim to train Syrians through integration programmes during their displacement. It concludes that “An integrated approach to upgrading open spaces is still needed on a long term basis, subject to the available financial resources, with wider governance arrangements and further collaboration and integration between different governmental bodies.” (2004; pg.28). This speaks of an urgency for the framework outlined in Chapter IV to provide a nationwide template which ensures a consistent, methodical approach which accommodates the wide variety of factors at play in Syria, while preventing cultural heritage being eradicated by disorganised or hasty rebuilding. Figure 66 displays Regions by Ethnicity, with Figure 67 detailing the Zones of Conflict by Fighting Force, with the Sunni’s dominating most rural and semi-rural wadi regions, from Damascus to the north towards the Turkish border. Several smaller ethnic groups tend to be concentrated in their own areas between Aleppo and Damascus, often around natural oasis’, while of both these cities are the only places where a more diverse cross-section of the population can be found. Given the aim of this thesis is to focus on rapprochement between architecture and society, it is key to focus on these two areas as locations for further testing and study. On pages 60-63, four cities which meet the initial criteria set out above are displayed in more detail, to provide an overview of their current situation regarding destruction and recovery since the war. Upon consultation of research published on Relief Web by Najjar & UNOSAT in 2018, the nations’ two largest and most diverse cities, Aleppo and Damascus are included. Two governorate capitals, Hamah and Raqqa are also included due to their proximity to natural energy and produce resources and are subsequently considered as potential catalysts for regional regeneration. Each of the four are, in their own way, drawn to attention in the report for their statistics regarding damage. Aleppo suffered the greatest total destruction of its building stock, while Raqqa suffered the highest damage by density. At the time of publication, Damascus had not rebuilt a single building, while Hamah had rebuilt the most (Najjar, 2018). The epicentres of conflict between government forces, rebels and IS surrounded these four cities due to their strategic nature and concentrations of civilians, so it is envisaged that these locations will become the focus of this study. 57
Key Kurdish Sunni Alawite Ismaeli Druze Christian Uninhabited/Nomad Fig.66 | Regions by Ethnicity as of 2011
Fig.68 | Migrant Camps & Effected Areas as of 2013 58
Key Major Conflict Zone Migrant Camp
Key Zones
Attacks Al-Nusra Government Kurdish Rebels IS (Daesh)
Fig.67 | Zones of Conflict by Fighting Force as of 2015
MODERATE 37%
ALEPPO 32.7 DAMASCUS 25.4
HOMS 12.6
DAR’A 1.1 IDLIB 1.2 DEIR AS 5.8 RAQQA 11.7
HAMAH 9.6
Fig.69 | % Damaged Structures per City
DESTROYED 35.3% SEVERE 27.7%
Fig.70 | Severity of Damage 59
FIG.71: ALEPPO 2010 | 35691 BUILDINGS DAMAGED = 0.4 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.72: ALEPPO 2020 | 236 BUILDINGS RECONSTRUCTED = 0.12 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.73: DAMASCUS 2010 | 27741 BUILDINGS DAMAGED = 0.51 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.74: DAMASCUS 2020 | 0 BUILDINGS RECONSTRUCTED = 0 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.75: HAMAH 2010 | 10277 BUILDINGS DAMAGED = 0.49 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.76: HAMAH 2020 | 353 BUILDINGS RECONSTRUCTED = 0.87 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.77: RAQQA 2010 | 12772 BUILDINGS DAMAGED = 1.0 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
FIG.78: RAQQA 2020 | 117 BUILDINGS RECONSTRUCTED = 0.47 DENSITY PER UNIT AREA
Aleppo
Fig.79 | Syria’s largest city, located in the Aleppo Governorate is currently undergoing extensive rebuilding work, thanks to an international conglomerate led by the Syrian Heritage Organisation in Berlin, and funded primarily by the Aga Kahn Trust - 35% of its building stock was destroyed, with around 10% having been reconstructed as of 2020. Aleppo is chosen as the centrepiece of this thesis due to its diverse population, plethora of architectural styles and challenging climate and terrain. 64
Gateway
Fig.80: Gateway | Nuclei - Key Urban Nodes The threshold to a new, improved Syria will act as a series of armatures within the major cities, providing education, homes and purpose to those effected across a neighbourhood, or a series of repeating neighbourhoods, assisting with knowledge exchange between cultures to aid with integration; learning how to teach construction methods to enable democratic and autonomous rebuilding of the city providing democratic community and public space; dedicated welfare facilities; craft workshops; and a greater variety of employment and education opportunities. This can be utilised as a blue-print facility or method for other nations, regions and cities and help Syrians recognise, celebrate, support and preserve their cultural heritage. 65
Raqqa
Fig.81 | The nation’s third largest city, Al-Raqqa grew as a key trade hub on the Silk Road trade route, and a garrison for the Ottomans. Situated on the banks of the Euphrates and 40km down stream from the country’s largest dam. Raqqa is seen as an ideal test bed for a regional satellite hub in the design and experimentation phase of this thesis next semester, for its proximity to fertile land and the nations’ largest hydroelectric dam. Its existing Byzantine and Ottoman urban grain are ideal for its proposed role as a trade and production hub. 66
Satellite Hubs
ENERGY | RAQQA HYDROELECTRIC DAM AT LAKE ASSAD ON THE EUPHRATES RIVER
ENERGY | NATIONAL SURPLUS ENERGY SOLD TO NEIGHBOURING NATIONS IS ONE OF LARGEST EXPORTS
AGRICULTURAL: WHEAT, BARLEY, COTTON, LENTILS, CHICKPEAS, OLIVES, SUGAR BEETS; BEEF, MUTTON, EGGS, POULTRY, MILK
FOOD | WADI RICH SOILS IN THE NORTH ESSENTIAL FOR PRODUCTION OF FOOD
RAIL | REGIONAL EXPAND SERVICE FROM CITIES TO REGIONS
TRADE | NATIONAL SUQS AS KEY TYPOLOGY: REQUIRE SUPPORT FROM HUBS TO PROVIDE FOR GATEWAY CITIES
TRANSPORT | NATIONAL EXPAND NETWORK
ROAD | TRAVEL TRADE ROUTES TO CITIES IN- AND OUTWITH COUNTRY
FOOD | NORTHERN REGIONS SYNONYMOUS WITH FOOD PRODUCTION, A KEY EXPORT SECTOR
FABRICS | WADI REGIONS CRITICAL FOR PRODUCTION OF COTTON & OTHER FABRICS
“WILL BE BACK... ALEPPO | WHAT DO THE NUCLEI REQUIRE TO SUPPORT SUCCESSFUL REPATRIATION?
AIR | ALEPPO TRAVEL AND TRADE FOR THOSE ARRIVING HOME (NATIONAL)
FABRICS | RAQQA BUILDING ON THE BACK OF THE NORTHERN HUBS’ LEGACIES
SHIPPING | LATAKKIA PROMOTE CONNECTIONS AS INTERNATIONAL TRADE HUB CRAFT | WORKSHOPS MAINTAIN HISTORICAL CRAFT TO PROMOTE SENSE OF FAMILIAR IN ARCHITECTURE
CRAFT | DAMASCUS SKILLS HUBS EXIST IN DAMASCUS AND ALEPPO
QUARRIES | HOMS NATURAL MATERIAL RESOURCE
CONSTRUCTION TRAINING, MATERIALS AND FACTORIES SUPPLYING FOR FUTURE DEMAND OF NATION
MASONRY | ALEPPO MASONRY SKILL WITH LIMESTONE AND BASALT
INDUSTRIES: PETROLEUM, TEXTILES, FOOD PROCESSING, BEVERAGES, TOBACCO, PHOSPHATE ROCK MINING, CEMENT, OIL SEEDS CRUSHING, AUTOMOBILE ASSEMBLY
Fig.82: Satellite Hubs | Key Regional Locations Key regional hubs are identified and established around existing infrastructure and important production settlements in Phase 1 to provide support for essential functions in the nucleus locations. As part of the Phase 2 development, the initial growth of the cities arrives at these outposts, bringing with it quality housing, public spaces and amenities to support neighbourhoods and communities as the families of the ‘key workers’ arrive back home. Spaces for governance and non-essential healthcare, followed by education, workplace and recreational spaces are provided in this middle phase. The priorities for Phase 2 are depicted above, indicating pre-existing conditions for locations to be considered. 67
Fig.83: Damascus | Wooden Kishk of Ottoman design. Built onto stone beams, the focus was on the details of the cornicing and oriels. Designed to allow for natural ventilation and occupants’ privacy while being able to observe the street, particularly key in residential and healthcare design 68
VI
Programme | Terms of Engagement Architectural Heritage & Identity
An architectural taxonomy of Syria was undertaken through a series of sketches to establish a set of parameters or principles which form the baseline architectural identity of the nation. This resource then acts as a library from which new buildings can draw from to preserve identity and create a sense of ‘familiar’ to promote the sense of safety and security sought by the repatriating Syrians. From this, a design guide, or terms of engagement, can be established by which urban interventions or armatures are underpinned to ensure consistency in achieving culturally appropriate, empathetic and conscious designs within the framework of each phase. Syrian architecture is reasonably unique in that while it has been heavily influenced by several empires and dynasties, it has remained true to regional vernacular forms over global trends, with many buildings still constructed using these old techniques, working with locally sourced materials (Massih & Nishiyama, 2018 and CORPUS Levante, 2004). This promotes a strong local identity which is critical in the success of planned interventions with regards to re-establishing a sense of the familiar in terms of architectural elements, forms and urban patterns. The empires which passed through Syria tended to allow Syrians to live in their own way, rather than impose their own systems upon them, in return for their military service, use of their lands to cultivate produce and goods for consumption and trade, or military allegiance to a particular leader. This autonomy and resilience translated to their approach to construction and urban design, as very little is laid to waste; materials are reconstituted, traditional homes and spaces are adapted, and settlement forms expand and contract depending on the needs of the citizens. This is exemplified by several historic policies enacted by ruling empires, such as the 1884 Ottoman code which sought to protect architecture and artefacts of cultural significance. The Arabic term for these preservation codes is ‘Athar’ “...literally denoting traces of ancient civilizations. The actual connotation of the word (as codified through practice and subsequent codes) came to mean ruins, ancient artefacts, i.e. artefacts of old human activities.” (CORPUS Levante, 2004; 12). Several key elements are outlined by the subsequent series of sketches, highlighting distinct regional characteristics of settlement form, urban grain and architectural elements. The aim for the design phase is to focus on producing designs which incorporate these regional specificities within the region in which they are found, providing scope for technological advancements to help the new interventions bed into their contexts, while remaining agile in the face of potential future changes. The more specific elements included in the following pages are relevant to the typologies and necessary urban spaces required to meet the human needs outlined in Chapter III. Future design responses can then provide a powerful sense of place for those returning, with the contemporary and compassionate reimagination of these elements. 69
Fig.85
Fig.87
Ubaid 6th-4th c. BC
Roman 130BC-457AD
Timeline | Key Architectural Eras
Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian 18th-6th c. BC
Fig.84
Info from Syrian Heritage Archive, 2020
Byzanti 466-640A
Hellenistic (Seceulid) 312-63 BC
Fig.86
Fig.88
Fig.89
Fig.91
Arabic (Abassid) 640-900s
ine AD
Ottoman 12th c.-1900s
Bedouin 10th-12th c
Fig.90
French Colonial & Modern 19th c ->
Fig.92
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Najafeh (Lintels) | Selection of openings common across all regions
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Fig.93
Fig.94
Fig.95
Fig.96
Fig.97
Fig.98
Urban Grain | Plan Form Fig.99: Hellenistic | Citadel form with strong hierarchies of street pattern and more regimented, gridded divisions, with key avenues or boulevards leading to the centre of the settlement. Ideal urban grain for: Repeating fractals of neighbourhoods or parishes where a template can be devised for one area and adapted across repeating zones of the city
Fig.100: Ottoman | Walled trade port or garrison format with layered hierarchical grain from the outlying walls to the protected core where key buildings were typically located. Influenced by Greek or Byzantine planning styles, coastal cities tend to have a more rigorous, orthogonal grain as they were established or developed by Greek and Roman forces, with the addition of narrow, winding streets to encourage wind from the sea or plains to pass within for passive temperature control. Ideal urban grain for: Trade and transit hubs for cruises, ferries and shipping Fig.101: Islamic | Walled market town with ring of smaller outlying cities, each with their own self-organising structure, hierarchies and a fairly organic grain. Main thoroughfares to the centre tend to host key markets and religious spaces. Commonly found in wadi regions, these settlements are characterised by their development as strategic market towns along established trade routes for their access to waterways for transportation and connection to natural resources Ideal urban grain for: Production and trade hubs with interconnection of city and districts, or regional hubs 73
Urban Grain | Streetscape
Fig.102: Urban Grain | Public realm and balconies Narrow, winding streets are an environmental consideration in coastal and southern cities to drive cool air from the sea or open fields and plains through the settlement, particularly common in Ottoman influenced cities. Timber Kishks provide extra living space and serve multiple purposes: Ventilation, privacy and passive observation of the street from within 74
Fig.103: Urban Grain | Densely populated with layering of multiple architectural styles Public space within urban centres is typically layered, “developed under strong endogenous social and cultural rules creating a hierarchy of traditional spaces which supported public, parochial and private realms,� (Rema Haddad, 2009; 3). Several previous ruling empires have written design codes, or Athar, which explicitly protect the existing architectural and cultural heritage (CORPUS, 2004) 75
Housing Style | Rural
Fig.104: Tent | Commonly found in rural, arid and wadi locations as they are inhabited by the Bedouin and other nomadic populations for their durability and ease of transportation as these groups live a transient lifestyle in response to changes in weather seasons and their evolving needs regarding cultivating land for sustenance and trade. These tents are made from fairly thick, natural materials which are easy to repair with basic, easy to source natural materials and can withstand the wide variety of challenging terrains and weather conditions present across Syria.
Fig.105: Beehive | Found in rural regions, predominantly in the countryside surrounding Aleppo, with examples found near Damascus and Ghouta, these houses are constructed from mud bricks, or rammed earth and timber in the same manner they would have been thousands of years ago. The domes can reach up to 7m high, with basic rooms for family and livestock organised around a central courtyard. The thick earth structures help to shelter from the cold and rain during the winter, and the baking heat of summers, while openings are small due to the limitations of the materials used.
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Fig.106: Bustan | Found in the mountains of the Latakkia Governorate, these farmhouses commonly utilise the courtyard as a garden and access to the living spaces, with an internal partition segregating the house between the two main sections housing humans on one side and livestock on the other. The livestock are housed inside during the winter using their body heat to maintain a more bearable temperature through the colder months.
Housing Style | Urban
Fig.107: Riwaq | In regional settlements, it is common for the courtyard of the dwellings to play a key role as the access point to multi-family homes. The main elevation consists of a Riwaq, or covered gallery, connecting the residential units. Houses with Riwaqs as shown here are typically found in Damascus and Southern Syria. (CORPUS Levante, 2004; 22).
Fig.108: Liwan | A regional Damascus dwelling, this tripartite structure is typical for multifamily living. Two living units are connected by a Liwan, an open-sided central distribution space, used for living or as a local workshop, warehouse or storage. Arabic houses such as these and those with Riwaqs tend to vary in size and opulence depending on the income of the family, ranging from basic, minimally decorated spaces to houses with water features and trees in their courtyards. Fig.109: Lebanese Colonial | This style of house is most commonly found in coastal and Ottoman influenced cities such as Latakkia. They display a shift away from traditional Arabic spatial organisation, with the main hall utilised as the fulcrum for the layout of rooms instead of a shared courtyard. These houses tend to more externally expressive and open than typical Arabic designs, which place an emphasis on the courtyard and semi-private space.
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Material | Traditional Construction Techniques
Fig.111: Limestone
Fig.112: Basalt Fig.110: Stone | A mix of ashlar and rough finishes on stonework tends to denote both the status of the building, and the level of craftsmanship in the area. In arch construction, ashlar finishes are found on the exterior for aesthetic purposes, while the internal lintel is either timber or stone. Stone used to pack this internal structure is usually of a rougher finish
Fig.113 & 114: Hamah | Timber is common in Hamah and Latakkia due to the fertile nature of the surrounding geology. Poplar logs were widely available as it was native to these regions, while Cypress timber is known for its durability in harsher, colder or coastal climates. Steel columns were laterally introduced to allow for greater spans and support.
Material | Craft & Detail
Fig.115: Stone | Distinctive patterns are created by alternating blocks due to the colour and grain characteristics of the materials used. Limestone is the most common building material in Latakkia and Aleppo. Damascus is the only city in the country where this alternation between basalt and limestone is common, although it is found to a lesser extent in Hamah and other southern regions.
Fig.116: Hamah | An example of the alternating pattern found in Hamah
Fig.117: Raqqa | Rural earth and mud construction due to the wetter terrain and climate in the Euphrates Valley
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Form | Openings
Fig.118: Mud | Small opening sizes due to limitations of material. Doors are no more than 1.2m high, while ‘windows’ are usually located at high level purely for ventilation purposes
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Fig.119: Basic Stone Opening | Izra’a
Fig.120: Stone Kishk Timber screens are synonymous with Ottoman architecture to increase occupant privacy
Fig.121: Semi-Circle Arch With Screen A blend of an Ottoman Kishk with a standard Roman arch
Fig.122: Pointed Arch | This more complex style of arch was first used in the Persians and developed by the Ottomans
Fig.123: Horshoe Arch | Common in Islamic and Ottoman designs, the elegant shape serves a structural purpose and increases the width of the opening
Form | Archways
Fig.124: Transcending Arch | ‘Maghmous’ arches were introduced in the Umayyad Era
Fig.125: Semi-Circle Arches | A classic Greek arch common across Syria from Palmyra to Idlib
Fig.126: Pointed Arch | Devised by the Persians in the Abbasid Era
Fig.127: Ottoman | An intricate version of the Hellenistic semi-circular arch
Fig.128: Persian Arch | Highly prevalent in Islamic architecture
Fig.129: Liwan | A common feature in regional domestic Syrian architecture of Islamic influence, the central room or loggia is open sided, with a series of intricate openings within this larger opening
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Form | Cupolas
Fig.130: Ottoman Dome | Damascus A more unique and intricate dome on a mosque in the capital city blends Persian with Islamic arches and Islamic with Ottoman domes and construction techniques. This simultaneous inclusion of multiple styles is characteristic of Syrian architecture and testament to the volume of empires which have left the mark of their design codes on the country during their rein
Fig.131
Fig.132
Fig.133
Fig.134
Mud and Earth Forms | Traditional Syrian mud arches and cupolas are normally constructed with timber frames and thatched roofs, found in more fertile regions to the north and west 82
Form | Vaults & Domes
Fig.135: Barrel Vault | A Hellenistic and Byzantine design common in long linear buildings such as Souqs
Fig.136: Cross Vault | Two consecutive crossing orthographic vaults, used in Abbasid, Islamic and Ottoman architecture for important spaces such as baths or mosques
Fig.137: Mud Brick Cupola | Common in wet, fertile, rural northern, coastal and mountain regions
Fig.138: Stone Cupola | As stone was the primary building material in Syria, cupolas were employed to span large spaces like mosques
Fig.139: Mud Finish on Stone Cupola | Roof of a Souq in Aleppo, with the central, largest dome used as a light well and ventilation shaft to bring light and fresh air deep into the building 83
FIG.140: CATALOGUE OF TAXONOMY BY REGION CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL EARTH MUD BRICK RAMMED EARTH
STONE BASALT LIMESTONE
TIMBER
PLANNING STYLE/ERA HELLENISTIC
ORTHOGONAL, GRID; PROPORTION & HIERARCHY
BYZANTINE
SQUARE BASED DOMES, CROSS-VAULTS; MOSAICS
ISLAMIC
WALLED, MARKET TOWN; RINGS OF OUTLYING CITIES
OTTOMAN
TRADE HUBS; MILITARY GARRISONS,
HOUSING STYLE RURAL ON OUTSKIRTS OF CITY TENT (BEDOUIN, NOMADIC) SINGLE HOUSE BEEHIVE COMMUNAL
URBAN WITH RIWAQ WITH LIWAN
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LEBANESE
COASTAL | LATAKKIA
REGION | CITY HIGHLAND | DAMASCUS
HIGHLY PREVALENT MODERATELY COMMON STEPPE | ALEPPO
WADI | HAMAH
UNCOMMON RARE WADI | RAQQA
Metal Working Workshop
Fig.141
Fig.142
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Fig.143
Salvaging Craft | Intrinsic Resilience Through Design What did Syrians leave behind? Why is the market as a typology so important? What’s sold there? Who produces it? In researching these questions, it was discovered that after the war, several Syrians had come together in Damascus to attempt to rescue the heritage of their fathers’ crafts. Based in the Orient House, they specialise in intricate glassware, stained glass windows, fine metalwork, including Damascening - the art of laying metals into other metals - carpentry and other highly skilled crafts. Orient House provides them with shelter and a controlled environment in which to work, where they have been based since 2018 (Sheik Ali, 2019). The motivations of these craftspeople speaks of a resilience in the character of Syrians in the face of a multitude of crises. Reviving craft and detail in contemporary Syrian design is important for several reasons: • To celebrate art and culture; • To preserve, protect and maintain the eclectic existing architectural heritage during the rebuild so that these ‘monuments’ may become dynamic actors in the future of the nation; • In order to recreate a sense of the familiar to promote safety for those returning to the country, it is important to work closely with the materials, forms and culture they would have most closely associated with home, reimagining them in a way which is fitting for the future residents It is therefore important to provide spaces for these vital crafts through urban interventions during Phase 2, accommodating for spaces which plant the seed from which these crafts can flourish
Fig.144
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Glass Blowing & Mosaics
Fig.145
Fig.146
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Fig.147
Woodworking & Damascening
Fig.148
Fig.149
Fig.150
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Fig.151: Healing Rehabilitating environments (Damascus)
Fig.152: Repair Rehabilitation of the built environment (Aleppo) 90
VII
Conclusion | A Template for the Future Promoting the Familiar, Allowing for Innovation
By seeking the end of forced displacement for Syrians, it was vital to first devise a more robust, detailed and humane way of sheltering them while displaced through a holistic action plan, to provide them with adequate healthcare and community support, and enhanced education opportunities to equip them with key skills to take home and utilise during the rebuilding and rehabilitation of their nation. Following this, it was critical to interrogate what facilities they might need when repatriating, the mechanics of a method to achieve a meaningful, positive end to their displacement, and how those spaces would look and feel. The critical phases which this thesis aims to cater for centre around providing space for the secondary and tertiary human needs 3-10 years post-repatriation, namely psychological wellbeing and self fulfilment. This will be conducted through a series of armatures in existing neighbourhoods of key cities, such as Aleppo, and key strategic hubs, like Al-Raqqa, providing democratic community and public space, dedicated welfare facilities, craft workshops and a greater variety of employment and education opportunities. This will bridge the gap between temporary shelter and a permanent home, or permanence of place. As the focus of the subsequent design response in semester 2 through testing these ideas in specific contexts, the design proposals will be established to provide a platform for Syrians to continue developing and manifesting their neighbourhoods and cities in the way they see fit, while providing space to cultivate harmonious relationships between citizens from all ethnic backgrounds, finding temporal and spiritual rapprochement with the architectural fabric, cities and society post war. Syria’s transitioning economy can be harnessed to drive the success of the project by building the network of spaces and urban interventions around existing settlements, natural resources and production hubs. These in turn provide strength and purpose to the economy and those who operate within it. Distilling the research of the architectural heritage and regional identities of Syria into a detailed Terms of Engagement to guide the present and future design responses, the thesis can provide a powerful sense of place for those returning, with the contemporary and compassionate re-imagination of these elements. With the assistance of modern construction techniques and technological advancements in the recording, documentation, preservation and reconstruction of the cities through resources such as the Syrian Heritage Archive, the best of traditional and innovative technologies can be combined to deliver a thorough, robust and sustainable future for Syria and enhance the contemporary restoration and resurrection of the country.
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Resilience in the Face of Adversity The cities studied in this thesis have been influenced by multiple empires and cultures, leaving their own architectural legacies on top of what existed before them, from construction techniques and materials to urban grain and stylistic decorations. Through the research consulted by this thesis, it became apparent that very few settlements were either completely new, or eroded what existed during previous occupations when creating new spaces. Syria is fairly unique in that the majority of empires and forces which passed through allowed the natives to continue their lives as they traditionally would, in return for their military service, use of their lands to cultivate produce and goods for consumption and trade, or allegiance to a particular tribe, family or leader. This high level of autonomy for Syrians and their ability to adapt while remaining true to themselves and their cultures over the course of millennia speaks of their resilience in the face of harsh environments and warring empires. This is best displayed in their ability to develop their cities alongside or with what already exists, in an iterative process by which little is laid to waste. Materials are reconstituted, traditional homes and spaces are adapted, and settlement forms expand and contract depending on the needs of the citizens, as exemplified by several historic policies such as the 1884 Ottoman code which sought to protect architecture and artefacts of cultural significance.
Fig.153: Resilience A Kurdish SDF soldier in Raqqa, October 2017
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Parameters for Design | Preliminary Brief Requirements This thesis has the potential to work with the more open governorate planning apparatus which encourages community involvement, which is viewed as an opportunity to work within and improve the existing system for future generations to operate within. Given the wide variety of settlement types, a specific, tailored approach is required to each city. Consistent or repeating parishes of communities, particularly common in Islamic or Ottoman-formed settlements, are an ideal context for this thesis as interventions in these neighbourhoods can become a template for similar districts across the city, streamlining the work required. This blueprint approach requires general similarities between contexts, rather than specifically identical elements. Moving forward, the selection criteria for cities is that they must be: • Based around existing infrastructure (travel; material resources; energy production; factories) • Based around Syria’s assets as understood from the demographics analysis in Chapter IV’s Framework research and proposal • Must be sufficiently intact to provide temporary to mid-term homes for ‘essential’ workers of the rebuild • Able to be stitched into existing fabric to work with what’s there, following the layering of history by which Syrian cities are commonly designed by These criteria form the basis in which a context, or set of contexts, will be selected in the design phase of this thesis, focussing on stages 2 & 3 of the rehabilitation process outlined in Chapter III. A neighbourhood within a major urban settlement, or Gateway Nucleus such as Aleppo, alongside a portion of a Regional Hub, such as Raqqa, will be studied and tested in detail, applying lessons learned in the subsequent design response period to provide the required spaces, or armatures, as a test within the framework template this thesis sets out. Specific requirements of the spaces themselves are derived from the Pyramid of Human Architectural Needs in Chapter III, which work to answer the needs of the intermediate phases between initial repatriation and permanence, or the end of displacement, in a humane and appropriate manner which is respective of the local customs, cultural influences and heritage, or taxonomy, of architecture so as to promote a connection with the familiar and prove to natives that the environments are safe to repatriate. These urban interventions shall focus firstly on providing public to private space for communities to interact and socialise, along with religious and counselling or secondary, community based healthcare facilities (Phase 2: Transitioning), and places to learn, work and relax (Phase 3: Establishing). Working towards providing a range of privacy and social or public spaces is key within Islamic and Ottoman formed cities and cultures, while using the local materials, skills, crafts and construction techniques to enhance the rich sense of place and identity which Syria possesses. These elements are key to the successful repatriation of the country and long term prosperity of the Syrians it caters for.
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Initial Research Intentions
Fig.154: Forensic Investigation | Detailed analysis and exploration of existing physical fabric to understand what is left, what was there that needs rebuilt, and what needs changing
Fig.155: Interview 01_ Identify further contacts to consult focussing on issues regarding refugees and asylum in the UK, and empowerment through construction abroad in other disaster-stricken regions
Fig.156: Interview 02_ Establish contact with citizens and residents to hear their stories and testimonies of what their place once was, and what they’d like to see done to convince them to return
Community Engagement | Paying close attention to the needs of the displaced
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Appendix I Methodology The primary objective of this thesis is to establish a framework to provide a positive end to displacement for Syrian refugees through repatriation. The research initially took the form of a literature review of relevant documents and statistics, to collate, analyse and discuss information pertaining to forcible displacement, which was conducted over two phases. Phase one sought to expand the coverage of material through a search for titles of books and reports by reputable and established authoring bodies pertaining to displacement and the built environment, chiefly using the electronic database SuPrimo. Certain titles were immediately discounted due to them being: 1. Fiction 2. Foreign Language 3. Regarding a particular inquiry, law, code of ethics and/or policy review 4. Focussing on a particular time and/or place in history 5. Dealing with a particular sub-demographic of a region. Phase two sought to refined and distilled reading materials down to the most relevant and up to date by interrogation of their abstracts for general relevance in the field, with secondary sources established as a result. Due to the focus of this thesis on forced displacement and urbanism as international issues, it was important to ascertain accurate global data. For that reason, the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights was consulted due to being a widely regarded and peer-reviewed source of knowledge for the purposes of this broad contextual scan. For the priority of accuracy, only statistics pertaining to individual nations from peer-reviewed reports written in the English language were utilised. The data procured from this broad contextual scan was then further focused in on the specifics of refugees, displacement, integration and repatriation in the Middle East. An examination was undertaken of current provision of care facilities for mental health and wellbeing in ‘western’ nations hosting Syrian refugees. Additionally, statistics, national action plans and resettlement schemes were studied out from UK governmental and record keeping bodies to further inform this research. Syrian planning policies and governance systems were also sought to provide a fundamental understanding of national issues and their root cause(s). The main body of research in this thesis focussed on a critique of current legislations and suggested areas for improvement. A nationwide mapping study was conducted for an understanding of the climatic, geological, cultural and conflict situations present in-country, to identify potential contexts in which to site the thesis response. A sketch analysis of the architectural characteristics of the nation was then undertaken to provide a detailed overview of the general design styles and techniques which are prevalent in the country, to tease out a set of rules, or terms of engagement which will be employed in the design delivery period in the following semester.
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“I saw my son die, burnt in the rubble in front of me. I’ve lost everyone who was dear to me. My four children, my husband, my mother, my sister, my whole family. Wasn’t the goal to free the civilians? They were supposed to save us, to save our children.” Ayat Mohammed Jasem Identified Needs: Routes towards justice & freedom Methods of rebuilding family home Dignified space to remember lost family
Fig.157
“I picked up the dead, the children; they were in pieces. In just a few hours four families were destroyed; my family, my two brothers’ and my nephew’s. This was a beautiful home, a happy home. Now nothing remains. I spend every moment of every day thinking about them. What else can I do? How can a human being bear so much pain? May God give me strength.” Haifa al-Sheikh Identified Needs: Psychological support or ‘escape’ spaces Meeting place for survivors Dignified space to remember lost family Fig.158
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What do the People of Raqqa Demand?
Attempts were made early in the process to contact Scottish and UK government policy making bodies, Scottish charity the Scottish Refugee Council, Glasgow charity Refuweegee and several other contacts who are involved with refugees, to discuss and understand their perspective on the UK system and what Syria was like pre war. Unfortunately, these leads didn’t come to fruition, and the global pandemic has severely limited the ability to physically contact such groups. It was initially hoped that the author would be able to visit the effected regions in person to conduct detailed studies of the contexts, although the global pandemic also prevented this, therefore the work presented in this thesis is as accurate and rigorous as possible to distil the essence of the effected and proposed sites. This led to the interrogation of witness testimonies from Raqqa on Amnesty International’s Archive, to understand what the damage was and how architecture could feasibly be utilised to help. The information presented here are genuine Amnesty International Witness Testimonies given by citizens at the epicentre of the devastation (from Amnesty International, 2019b).
“I lost three of my siblings my mother. When they (Coalition forces) rained volleys of artillery shells down on my neighbourhood in the morning (of 10 June 2017), they killed 16. I lost my right leg and my left leg was badly injured,” She now uses a wheelchair donated by an NGO to get around and her only wish is to go to school. Fatima, 13 Identified Needs: Safe place to stay & receive support Formal spaces for provision of education Safe, accessible urban realm Fig.159
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International Organization for Migration (08.11.17) Available at: https://www.iom.int/news/over-600000displaced-syrians-returned-home-first-7-months-2017 (Accessed: 18.10.20) Massih, Jeanine Abdul & Nishiyama, Shinichi (2018) Archaeological Explorations in Syria 2000-2011 Available at: https://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/DMS/463DAAA747094956BB3D1A788DF E435C/9781784919474-ArchaeologicalExplorationsinSyria2000-2011-Massihetal-Contents.pdf (Accessed: 10.11.20) Mehaffy & Salingaros (19.08.20) The Chernobyl Paradox: The Intense Connection Between Health and Living Structure Available at: https://commonedge.org/the-chernobyl-paradox-the-intense-connection-betweenhealth-and-living-structure/ (Accessed: 10.10.20) Mersom, Daryl/The Guardian (22.04.16) Story of cities #28: how postwar Warsaw was rebuilt using 18th century paintings Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt18th-century-paintings (Accessed: 15.11.20) MacGregor, Marion (2017) Changing journeys: Migrant routes to Europe Available at: https://www.infomigrants. net/en/post/15005/changing-journeys-migrant-routes-to-europe (Accessed: 08.10.20) Najjar, Ameen (27.06.18) Damage Caused by the Syrian Civil War: What the Data Say Available at: https:// towardsdatascience.com/damage-caused-by-the-syrian-civil-war-what-the-data-say-ebad5796fca8 (Accessed: 05.11.20) Jorgo, (2018) Visiting Syria as a tourist – a week in government controlled areas Available at: https:// unusualtravelblog.com/2018/08/20/visiting-syria-as-a-tourist-a-week-in-government-controlled-areas/ (Accessed: 10th November 2020). Rema Haddad, George (2009) Changes in the nature and governance of public spaces in the historic city centre: the case of Damascus Available at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Changes-in-the-nature-and-governanceof-public-in-%3A-Haddad/234ae9396abb5f53c06e5a037d84eb98ebda74ba (Accessed: 24.10.20) Rogers, Richard (2017) A Place for All People: Life, Architecture and Social Responsibility. Edinburgh: Canongate Museum Für Islamische Kunst (2020) Syrian Heritage Archive. Available at: https://syrian-heritage.org (Accessed: 17.10.20) Sheik Ali, Hummam (24.07.19) Craftsmen try to salvage old Damascene crafts from extinction Available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/24/c_138251846_3.html (Accessed: 10.11.20). United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (2019). Syrian Refugee Crisis Explained. Available at: https:// www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/#What%20is%20the%20UN%20Refugee%20 Agency%20doing%20for%20displaced%20Syrians? (Accessed: 30.09.20) United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (18.06.20). Population Statistics Mobile Application. Accessed via: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/figures-at-a-glance.html (Accessed: 08..11.20) United States Department of State (16.06.20) Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act (2020). Available at: https:// www.state.gov/caesar-syria-civilian-protection-act/ (Accessed 27.10.20) World Bank (2017). Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978–1-4648–0938–5. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/25016 (Accessed 10.11.20)
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List of Figures Cover Image composed from: AFP/Getty Images (10.05.14). A Syrian woman carries a suitcase along a street in the Juret al-Shayah district of Homs on May 10 Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/12/middleeast/gallery/homs-syria-return/ index.html (Accessed: 28.10.20) Arce, Daniela (19.07.15). Ariel Bombing Wallpapers Available at: https://apkpure.com/aerial-bombing-wallpapers/cool.celeb.wpaper.BombingRuns (Accessed: 25.10.20) Bekerman, Ronen (18.09.16). Cutout People 3D Available at: https://www.ronenbekerman.com/200-free-2dcutout-people-case3d/cutout_store-73/ (Accessed: 28.10.20) G., Tay/KindPng (2019). Rubble HD png Available at: https://www.kindpng.com/imgv/ihmmRwJ_rubble-hdpng-download/ (Accessed: 20.10.20) Huber, Gerhard (04.09). Umayyad Mosque Available at: https://global-geography.org/af/Geography/Asia/Syria/Pictures/Aleppo/468_Omaijaden_Moschee (Accessed: 07.10.20) Middle East Monitor (22.06.17). A Woman Sits Outside A UNHCR Tent Available at: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170622-un-refugee-agency-obtains-fatwa-to-distribute-zakat/ (Accessed: 20.10.20) VeMaps.com (date). Outline Map of Syria Available at: https://vemaps.com/syria/sy-01 (Accessed: 05.10.20) VeMaps.com (date). Outline Map of Turkey Available at: https://vemaps.com/turkey/tr-01 (Accessed: 05.10.20) VeMaps.com (date). Outline Map of UK Available at: https://vemaps.com/united-kingdom/gb-01 (Accessed: 05.10.20) Zavallis, Achilleas/UNHCR (24.09.20). An Afghan asylum-seeker helps his father wash the hands of his younger brother at the Kara Tepe emergency site on Lesvos, Greece Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/news/ press/2020/9/5f6c89454/unhcr-alleviating-suffering-overcrowding-greek-islands-reception-centres.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 1 – pg. II Model by Author 2 – pg. IIX By Author 3 – pg. 2 By Author 4 – pg. 3 By Author 5 – pg. 4 By Author 6 – pg. 4 By Author 7 & 8 – pg. 6 Author’s own edited over Google Earth, 2020 Map of Syria, Google Earth (2020). Available at: https://earth.google.com/web/search/Syria/ (Accessed: 10.10.20) – pg. 6 9 – pg. 8/9 Author’s own graph Photos (clockwise from top left): Locusts: Ben Curtis/Associated Press (08.06.20). A farmer’s daughter waves her shawl to chase away swarms of desert locusts in Katitika village, Kitui county, Kenya Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jun/08/rolling-emergency-of-locust-swarms-decimating-africa-asia-and-middle-east (Accessed: 22.09.20) Weinstein: Associated Press (01.20). Harvey Weinstein leaves a Manhattan courthouse in January Available at: https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/12004092/harvey-weinstein-prison-sentence-rape-sexual-assault-metoo/ (Accessed: 28.09.20) Don’t Make Apartheid Great Again: Cohen, Amir/Reuters (06.06.20). Demonstrators protest under coronavirus restrictions against Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s plan to annex parts of the Israeli-occupied West Bank, in Tel Aviv, Israel Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/09/what-would-israel-annexing-the-west-bank-mean#img-2 (Accessed: 05.10.20) BLM: Frangipane, Paul (2020). Black Lives Matter Mural Available at: https://chicagocrusader.com/powerfulblack-lives-matter-murals-are-popping-up-on-streets-across-the-u-s/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 100
Azerbijan: Armenian foreign ministry/AFP/Getty Images (28.09.20). Armenian medics help a man said to have been injured in clashes in Azerbaijan’s breakaway region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/28/dozens-dead-as-armenia-azerbaijan-clashes-continue#img-1 (Accessed: 05.10.20) Covid: Eckert, Alissa; Higgins, Dan (03.03.20). Covid-19 Available at: https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/ common-questions-about-the-new-coronavirus-outbreak (Accessed: 05.10.20) Beirut: Malla, Hussein/Associated Press (05.08.20). Ariel View of Destroyed Port Available at: https://abcnews. go.com/International/search-rescue-continues-beirut-wakes-effects-devastating-explosion/story?id=72185153 (Accessed: 05.10.20) Palestine: Uncredited. A Palestinian boy plays his guitar among the rubble of his home in Gaza Available at: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20160610-49-facts-about-israels-occupation-of-the-west-bank-and-gazastrip/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) Brexit: Adobe Stock (24.04.20). Brexit Graphic Available at: https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/ article/to-extend-or-take-britain-into-a-gtterdmerung-brexit (Accessed: 05.10.20) 10 – pg. 10 Lebanon 2016: Unknown. Byblos Available at: https://www.lebanonholidayarchitects.com/holidays/lebanon-in-depth/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2019: Ibrahim, Omar; Reuters (20.10.19). Demonstrators take part in an anti-government protest in Tripoli Available at: https://www.euronews.com/2019/10/20/watch-live-protesters-in-lebanon-flood-streets-forfourth-day (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2019: Carde, Daniel/Getty Images (04.08.20). Firefighters extinguish flames at nearby damaged buildings following a large explosion at the Port of Beirut in Lebanon on Tuesday Available at: https://news.wgcu.org/2020-0804/enormous-explosion-rocks-beirut-killing-dozens-and-wounding-thousands (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2020: Malla, Hussein/Associated Press (09.08.20). Yes They Did Available at: https://twitter.com/hmalla72/ status/1292330113074429958/photo/1 (Accessed: 05.10.20) 11 – pg. 10 Palestine 1970s: Unknown (Circa 1960s). Omar Muktar Street & Palestine Sqaure in Gaza City in 1960s Available at: https://twitter.com/saidshouib/status/510542277567987712/photo/2 (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2000: Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) (18.08.11). Terror Strikes Israeli Civilians in Southern Israel Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/idfonline/6057045852/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2019: McIntosh, Justin (17.08.04). Boy and Soldier in Front of Israeli Wall Available at: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boy_and_soldier_in_front_of_Israeli_wall.jpg (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2020: @log_nick (18.02.18). Available at: https://traveltheworld.online/how-to-travel-to-the-gaza-strip-inpalestine-2020/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 12 – pg. 11 Yemen 2007: Stirton, Brent/Getty Images (16.08.10). The ancient old city within the heart of Sanaa, the capital city of Yemen Available at: https://www.texasmonthly.com/energy/oilman-east-texas-kidnapped-yemen/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2015: Reuters (08.03.20). Children walk at a camp for people recently displaced by fighting in Yemen’s northern province of al-Jawf between government forces and Houthis, in Marib, Yemen Available at: https://www.dailysabah. com/world/mid-east/millions-of-yemeni-children-may-starve-amid-pandemic-unicef-says (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2016: Ahmed, Essa/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images (2019). Distributing aid to people displaced from their homes in northern Yemen last year. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/02/world/middleeast/ yemen-saudi-united-nations-aid.html (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2020: Mohammed, Mohammed/Xinhua (14.02.20). Children stand in front of a destroyed building in Sanaa, Yemen, Available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-02/15/c_138784814.html (Accessed: 05.10.20) 13 – pg. 11 Syria 1973: Azad/Associated Press (1973). Aleppo, 1973. Syrian girls parade during a festival. In 1970 a military coup ousted a Ba’athist regime and installed Hafez al-Assad as leader. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ world/2016/dec/18/aleppo-elegy-for-doomed-city-syria-assad#img-1 (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2009: imageBROKER/REX/Shutterstock (2009). Aleppo, 2009. Young people socialising on the hill of the Cit101
adel of Aleppo, two years before the start of the Arab spring protests that led the civil war Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/18/aleppo-elegy-for-doomed-city-syria-assad (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2019: AFP (12.19). Opposition-held towns like Atareb are coming under intense bombardment Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-51558770 (Accessed: 05.10.20) 2020: Dana, Felipe/AFP (08.20). Militants Continue Shelling Settlements in Syria’s Northern Provinces, Russian Military Says Available at: https://sputniknews.com/midleeast/202008191080210929-militants-continue-shelling-settlements-in-syrias-northern-provinces-russian-military-says/ (Accessed: 05.10.20) 14 – pg. 12 Photograph: Martins, Alice/Washington Post (05.20). A New Sign Was Errected on Naim Square Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww. washingtonpost.com%2fgraphics%2fworld%2f2020%2f05%2f22%2fformer-caliphate-capital-is-haunted-by-fears-an-isis-comeback%2f (Accessed: 10.10.20) 15 – pg. 14 Clockwise from top left: Screenshot of front cover of: Amnesty International (2017) I Won’t Forget This Carnage. Available at: https:// www.amnesty.org.uk/files/Raqqa-I-Wont-Forget-This-Carnage.PDF (Accessed: 08.10.20) Screenshot of front cover of: Amnesty International (2018) War of Annihilation. Available at: https://www. amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/8367/2018/en/ (Accessed: 08.10.20) Screenshot of front cover of: Amnesty International (2019) Outsourcing Responsibility. Available at: https:// www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act30/0893/2019/en/ (Accessed: 08.10.20) 16 – pg. 15 Photograph: Amnesty International (2017). Damage After the Military Operation Available at: https://raqqa-syria.amnesty.org (Accessed: 14.10.20) 17 – pg. 16 Photograph: Uncredited/AP (2014). Show of force: Isis members parade through the streets of Raqqa Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/feb/26/the-raqqa-diaries-life-under-isis-rule-samermike-thomson-syria (Accessed: 14.10.20) 18 – pg. 17 Photograph: Prickett, Ivor/New York Times (10.2017). Members of the Syrian Democratic Forces greeted one another after returning from the frontline in east Raqqa last week. On Tuesday, the American-backed militia group announced that it had taken full control of the city. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/17/ world/middleeast/isis-syria-raqqa.html (Accessed: 14.10.20) 19 – pg. 18 Photograph: Uncredited/Alahed News (21.10.17). Available at: https://www.english.alahednews. com.lb/24643/499 (Accessed: 14.10.20) 20 – pg. 19 Photograph: Uncredited/AFP (2016). With a myriad of rebel groups, the Aleppo offensive has shown that Syrian rebels can unite. Here are the groups involved in new assault on Aleppo. Available at: https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/fullimage/6750bef0-2d27-48e2-8b81-d71439586217/e089b62f-437a-4878-bf1078c90c3d7d38 (Accessed: 14.10.20) 21 - pg. 21 Kılıç, Bülent; AFP; Getty Images (25.09.17). A member of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) walks through the debris in the old city centre on the eastern frontline of Raqa on September 25, 2017. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/27/pictures-day-27-september-2017/member-syrian-democratic-forces-sdf-walks-debris-old-city-centre/ (Accessed: 12.10.20) 22 - pg. 21 Muheisen, Muhammed/AP (19.07.15). Syrian Refugee Girl, Zubaida Faisal, 10, Jumps Rope While She And Other Children Play Near Their Tents at an Unofficial Tented Settlement Near the Syrian Border on the Outskirts of Mafraq, Jordan Available at: https://time.com/3987244/syrian-refugees-mafraq-jordan/ (Accessed: 12.10.20) 23 - pg. 20 Karahalis, Yorgos/AP (11.08.15). Surge of Refugees Overwhelmes Greece and Europe Available at: https://www.humanosphere.org/human-rights/2015/08/surge-refugees-overwhelms-greece-europe/#prettyPhoto/0/ (Accessed: 12.10.20)
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24 - pg. 20 Uncredited. Available at: https://ecfr.eu/article/commentary_what_assads_victory_could_mean_ for_syrians_in_germany/ (Accessed: 12.10.20) 25 – pg. 20/21 By author. Base map edited from Google Earth (2020). https://earth.google.com/web/search/ Syria/ (Accessed: 10.10.20). Route information from Info Migrants, 2017 & migration statistics from United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (18.06.20). Population Statistics Mobile Application. Accessed via: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/figures-at-a-glance.html (Accessed: 08.11.20) 26 – pg. 22/23 By author. Information as quoted from Home Office, 2002, 2010, 2018(a) & 2018(b) 27 – pg. 24 By author. Information from Home Office, 2018(a) 28 – pg. 24 Getty Images (2015). Syrians arrive at their new home on the Isle of Bute. Available at: https://www. independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-refugee-resettlement-vulnerable-persons-middle-east-a8962046. html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 29 – pg. 26 By author 30 – pg. 28/29 By author 31 – pg. 30 Screenshot of front cover of: The Health Foundation (2015) Making change possible: A Transformation Fund for the NHS Available at: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/default/files/field/field_publication_file/making-change-possible-a-transformation-fund-for-the-nhs-kingsfund-healthfdn-jul15.pdf (Accessed: 12.10.20) 32 – pg. 30 Screenshot from: Mehaffy & Salingaros (19.08.20) The Chernobyl Paradox: The Intense Connection Between Health and Living Structure Available at: https://commonedge.org/the-chernobyl-paradox-the-intense-connection-between-health-and-living-structure/ (Accessed: 10.10.20) 33 – pg. 30 Screenshot of front cover of: World Bank (2017). Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978–1-4648–0938–5. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/25016 (Accessed: 10.11.20) 34 – pg. 31 Author’s own edited over Google Earth (2020). https://earth.google.com/web/search/Syria/ (Accessed: 10.10.20) 35 – pg. 32 Ring, Andrzej; Sandzewicz, Lech. Bernardo Bellotto’s 18th century paintings of Warsaw were used to rebuild the city following its destruction in the second world war. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (Accessed: 14.11.20) 36 – pg. 32 Ring, Andrzej; Sandzewicz, Lech. Church of the Holy Cross. All 22 of Bellotto’s street scenes survived the war. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (Accessed: 14.11.20) 37 – pg. 33 Bilderwelt, Galarie; Getty Images (1944). Hitler’s forces destroyed 85% of Warsaw’s historic centre. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (Accessed: 14.11.20) 38 – pg. 33 Mersom, Daryl/The Guardian (2016). A painting on an information board in front of a the rebuilt Krakowskie Przedmieście Street. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (Accessed: 14.11.20) 39 – pg. 34 By Author
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40 – pg. 36/37 By Author 41 – pg. 38 Ghossoun. Available at: https://sana.sy/en/?p=151315 (Accessed: 14.11.20) 42 – pg. 39 User: ‘Preacher Lad’ (08.01.11). Al-Shibani Church, Aleppo Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Al-Shibani_Church#/media/File:Al-Shibani_Alp08.jpg (Accessed: 14.11.20) 43 – pg. 38 Torres, Joan (2020). More friendly Syrians – How to visit Syria Available at: https://againstthecompass.com/en/travel-syria/ (Accessed: 14.11.20) 44 – pg. 39 User: ‘Preacher Lad’ (08.01.11). Aleppo Suq Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Aleppo-suq-Alp.JPG (Accessed: 14.11.20) 45 – pg. 40 Torres, Joan (2020). The Old City of Damascus – The columns belong to an old Roman Jupiter temple – Is Syria safe? Available at: https://againstthecompass.com/en/travel-syria/ (Accessed: 14.11.20) 46 – pg. 41 Schweizer, Effie (26.10.08). Hama Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hama. jpg (Accessed: 14.11.20) 47 – pg. 40 Torres, Joan (2020). Somewhere in Damascus – Can you travel to Syria? Available at: https://againstthecompass.com/en/travel-syria/ (Accessed: 14.11.20) 48 – pg. 41 Torres, Joan (2020). Damascus bazaar is really good to visit Available at: https://againstthecompass. com/en/travel-syria/ (Accessed: 14.11.20) 49 – pg. 42 Graph by Author. Statistics from United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (18.06.20). Population Statistics Mobile Application. Accessed via: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/figures-at-a-glance.html (Accessed: 08.11.20) 50 – pg. 42 Map by Author edited over Google Earth (2020). Available at: https://earth.google.com/web/search/Syria/ (Accessed: 10.10.20). Statistics from United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (18.06.20). Population Statistics Mobile Application. Accessed via: https://www.unhcr. org/uk/figures-at-a-glance.html (Accessed: 08.11.20) 51 – pg. 44 Chart by author, statistics from: Central Intelligence Agency(2017) World Factbook: Syria. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 52 – pg. 44 Chart by author, statistics from: Central Intelligence Agency(2017) World Factbook: Syria. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 53 – pg. 45 Chart by author, information from: Central Intelligence Agency(2020) Country Profile: Syria. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 54 – pg. 46 Image by author, statistics from: United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees (2019). Syrian Refugee Crisis Explained. Available at: https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/#What%20is%20the%20UN%20Refugee%20Agency%20doing%20for%20displaced%20Syrians? (Accessed: 30.09.20) 55 – pg. 46 Image by author, statistics from: Central Intelligence Agency(2017) World Factbook: Syria. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 56 – pg. 47 Image by author, statistics from: Central Intelligence Agency(2017) World Factbook: Syria. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html (Accessed: 20.10.20) 57 – pg. 47 Image by author, statistics from: Central Intelligence Agency(2017) World Factbook: Syria. Avail104
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RESURRECTING SYRIA: FROM RUBBLE TO REPATRIATION Finding Temporal Permanence for Refugees at the End of Displacement Through Repatriation Wreckage | Repair | Resurrection Sean McQueenie Studio 05