Egypt’s Bardawil Lake: safe haven or deadly trap for sea turtles in the Mediterranean? by MEDASSET

EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

In memory of Mindy Baha El Din

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? AUTHORS

Dr. Mohamed Adel Nada (MEDASSET/NCE); Mrs. Liza Boura, Mr. Kostis Grimanis (MEDASSET); Dr. Gail Schofield (Swansea University, Department of Biosciences, UK and Deakin University, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Australia); Dr. Magdy A. El-Alwany (Suez Canal University); Mr. Noor Noor (Nature Conservation Egypt); Dr. Mossa M. Ommeran (General Authority for Fish Resources Development); Eng. Basem Rabia (Zaranik Protected Area).

CONTACT DETAILS MEDASSET - Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles c/o 4, Ηillside Close, London NW8 OEF, UK | T: +44 2032866189 1c Licavitou St., 106 72 Athens, Greece | T/F: + 30 210 3613572 medasset@medasset.org www.medasset.org www.euroturtle.org NCE- Nature Conservation Egypt 3 Abdullah El Kateb (Hendawi St.) off Vinney Square, Dokki, Giza, 2nd Floor, Apt. 3. Egypt. Dr. Sherif Baha El Din: sherif_baha@hotmail.com www.sites.google.com/site/natconegy www.natureegypt.org Suez Canal University Faculty of Science, Department of Marine Science, Marine Environmental Center, Biology Building, 41522, Ismailia, Egypt T: +2- 064-320 68 03 |F: +2- 064-323 04 16 Dr. Magdy A. El-Alwany: magdy.elalwany@yahoo.com www.marinescience-scu.net CONTRIBUTORS & REVIEWERS

Dott.ssa F. Bentivegna, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn (IT); Dr. A. Broderick, University of Exeter & Marine Turtle Research Group (UK); Dr. G. El-Shabrawy, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (EG); Dr. M. Fishar, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (EG); Dr. M. Gomei, WWF Mediterranean Programme Office (IT); Dr. M. Hanafy, Suez Canal University (EG); Dr. S. Hochscheid, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn (IT); Mr. A. Jeudy de Grissac, IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation (ES); Dr. M. Kasparek, MEDASSET (UK); Prof. M. Khalil, Ain Shams University (EG); Dr. A. Mancini, Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation Association (EG); Dr. A. Marco, Doñana Biological Station (ES); Dr. S. Mehanna, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (EG); Ms. M. Otero, IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation (ES); Mr. A. Rees, University of Exeter (UK); Prof. S. Sabae, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (EG); Mr. A. Salem, GAFRD (EG); Mr. R. Snape, University of Exeter & Marine Turtle Research Group (UK); Mrs. Lily Venizelos, MEDASSET (GR); Ms. N. Wafa, League of Arab States (EG); Dr. T. Work, IUCN Wildlife Health Specialist Group & Marine Turtle Specialist Group (USA).

CITATION

Nada, M.A., L. Boura, K. Grimanis, G. Schofield, M. A. El-Alwany, N. Noor, M. M. Ommeran, B. Rabia. 2013. Egypt’s Bardawil Lake: safe haven or deadly trap for sea turtles in the Mediterranean? A report by MEDASSET, Suez Canal University and Nature Conservation Egypt. 79pp.

Reproduction and dissemination in full or in part of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorised without any prior written permission provided the source is fully acknowledged and cited. Cover page: © 2012 MEDASSET/NCE, Photo: M. Nada. Back page: ©2012 MEDASSET/NCE, Photos 1 & 4: N. Noor, Photos 2 & 3: M. Nada

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? DISCLAIMER

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere thanks to the staff of the GAFRD office in Bardawil for facilitating the field work of the co-authors. Thanks are due to Ms. S. Mahfouz of the FAO Near East & N. Africa Regional Office for providing relevant documents and resources from the FAO library in Cairo. Special thanks to the Marine Turtle Research Group for sharing unpublished data from sea turtle tracking projects and to Robin Snape for compiling these. We wish to thank Lily Venizelos, MEDASSET President, for the continued support and advice. Our gratitude is extended to Dr. J. Papajorgji of University of Florida for valuable advice on GIS and mapping. Thanks also go to MEDASSET volunteers E. Dimitra and S. Heung for contributing to report editing. Finally, we thank the fishermen in Lake Bardawil for their friendliness and openness in sharing views and concerns. MEDASSET warmly thanks the British Chelonia Group (BCG) for funding that enabled the 2-3 November 2012 survey and subsequent data analysis. Maps were created using Google Earth. Hawth's Tools and ArcGIS were used to create maps in section 4.1.

Please consider the environment before printing this document

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Nature Conservation Egypt (NCE) is a nongovernmental organisation that is dedicated to the conservation of Egypt's natural heritage and the promotion of its sustainable use for the benefit of the present and future generations. Birdlife International affiliate. Suez Canal University, Department of Marine Science. Suez Canal University was established in 1976. It has 28 faculties and many departments. The Department of Marine Science at Suez Canal University was established in 1982 and has grown rapidly to become a multidisciplinary department focusing on both teaching and applied research in marine science and aquaculture. The Department offers graduate programmes at the Ph.D. and M.Sc. level in biological, chemical and physical oceanography, which include research in coastal ecology and processes, biological oceanography and marine ecosystem modelling.

Founded in 1988 and with roots going back to 1983, MEDASSET - Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles - is an international environmental non-governmental organisation registered as a charity and private company in the UK and as a non profit organisation in Greece. MEDASSET plays an active role in the study and conservation of sea turtles and their habitats throughout the Mediterranean, through scientific research, environmental education, political lobbying and raising public awareness. Since 1988 the organisation has been a Permanent Observermember of the Bern Convention at the Council of Europe and Partner to the UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). In 2009, MEDASSET was awarded Partner status for the implementation of UNEP/MAPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Turtles in the Mediterranean. MEDASSET conducted the first survey to identify and record sea turtle nesting activity on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, in 1993. During 1998-2000 a project was implemented aiming to study the commercialisation of sea turtle blood and meat at the fish market of Alexandria, to raise awareness among fishermen and assist authorities in the enforcement of the ban of sea turtle trade and consumption.

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS & TABLES

LIST OF BOXES & FIGURES

PREFACE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES, METHODOLOGY & LIMITATIONS

CHAPTER ONE

SEA TURTLES ALONG THE EGYPTIAN MEDITERRANEAN COAST

CHAPTER TWO

ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER FOUR

CONTENTS

1.1 Habitats, species & key threats P.11 1.2 National legislation protecting sea turtles P.12 2.1 Location P.14 2.2 Physical features P.14 2.3 Climate & water features P.15 2.4 Species & protection status P.17

AUTHORITIES, LOCAL COMMUNITIES & ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 3.1 Administration & authorities P.19 3.2 Sociodemographic characteristics P.23 3.3 Employment, economic activities & development in N.Sinai P.23 3.4 Economic activities in Bardawil Lake P.25 3.5 Bardawil Lake fisheries production & fishing techniques P.28

SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

4.1 Sea turtles in Bardawil Lake P.34 4.2 Strandings press coverage P.36 4.3 Overview of stranding surveys P.37 4.4 Analysis of stranding survey findings P.39 4.5 Review of possible causes of sea turtle mortality P.47

CHAPTER FIVE

REFERENCES

ANNEX 1

International organisations for sea turtle conservation

ANNEX 2

International Conventions

ANNEX 3

Data gathering protocol used in November 2012 survey

ANNEX 4

2002-2011 fish production in Egypt

ANNEX 5

Bardawil Lake fish production data

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

LIST OF ACRONYMS CAPMAS CITES EAF EEAA FAO GAFRD GDP GoE IUCN LPC LEC MEDASSET NCE NCS NEAP NGO PA RAMSAR SCU UNDP UNEP

Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations General Authority for Fish Resources Development Gross Domestic Product Government of Egypt International Union for Conservation of Nature Local Popular Council Local Executive Council Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles Nature Conservation Egypt Nature Conservation Sector National Environmental Action Plan Non-Governmental Organisation Protected Area Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Suez Canal University United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. 2010 monthly average of meteorological elements Table 2. Water temperature in 2012 Table 3. Salinity levels in 2012

LIST OF BOXES 15

Box 1. Water circulation

Box 2. Key mandates of GAFRD

Box 3. Articles of Law No. 124/(1983) in violation of Egypt Constitution & ICESCR

Box 4. National fish production

Table 4. North Sinai governorate administrative division

Table 5. Economic activities in Egyptian coastal lakes

Box 5. Bottom trawlers in Bardawil Lake

Table 6. Fishing methods in Bardawil Lake

Table 7. Information about three sea turtles tracked from Cyprus to Bardawil Lake.

Box 6. Indicative press coverage of sea turtle mortality in Lake Bardawil Box 7. Discussion meeting

Table 8. October-November 2012 sea turtle strandings surveys

Box 8. Fieldwork specifications

Table 9. Summary of stranding information assimilated by surveyors

Box 9. Sea turtle and fisheries study specifications

Table 10. Decomposition scaling system

Box 10. Key guiding principles and lessons learned

Table 11. Size of 43 stranded sea turtles in Bardawil lake sub-areas

Table 12. 2011 landings per species per port Table 13. 1998-2011 fish production by species

Table 14. 2011 monthly fish production by species

LIST OF ACRONYMS

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Location of Bardawil Lake in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Figure 2. Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Mediterranean coastline.

Figure 3. Loggerhead turtle.

Figure 4. Green turtle

Figure 5. Bardawil Lake map

Figure 6. Bird species in Bardawil Lake.

Figure 7. Zaranik Protected Area boundaries.

Figure 8. North Sinai governorate administrative districts and main cities.

Figure 9. Location of North Sinai Development Project land reclamation blocks and open canal.

Figure 10a-b. Salt ponds in Bardawil Lake, near Agzewan fishing port.

Figure 11. Dummy birds to attract migrating birds in Bardawil Lake, near Agzewan fishing port Figure 12. Dummy birds to attract migrating birds in Bardawil Lake, east of Tolol fishing port. Figure 13. Pigeon used as bait to catch falcons in Bardawil Lake, west of Tolol fishing port. Figure 14. Zaranik Protected Area land use map.

Figure 15. Fishing ports in Bardawil Lake

Figure 16. Bardawil Lake 2011 monthly catch by fish group. Figure 17. Sea bream, sea bass, crab and shrimp catch in 1982-2011.

Figure 18. View of Tolol fishing port. Fishing equipment in forefront Figure 19. Fishermen preparing nets in Tolol fishing port. Figure 20. Fish and crustacean catch

Figure 21. North Sinai towns & cities

Figure 22. Movements of three sea turtles in Bardawil Lake based on telemetry data

Figure 23. Survey areas and location of sea turtle strandings in Bardawil Lake.

Figure 24a-d. Examples of turtles pertaining to the four decomposition level categories.

Figure 25. Overview of all stranding records per area Figure 26. Decomposition levels of sea turtle carcases indicating possible time of death

Figure 27. No. of turtles found stranded in each lake sub-area with respect to decomposition levels Figure 28. Stranded leatherback Figure 29. Stranded live green turtle with head injury Figure 30. Sea turtle species identified.

Figure 31. Fishing boat light bulbs on Bardawil Lake shore, west of Tolol fishing port

Figure 32. Recently decapitated turtle found near Agzewan fishing port.

Figure 33. Two live stranded loggerhead turtles found floating in lake Bardawil in October 2012

Figure 34. Potential causes leading to possible intentional sea turtle killing

LIST OF FIGURES

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

PREFACE The current document and collaboration was prompted by the appearance of press articles in Egyptian media reporting on “mass deaths of sea turtles on the north coast of Sinai, Egypt” in October 2012.

How to use this report

Mr. N. Noor of Nature Conservation Egypt alerted MEDASSET, which in coordination with its representative in Egypt, Dr. M. Nada, collaborated with Dr. M. El-Alwany of Suez Canal University to investigate these reports. A fact-finding mission to Bardawil Lake was organised on 2-3 November 2012, in collaboration with the local fisheries authority (GAFRD) and Zaranik Protected Area staff. MEDASSET commissioned Dr. G. Schofield for the analysis of the data collected during the mission.

Chapter 1 summarises existing knowledge on sea turtles in the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, the threats recorded and protection afforded to the species at national level.

Prior to the report’s release, the document was circulated during June 2013 among numerous Egyptian and international experts and stakeholders for feedback. Reviews and comments were analysed and integrated into the report prior to its final release.

The report starts with an introduction to sea turtle conservation and the assessment’s objectives, methodology and limitations.

Chapter 2 provides key ecological and protection information on Bardawil Lake. Chapter 3 briefly presents the regional and local socioeconomic and institutional context that influences conservation of Bardawil Lake, as well as an overview of the main economic activities in the lake, making special focus on fishing activities. While the information in Chapters 2-3 is based on existing literature, new information arising from the November 2012 mission is also presented and is highlighted in blue. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the sea turtle stranding surveys in Bardawil Lake and analyses the possible causes of the sea turtle deaths. Drawing on the information in Chapters 2-4, conclusions and recommendations are presented in Chapter 5.

“

For MEDASSET, within the framework of its sea turtle conservation programmes in the Mediterranean, the current initiative’s aim was to verify media reports and present useful information for decision making and conservation planning that will safeguard the sea turtle populations using Egyptian waters. In addition, the current document will hopefully prove informative and useful to all stakeholders involved in sea turtle conservation in Egypt, the Mediterranean and beyond.

”

- Lily Venizelos, MEDASSET President, Member of IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group

PREFACE

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This collaboration was initiated due to articles in Egyptian media in October 2012 reporting “mass deaths” of sea turtles in Bardawil Lake, located on the Mediterranean coast of North Sinai, Egypt. Aiming to further investigate media reports, a rapid field survey was carried out on 2-3 November 2012 to search for dead or injured sea turtles in the lake area and interview key informants. Prior to the two-day survey in November, different subsections of the lake had been surveyed seven times during October 2012. Data were assimilated and analysed in conjunction with a literature review. This report provides information about the sea turtle mortality, determines potential causes and proposes actions to reduce mortality and improve conservation efforts. New scientific information on sea turtle presence in the lake area deriving from the strandings is also presented. STRANDING SURVEY FINDINGS

Being migratory species, sea turtles use multiple habitats across the Mediterranean throughout their long life cycle, and are therefore a shared responsibility of all coastal countries. All three species of sea turtle occurring in the Mediterranean, the loggerhead, the green and the leatherback turtle, are endangered due to human activities and as such are protected through international and national legislation. The health and size of a sea turtle population may serve as a useful indication of the health of marine and coastal habitats.

Bardawil is an enclosed, hypersaline and shallow water body, connected to the Mediterranean Sea via three small inlets. Renowned as an important area for migratory birds, it hosts diverse habitats and wildlife. Bardawil is listed as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, and its eastern part was afforded national protection in 1985 (Zaranik Protected Area). Sea turtles are known to nest in low numbers on the outer Mediterranean shores of the lake; however, little is known about sea turtle presence inside the lake.

Assimilation of the survey findings shows that in total 80–100 dead sea turtles were documented. However, this value may be an underestimate as the lake seabed and about 78% of the lake shoreline was not surveyed.

Other than sea turtle carcasses, the rapid survey documented signs of bird hunting, illegal fishing methods and coastal litter, although the latter was not widespread.

Analysis showed that there was no single “mass stranding event”, rather, the carcases accumulated along the shores over an extended period of time, of at least 6 months, possibly longer. Nevertheless, it still stands that a large number of turtles is being washed ashore, either as a series of multiple strandings or as ongoing strandings. The fact that 16 strandings most probably occurred in just one month (October 2012), raises concern.

Taking into account limitations, the immediate cause of death of the 80-100 sea turtles remains subject to further investigation. Nonetheless, synthesis of the compiled information allows for likely causes to be suggested here.

Sea turtle mortality in Bardawil Lake affects all three species of sea turtle found in the Mediterranean: the vast majority of the strandings were loggerheads; however, a few dead greens and one leatherback were also identified. Of scientific and management interest is that the strandings contribute novel information about the possible presence of adults and sub-adults in the lake, and its potential use as a foraging or wintering habitat for different age classes of turtles. Interviewed fishermen claimed to have observed mating activity within the lake, and reported a perceived increase in sea turtle numbers in the lake in relation to the past; however, these statements require further scientific validation. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

MORTALITY CAUSES

Some turtles may have died due to natural factors such as low energy reserves or buoyancy disorders. Excessive salinity levels or toxic algal blooms might make the lake physiologically intolerable to turtles during summer. However, other flora and fauna would have also been impacted, which does not appear to have happened. With few pollution sources or polluting activities affecting the lake, and based on the water analysis results of the national lake environmental assessment programme, pollution does not seem to be a likely cause of mortality. Death due to litter ingestion cannot be excluded, but it is unlikely to be the main cause of multiple or ongoing strandings. Other than salt production, fishing is the main human activity in the lake. Globally, there is growing concern that small scale fisheries are impacting sea turtle populations; hence, a key aim Page | 5

EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? of the November 2012 fieldwork was to interview fishermen. Interviews showed that turtle-vessel collision occurs, and that turtles interact with fishing gear. Most importantly, interviews documented a widespread hostile attitude of fishermen towards sea turtles and their increased, as they perceive it, presence in the lake. Few fishermen admitted intentionally killing turtles. Only five of the 16 recently dead turtles exhibited evident signs of human-induced external damage (head trauma); therefore, there is no conclusive evidence to support whether this activity is common practice. Several fishermen claimed that other fishermen were using illegal poisoned bait; however, there is no physical evidence to support these statements. Turtle consumption was also reported but is not widespread and is not deemed causal. The fishermen attributed their negative feelings towards turtles to gear damage and impact on fishing effort. Interviews documented low awareness and misconceptions regarding sea turtle biology, their ecological value and protected status. The report further suggests that there are also several underlying causes that aggravate fishermenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitudes. Ineffective law enforcement, overfishing and the depletion of commercially important fish stocks, along with the use of illegal and destructive fishing methods by some fishermen, may further explain an increased level of conflict between fishermen and non-target wildlife species competing with the fishing effort, such as sea turtles. At the root of these problems is the failure of existing fisheries and conservation policies, approaches and institutional setup to effectively manage both the economic and the ecological value of Bardawil Lake. In addition, the current framework is unable to sufficiently involve the marginalised local Bedouin community in decisionmaking and lake management processes, or to offer diversified livelihood options and sustainable development opportunities in an area that sits in a geopolitically important and complex region. FUTURE NEEDS There is an urgent need for coordinated action to fully clarify the frequency and causes of strandings in the lake, which would allow for targeted measures to reduce mortality. This requires establishing regular and standardised stranding surveys. The report provides suggestions on survey EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

design and required additional tests, based on lessons learned from the current assessment. In parallel, public consultation and awareness raising activities should be urgently implemented to start working towards amending misconceptions and ending the intentional killing of protected sea turtle and bird species. In the midterm, it is important to establish regular and standardised monitoring surveys to document sea turtle breeding, foraging and/or wintering activity in the lake in full, in conjunction with a thorough bycatch assessment. The current report provides further details about proposed surveys. An updated, in-depth livelihood analysis of the local fisheries community is also essential to support the necessary decision-making process redesign, the capacity building, awareness raising and livelihood diversification interventions to resolve poverty and vulnerability issues. This two-fold approach would fill knowledge gaps and allow for implementation of integrated management measures. National declaration of the whole lake as a (marine) protected area should be considered based on the study results and extensive consultation. Although the entire lake is a Ramsar site, only its eastern section, Zaranik, is currently protected by national law. For the protected area to fulfil its mandate, its management plan, which was produced in 2002 and is currently in use, requires updating. At the policy level, laws penalising anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity and enforcement mechanisms should be revised for effectiveness, and authority responsibilities should be respecified. The legal and policy framework of the national fisheries authority should be revised for consistency with international objectives for responsible fisheries. Structures and available resources need to be reassessed to ensure international commitments are fulfilled. In the longterm, decentralisation of authority functions to the local level and empowerment of local communities and civil society is needed. In conclusion, this report reiterates the high ecological and socioeconomic value of Bardawil Lake. It supports existing calls for urgent action to implement bottom-up, ecosystem-approach management and regulation in Bardawil Lake, improve conservation and fisheries policies, law enforcement, and coordination among responsible authorities, especially in light of the future completion of the North Sinai Development Project, which may further impact the lake ecosystem. Page | 6

EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

INTRODUCTION Sea turtles are emblematic “flagship” species that inspire coastal and marine conservation and are regarded as a “keystone” or “indicator” species, meaning that their extinction should cause serious concern regarding the health of the oceans. Their intricate biological cycle makes them an “umbrella” species for conservation, as their protection leads to the preservation of multiple habitats and linked ecosystems. Being migratory throughout their lives, sea turtles use different habitats at different life-stages, which occur transnationally; therefore, they are a shared responsibility of all coastal countries of the Mediterranean. In order to avoid extinction, sea turtles require protection at all life-stages and in all habitats and migratory corridors that they frequent. As sea turtles are long-lived animals (lifespan estimated to approx. 100 years) with delayed maturity, these protective measures need to be systematic and long-term. Although they have natural predators, by far the greatest threat in the Mediterranean to these ancient mariners are human activities, such as habitat loss and degradation (tourism, coastal and marine development), pollution, collision with vessels, fisheries (bycatch, illegal fishing techniques, intentional killing) and exploitation (for consumption or production of artefacts). In addition, sea turtles are also highly likely to be adversely affected by the impacts of climate change. 1 Sea turtle species are classified under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2 as being: • Endangered [EN]: loggerhead (Caretta caretta); green (Chelonia mydas). 3 • Critically Endangered [CR]: leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea); hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata); Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii)

as guidelines and manuals on research, rehabilitation and conservation methods, legislative and institutional aspects, etc. Three of the seven species of sea turtles are found in the Mediterranean. The loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest in the Mediterranean, and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) is an occasional visitor. Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) have very rarely been recorded entering the Mediterranean Sea. Loggerheads mainly nest in Greece, Turkey, Libya and Cyprus, and also in smaller numbers in Egypt, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Tunisia and Italy (see next page for map). Green turtles mainly nest in Turkey, Cyprus and Syria; a few nests are also recorded in Lebanon, Egypt and Israel. Important feeding, developmental and overwintering areas have been identified, however further research is needed regarding at-sea habitats, as the main proportion of research and conservation effort was initially dedicated to nesting beaches. Broderick et al. (2002) estimated that only about 2,280-2,787 loggerhead and 339-360 green adult female turtles nest in the Mediterranean. Casale & Margaritoulis (2010) estimate that, based on surveys conducted to date, the average number of nests is 7,200/year for loggerheads and 1,500/year for green turtles. 5 Dissemination of research results, advocacy and awareness raising campaigns have led to increased public concern for turtle conservation and to the establishment of several regional and international conventions and institutions that aim to ensure the implementation of conservation policies for the species. Annex 1 of the current document presents the key international organisations involved in sea turtle protection.

Sea turtles have been studied for more than four decades in the Mediterranean 4 and there is a great number of scientific publications available, as well 1

Poloczanska et al. 2009 Version 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org 3 Green turtles in the Mediterranean were previously listed as a critically endangered regional subpopulation by the IUCN Red List; the subpopulation was de-listed due to changes in the Red List criteria. 4 Groombridge 1990; Margaritoulis et al. 2003 2

INTRODUCTION

An individual female turtle lays a minimum of 2 clutches a year, depending on a range of biotic and abiotic parameters.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Figure 1. Location of Bardawil Lake in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.

OBJECTIVES, METHODOLOGY & LIMITATIONS Objectives The aim of the current report is to shed light on the mortality of sea turtles in Bardawil 6 Lake reported by the media in October 2012, investigate the potential causes and provide useful recommendations to reduce mortality and promote sea turtle conservation in the area, while taking into account the local socioeconomic conditions and the institutional framework relevant to sea turtle conservation. The aim of the fact-finding field survey to Bardawil Lake in November 2012 was to (1) verify media reports on ‘mass deaths of sea turtles’; (2) identify the scale of the incident and if it was indeed a mass incident or not; (3) investigate what action had been taken so far by stakeholders and authorities to address the issue, collect any available evidence they may hold (data, photographs etc.); and (4) record their conclusions and views.

Also known as: (Al) Bardaweel, Bardawel. Known as Serbonis lake in antiquity (Herodotus, Histories Book III 450-420 BC).

OBJECTIVES, METHODOLOGY & LIMITATIONS

Methodology and limitations The methods used include: desktop review; rapid field survey at Bardawil Lake, in-depth interviews with key informants, and facilitation of a roundtable discussion with key experts at the national level. The desktop review was divided into five main themes. The first focused on the status of marine turtles in Bardawil Lake and the Mediterranean coast of North Sinai governorate. The second theme focused on assessing the environmental status of the lake and the socioeconomic conditions of the communities residing around the lake. The third theme involved investigating the status of fisheries in the lake and the policies and approaches adopted for the management of these fisheries. The fourth theme mainly focused on documenting the press coverage of the “mass mortality incidence” and analysing its content. The final theme focused on the legal and institutional framework governing sea turtle conservation in Egypt, and the key institutions with a role in governing Bardawil Lake.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? The shores of Bardawil Lake were surveyed on 2-3 November 2012. On the first day, the shores to the east and west of Tolol 7 fishing port were surveyed. On the second day, the team surveyed the shores to the east and west of Agzewan fishing port (see Fig. 15 for fishing port locations). The survey was predominately undertaken on foot, with the exception of areas that were very muddy in which case the team used a boat that moved very close and in parallel to the lake shores. The data gathering protocol used during the survey can be found in Annex 3. The semi-structured interviews were conducted with four sets of informants: 1. Fishermen from Tolol and Agzewan fishing ports. Forty eight fishermen were interviewed by the survey team. All fishermen interviewed were male, as fishing in the lake is maledominated. All interviews were face-to-face interviews, and they were either conducted at the fishing port or at encounters during the lake survey. 2. Interviews with key representatives from the Environment Protection and Development Association in Bir el-'Abd, 8 which is the only non-governmental organisation around Bardawil Lake engaged in sea turtle conservation. 3. Key stakeholders involved in the conservation of Bardawil Lake, including: the head of the Bardawil Lake branch of the General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD); senior representatives of the GAFRD Bardawil Lake branch; the head of the Zaranik Protected Area. 9 4. Key local experts in marine biology and conservation, including Prof. Dr. Mostafa Fouda (former Director of Nature Conservation Sector of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency) and Dr. Mahmoud Hanafy (Professor of marine biology at the Suez Canal University and Chief Technical Advisor of HEPCA). 10

Also known as El Telol, Talol, Tilul Also known as Bir el Abed, Beer el Abd, Ber el Abd 9 Also known as El-Zaraneek 10 HEPCA - Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation association- is an NGO specialized in the field of marine and land conservation, founded by 12 representatives of the diving community in response to serious environmental threats affecting the Red Sea’s diverse ecosystem. 8

OBJECTIVES, METHODOLOGY & LIMITATIONS

A roundtable discussion was organised on 22 January 2013, at NCE's office in Cairo. Different methods were used for collecting primary and secondary data, with the aim to cross-check information and to ensure that the limitations associated with one method were compensated by the other. Key limitations: The main limitation of the desktop review is the very limited availability of resources or literature assessing the socio-economic condition of the Bardawil lake fishermen community and their livelihood options and strategies. In addition, there are no catch records available for the recreational sector, which fishermen in Bardawil Lake reported as occurring frequently. Face-to-face interviews only provide the views of one person, and thus the researcher has to reach a conclusion by linking and analysing all these views. However, personal interviews provide a pressurefree venue for the person interviewed to expresses him/herself. On the other hand, in focus groups, where people have the chance to interact with each other and provide a collective view, interviewees can be intimidated against freely expressing their views. A limitation encountered was not being able to interview the spouses of the fishermen or women indirectly involved in fishing in the lake, as a result of the conservative culture norms of the Bedouin community. These interviews could have provided more in depth information about the fishermen livelihood strategy and the community attitude towards sea turtle conservation. Due to the time constraints of the field work, fishermen at the Nasr, Nagala and the Zaranik Protected Area fishing ports within the lake were not interviewed. A central limitation was not being able to interview key stakeholders located in Arish city, 11 as scheduled for the third day of the mission (4 November 2012). A terrorist attack occurred in Arish on the 3rd of November, killing three police officers and initiating a heated demonstration by local citizens about the status of safety in their city. It is worth mentioning that the number of terrorist attacks in Sinai, especially in Arish, Sheikh Zuwayed 12 and near the Egyptian borders, has been escalating in the past 11

Arish or El-Arīsh is the capital and largest city of the North Sinai governorate (see Fig. 8 & 21 for location) 12 Also known as (Al) Shaykh Zuwayid, Sheikh Zowaed/Zuwaid/Zowayed (see Fig. 8 & 21 for location)

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? two years. The cancelled interviews were with representatives of the north Sinai Governorate, civil society originations, as well as representatives of the private sector involved in tourism. Interviews with the latter were expected to provide important insight about the feasibility of expanding ecotourism activities to Bardawil Lake and its subsequent impact on the Bedouin communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s livelihood options. During the rapid field survey at Bardawil Lake, the team intended to undertake necropsies and collect samples for toxicological tests, to assess the poisoning hypothesis stated in the Egyptian press.

OBJECTIVES, METHODOLOGY & LIMITATIONS

However, the surveyors did not encounter a recently dead turtle (within the last 24 hours); the only relatively recently dead turtle had been clearly slaughtered, and one was estimated to have died about 2-5 days ago but the team was unable to collect samples for toxicological tests. Also, the team was unable to collect and study previous toxicological and necropsy results. Lastly, several limitations were encountered in relation to the data and photographic records compilation and analysis; these are presented in detail in section 4.4.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Figure 2. Egypt’s Mediterranean coastline.

CHAPTER ONE: SEA TURTLES ALONG THE EGYPTIAN MEDITERRANEAN COAST 1.1.

Habitats, species and key threats

Loggerhead and green turtles nest on parts of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast; however, compared to other nesting areas in the Eastern Mediterranean, nesting numbers are considered low. Two surveys have investigated turtle nesting in Egypt. 13 The first survey (1993) covered the western coast between El Sallum 14 and Alexandria, 15 while the second survey covered the entire coast (1998-2000). 16 Surveys concluded that nesting of both species on the coast west of Alexandria occurs in low numbers, with nests scattered along the coastline. As for the area ranging from Alexandria to Port Said, no evidence of nesting was found, however, highest density of dead stranded turtles (0.138/km) of both species (18 loggerhead, 1 green, 4 unidentified) was recorded in 1998, suggesting that sea turtles frequent inshore waters. 17 The main nesting area for both species along the entire Egyptian Mediterranean coast is a 22 km stretch of sandy coastline of the Sinai Peninsula, west of Arish city, of which 8 km lies within the boundaries of the Zaranik Protected Area, a protected section of 13

Mostafa & Nasser (2006) reported carrying out field surveys on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt during spring 2003 and recording presence of C. caretta, C. Mydas and D. coriacea. 14 Egypt’s first Marine Protected Area on the Mediterranean coast. Also know as (El) Salloum, Sallum, Salum 15 Kasparek 1993a, b 16 Clarke et al. 2000 17 Clarke et al. 2000

Bardawil Lake information). 18

(see

Chapter

for

Important inshore and nearshore foraging grounds exist beyond the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. Benthic habitats were found in the Nile delta, indicated by the relatively high number of incidental captures in bottom trawlers. 19 Out of the 20 green turtles equipped with satellite transmitters when nesting on Cyprus, 11 were tracked to the western coast of Egypt beyond Alexandria. 20 Turtles have been tracked to Egypt from other areas of the Mediterranean too, including Syria, 21 showing that this region might support both loggerhead and green turtle wintering/foraging habitats from multiple breeding areas. Fishermen reported finding flipper tags from Cyprus rookeries, 22 and genetic markers also showed connectivity with rookeries located in Turkey and Greece. 23 Dead leatherback strandings have been reported by Clarke et al. (2000) and Nada & Casale (2008). The key threats for sea turtles across the Egyptian Mediterranean coast are predominately bycatch, direct take and pollution. Regarding natural threats, Simms et al. (2002) reported ghost crab predation on hatchlings in the Sinai region of Egypt.

Clarke et al. 2000 Laurent et al. 1996 20 Broderick et al. 2007 21 Rees et al. 2008 22 Nada & Casale 2008 23 Casale et al. 2008; Laurent et al. 1998 19

CHAPTER ONE: SEA TURTLES ALONG THE EGYPTIAN MEDITERRANEAN COAST

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? recent assessment concluded that the attitudes towards consuming sea turtles differed dramatically among regions and between individuals: fishermen in Alexandria are more likely to consume or trade sea turtles, while fishermen from the rest of the Egyptian Mediterranean areas were not interested in consuming sea turtles. 25 Pollution: Kasparek (1993a,b) found that the coasts between Alexandria and El Sallum were badly polluted with crude oil and plastic rubbish washed ashore, mainly originating from Egypt, Italy and Greece. Clarke et al. (2000) also found the entire coastline to be polluted with non-biodegradable debris, such as plastic, rubber and nylon; the most polluted being the western coastal region (west of Alexandria). Figure 3. Loggerhead turtle. ©A.diBello Bycatch: two assessments were conducted to examine the impact of bycatch on sea turtles along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. Laurent et al. (1996) studied mortality induced by trawling activity, and concluded that the total number of captured turtles per year in Egypt by trawling was high, with a mortality rate of 0-10%. Nada & Casale (2011) focused on the most common fishing techniques used by the Egyptian fishing fleet along the Mediterranean coast, concluding that an estimated 5,278 turtles are captured every year (2,269 turtles/year in bottom trawlers; 2,218 turtles/year in longlines; 754 turtles/year in set nets; 37 turtles/year in purse seines). Direct take: Sea turtle trade for consumption is a well known and long-lived practice in Egypt, for both loggerhead and green turtles, especially in the fish markets of Alexandria. 24 Clarke et al. (2000) found evidence of egg consumption in northern Sinai and signs of human disturbance were recorded at 10 nests during their survey. Nada (2001) conducted an assessment of the trade of sea turtles in El Anfoshi fish market in Alexandria, finding that an average of six turtles per week and 135 turtles over a six month period were seen on display for sale, with an increasing trend starting in December and peaking in May (18-25 turtles per week). The majority of turtles on sale were adult female loggerheads. Fishmongers and fishermen indicated that the number of turtles captured further increased during summer time. A more

Development that leads to the degradation of the identified low-density nesting beaches (e.g. coastal development at tourism destinations along the North Sinai coast) and/or inshore marine habitats also negatively affects the sea turtle populations using these habitats. Integrated coastal zone management, protected areas designation and management can help monitor and mitigate these impacts.

1.2. National legislation protecting sea turtles Egypt is party to almost all relevant international and regional conventions focusing on biodiversity conservation, which include specific provision for the protection of sea turtles. Annex 2 provides an overview of these. Despite the adoption of international and regional conventions protecting biodiversity, the Egyptian government has a poor record in fulfilling these obligations and turning them into tangible actions with specific targets. This is a result of weak institutional mechanisms at the national level with the mandate to oversee the fulfilment of Egypt’s obligations under these conventions. For example, Egypt’s record of noncompliancy regarding CITES implementation has led the convention’s Standing Committee to threaten with notifying other CITES parties to suspend trade with Egypt. 26 CITES reports the situation has recently improved slightly, but highlights the lack of resources available for enforcement. 27

25 24

Laurent et al. 1996; Venizelos & Nada 2000; Flower 1933; Venizelos & Kallonas 1999

Nada & Casale 2011 CITES 1999 27 CITES 2010 26

CHAPTER ONE: SEA TURTLES ALONG THE EGYPTIAN MEDITERRANEAN COAST

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Several national laws are relevant to sea turtle conservation: •

• •

•

Law No. 53/1966 (the Agriculture Law): Species protection, mainly birds beneficial to agriculture, but also those which are globally threatened. Law No. 124/1983 (on Catching Fish and Aquatic Life): Regulates hunting at lakes, fish farms and other inland wetlands. Law No. 102/1983 (for Natural Protectorates): Protects habitats important for biodiversity and prohibits hunting in these areas. This law explicitly prohibits any action that would endanger species or destroy landscapes within the protected areas. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is the competent body for the implementation of the law. The law states that each protected area should be administered by a manager, rangers, researchers and a scientific consultant. Law No. 4/1994 (for the Environment): This is the most significant piece of legislation issued to date to control environmental degradation and pollution, and includes provisions concerning international conventions, Environmental Impact Assessment procedures, hunting management and species protection. It also explicitly forbids the hunting, shooting, catching, possession, transport and sale of wild birds and other animals listed in Decree No. 28/1967 (issued in implementation of the provisions of article 117 of Agriculture Law No. 53/1966) or by international conventions to which the Arab Republic of Egypt adheres. Violation shall be fined with a sum of not less than 200 Egyptian pounds and not more than 5,000 Egyptian pounds. In addition, birds and animals seized as well as equipment used shall be confiscated.

impact of fisheries on biodiversity. Several recommendations were presented, including the importance of reforming and enhancing the organisational capacity of the biodiversity sector at the EEAA as well as enhancing the engagement of different stakeholders in the conservation process. Regional Environmental Action Plans exist at the Governorate level. A National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management was created through Law 4/1994. The committee was given the task of developing an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) programme. The Priority Actions Programme Regional Activity Centre (PAP/RAC) assisted the EEAA to prepare a National ICZM Strategy in 2009, and following three workshops, a first draft National ICZM Strategy was compiled and submitted to EEAA for approval. 28 The authors are unaware if the ICZM Strategy has been officially adopted or if it is under implementation. National laws for nature and biodiversity conservation are often overlooked due to lack of awareness as well as the very weak enforcement mechanism in place. Baha El Din (2005) argues that “the existing legislation is inadequate to control illegal hunting and laws are outmoded, inadequate, have little scientific basis, and in most instances does not specify a system for implementation. Furthermore, the penalties for violations of the law are too low (often based on past standards) and are insufficient to act as deterrents”.

The EEAA was created in 1982 and its mandate further reinforced by Law No. 4/1994. It established a National Biodiversity Unit at the Nature Conservation Sector of the EEAA in 1992, and published the National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation in 1998. The Nature Conservation Sector is responsible for protected areas management. A National Environmental Action Plan (2002–2017) was produced through the Egyptian-Italian Environmental Cooperation Program (Phase I and II). The strategy identifies some of the key challenges related to the northern lakes and the

Figure 4. Green turtle. ©D.Schrichte

PAP/RAC – EEAA 2009

CHAPTER ONE: SEA TURTLES ALONG THE EGYPTIAN MEDITERRANEAN COAST

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Figure 5. Bardawil Lake map: sandbar inlets (arrows), main road (yellow line) and Zaranik Protected Area border (white polygon)

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE 2.1.

Location

Bardawil is a coastal lake/lagoon 29 that stretches across most of the Mediterranean coastline of the Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula. 30 The surrounding area is known as the eastern gate to Egypt, and has a long history of being a bridge between Africa and Asia. It is estimated that no less than 40 armies have crossed this area, and relics from various eras are still present until this day around the lake and on its small islands. 31

2.2.

Physical features

Bardawil is of tectonic origin, unlike other Mediterranean Egyptian lagoons and lakes, such as Idku, Burullus and Manzala, which are of deltaic origin due to the Nile River Delta. The lake’s length is approximately 76.37 km (extending from 31°03`N to 31°14`N, and 32°40`E to 33°30`E) and has a 29

The word ‘lake’ and ‘lagoon’ is used interchangeably in this document. Coastal lagoons are water bodies separated from the sea by a land barrier, and are connected with the sea via one or many inlets. They are often located in areas with a low topographical level and small or moderate tidal changes, and constitute approximately 13% of the total world coastline (Farnworth & Golley 1974, Oertel 2005). 30 Sinai Peninsula is located in the far north-eastern part of Egypt. The triangular-shaped Peninsula is bordered eastwards by the Gaza strip, the Negev Desert and the Gulf of Aqaba, westwards by the Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal, and northwards by a 250 km Mediterranean Sea coastline. It represents approximately 6% of the total (1 million km2) land area of the country. 31 El Badry 2003

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

maximum width of 16.65 km, occupying a total surface of approx. 518.99 km2. 32 Several researchers have pointed out that the lake surface area has been decreasing in the past two decades (in 1991 the area was 600 km2). 33 According to Zahran & Willis (2009), the lake’s size is affected by moving sand and the lake is thus considered to be a playa rather than a typical lake. Playas (highly saline flats known as sabkhas) and islands cover approximately 14-15% of the lake’s area. 34 As regards bathymetry, 0.5% of the total area is deeper than 2.5-3 m (in front of inlets); 16.5% is between 1.5 m and 2.5 m; 62% is between 1 m and 1.5 m; and 21% is less than 1 m at the southern and eastern sections of the lake. 35 Bardawil Lake is separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a sandbar that ranges from 0.3–1 km in width, and is approximately 80 km long. 36 The sandbar has a natural opening: the eastern inlet in the Zaranik Protected Area (PA), which has never been dredged and is closed occasionally due to silting. 37 There are two artificial openings, which were created in 1927: the western Boughaz 38 I and the central-eastern Boughaz II. 39 Seawater from the Mediterranean enters mostly through Boughaz I while the others are mainly water outlets. 40 32

Abd Ellah & Hussein 2009 Mageed 2006 34 Zahran & Willis 2009; El-Shabrawy & Al-Ghanim 2012 35 Abd Ellah & Hussein 2009 36 Frihy & Lofty 1997 37 El-Bana et al. 2002 38 Also known as Boghaz, Bughas or Bhugaz 39 Sabae 2006 40 Variy 1990 33

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Table 1. Monthly average of meteorological elements recorded by the Arish Station (2010) Max. Air Temp. ° C Min. Air Temp. ° C Humidity % Rainfall mm/month Source: CAPMAS (2010)

Jan 22.5 8.5 67 22.9

Feb 23.6 10.7 66 25.2

Mar 25.3 12.8 66 5.1

Apr 26.7 13.0 66 0.1

May 29.2 15.8 66 0

Table 2. Water temperature in 2012 (°C) Feb May Aug Nov min 14.92 23.00 27.00 24.70 max 17.81 26.20 32.00 28.50 Av. 16.23 24.63 29.63 26.13 Source: EEAA 2012b-e

2.3.

Climate and water features

Air temperature, humidity and rainfall recorded by the closest meteorological station are presented in Table 1. The lake’s water temperature in 2011 ranged from 14.92 °C to 34.10 °C with an average of 24.29 °C. 41 Table 2 presents 2012 water temperatures. The annual rainfall in the lake is about 82 mm whereas the annual evaporation is about 1600 mm. 42 The rainy season (November to April) brings strong winds, precipitation and low air temperatures to the lake. The dry season (May to October) is characterised by high air temperatures and scarce rainfall. 43 As regards water renewal, there is no major natural source of freshwater supply other than rainfall. This, together with the high evaporation levels, due to climatic conditions and the lake’s large water surface area in comparison to its small depth, means that without human intervention, the area would be a salty swamp, flooded only during the winter storms. 44 The artificial openings in the sandbar allowed for seawater inflow from the Mediterranean, thus lowering salinity levels and increasing water circulation and renewal. During 1969-71, when the two Boughaz were closed due to sand accumulation, salinity increased drastically reaching up to 110‰. 45 The openings are therefore considered very important for the overall ecology 41

EEAA 2012a Zahran & Willis 2009 43 Abd Ellah & Hussein 2009 44 Khalil & Shaltout 2006 45 Pisanty 1980; Abd Ellah & Hussein 2009; Khalil & Shaltout 2006

Jun 32.0 20.0 66 0

Jul 32.3 22.2 72 0

Aug 33.9 23.9 74 0

Sept 32.3 21.4 70 0.1

Oct 31.2 18.7 74 1.0

Nov 27.7 13.7 76 0

Dec 23.4 8.5 67 1.5

Table 3. Salinity levels in 2012 (mg/l) Feb May Aug Nov min 37.38 39.20 38.50 38.93 max 48.77 54.23 63.23 62.12 Av. 42.83 46.92 47.60 47.78 Source: EEAA 2012b-e

of the lake, particularly for fish production. 46 The shape and width of the openings are continuously changing as a result of water currents. In recent years, there have been several initiatives by the fisheries authorities, in the form of engineering interventions, to widen and deepen openings in order to tackle sediment build up. Despite the inflow of seawater, the lake water is saltier than the sea and therefore Bardawil Lake is considered hyper-saline. 47 In 2011, the lowest salinity level recorded was 37.38 mg/l, the highest was 65.59 mg/l and the annual average was 46.31 mg/l. 48 Table 3 presents salinity levels recorded during 2012. It should be noted that samples are taken every 3 months at 12 sampling points throughout the lake; the minimum and maximum readings are reported, as well as the average salinity of the lake. Spatial and temporal variations in salinity are observed, whereby higher salinity and fluctuations occur towards the southern part of the lake. Salinity is affected by the depth, prevailing winds, evaporation rate, salt production activities and, more importantly, the amount of seawater entering the lake. Water quality: Bardawil Lake is acclaimed as the least polluted of Egypt’s Northern Lakes 49 and has been regularly described as such in official reports, including the EEAA Annual Environmental Assessment Report on the Status of Egypt’s Northern Lakes (2012). According to this report, Bardawil Lake is completely free of wastewater and water test results were within normal ranges. With respect to bacteria, levels of faecal streptococci

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

Fanos et al. 1994 Abd Ellah & Hussein 2009 48 EEAA 2012a 49 Fanos et al. 1994 47

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? were above the standard at one of the twelve sampling points and the EEAA attributes this to the presence of fish or birds. Lotfy (2003), however, reported that the distribution of trace metals in the sediments of Bardawil Lake indicates that increasing levels of Cu, Pb and Cd were observed in the western sector of the lagoon which is affected by sea water circulation through Boughaz I, while Fe, Zn and Mn were observed in the eastern area which is affected by sea water circulation through Boughaz II. Yacoub and Abdel-Satar, (2003) studied the effect of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd) and macroelements (Na, K, Ca and Mg) in the liver tissues of four fish species (Solea vulgaris, Mugil cephalus, Liza ramada and Sparus aurata) in Bardawil Lake, and the authors concluded that the exchange rate of water in the lake is very limited, which results in the gradual accumulation of heavy metals. The impact of these heavy metals caused degeneration, ballooning degeneration, accumulation of hemosider in pigment and necrosis to fish. As regards the lakes’ plankton community, there are 227 phytoplankton species in Bardawil Lake; in 2005, Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae were the most abundant classes and a Chaetoceros spp bloom was recorded during the hot months (of which C. curvisetus is considered potentially harmful for fisheries and is listed among red tide species). 50 According to Saad (2006) Campylostylus striatus became a perennial and abundant species, which prefers unpolluted water and is an indicator of oligotrophic or beta-mesotrophic conditions. Copepoda, Protozoa, and Mollusca dominate the lagoon’s zooplankton community, which consists of 58 identified taxa; however, 33 taxa disappeared from the lagoon over a 20-year period (19852004). 51 El-Shabrawy (2006) notes that total mullet catches showed general negative trends and that the changes in zooplankton community structure may be one of main contributing factors.

Water transparency: The lake’s waters are generally clear and visibility fluctuates between 121 cm in winter and 175 cm in spring (Secchi disc average annual readings: 227.5 cm maximum and 89 cm minimum). 52 The increase in water transparency may be affected by the nature of the lake bottom, which is composed of sand and silt. 53 Transparency values decrease in front of opening I and II at the mixing point of the seawater with the lake water. 54 Box 1. Water circulation Tidal action is an important driving force for the water circulation within a lagoon. In Bardawil Lake, the tide is the main governing force for the direction and magnitude of the seawater flow through the inlets, leading to currents around them. The tidal effect within the lagoon attenuates with the distance from the inlets. Inside the lagoon wind governs the internal water circulation and creates wind setup and setdown: water levels will experience a setup along the downwind shore and a setdown along the upwind shore. As a response to the downwind water level setup, a barotropic pressure gradient is established which gives rise to an upwind return flow that takes place in deeper water. The return flow is primarily resisted by bottom friction forces. The level of setup and setdown will depend on wind speed, duration and fetch length within the lagoon and the water depth. Water renewal time was estimated to be nine days, which is equivalent to a daily replaced volume of 53.000.000 m3. Long-term effects due to evaporation and precipitation are responsible for a residual inflow of 2.600.000 m3/day. Source: Linnersund & Mårtensson, 2008.

52 50

Konsowa 2007 51 Mageed 2006

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

Khalil et al. 2013 Levy 1971 54 Sabae 2006 53

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

2.4.

Species and protection status

Bardawil Lake is included in the Ramsar 55 List of Wetlands of International Importance (site number 407, 09/09/88) 56 and was added to the Montreux Record in 1990. 57 It is also designated as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International (site code EG001). 58 According to Egypt’s State Information Service, the 5-year MedWetCoast project and the EEAA, 59 244270 bird species have been recorded at Zaranik Protected Area and the Bardawil Lake at large, many of which are endangered. Ten terrestrial mammal species have been recorded (e.g. Gerbillus gerbillus, Jaculus jaculus, Hemiechinus auritus, Psammomys obesus), two of which are endangered: Fennec Fox Fennecus zerda and the sandcat Felis margarita. Seventeen species of flora have been recorded on the foreshore and islands including three endangered species: Zygophylluma egyptium, Plantago chamaepsyllum, and Allium crameri. The vegetation of the lake has a high number of endemic and monoregional taxa per area when compared with other Egyptian lakes. 60 Eighteen reptiles are present, including: Acanthodactylus longipes, Scincus scincus, Lytorhynchus diadema, Mesalina olivieri, Chalcides ocellatus, Sphenops sepsoides, Stenodactylus petrii, Cerastes vipera, Trapelus savignii, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, Varanus griseus, and Testudo kleinmanni. Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are the most common marine mammals observed beyond the outer shores of the lake. Sections 3.5 and 4.1 present information on fish species and sea turtle species present in the lake. Habitat types include open water, sea inlets (Bughaz), benthic habitats (which include aquatic plant species Ruppia cirrhosa, Cymodocea nodosa, Halodule uninervis), 61 salt ponds (sabkhas), mud flats, lake islands, and sand dunes (mobile, calcareous and non-calcareous stabilised). 55

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance RAMSAR 2012 57 RAMSAR 2011 58 BirdLife International 2013a 59 Source: Zaranik PA website accessed 2012-13 60 El-Bana et al. 2002 61 El-Bana et al. 2002 56

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

Figure 6. Bird species in Bardawil Lake.

Photos © B. Rabia

Zaranik Protected Area The Zaranik Protected Area (PA), declared in 1985 (Decree No. 1429), is the second oldest protected area in Egypt, in accordance with Law No. 102/1983 which provided the legal base for the establishment of protected areas in Egypt. The "adjacent area" to the reserve and its precise boundaries were officially declared in 1996 (Decree No. 3379). The PA is also designated as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International (site code EG002). 62 It is located in the eastern part of Bardawil Lake, encompasses 28 km of Mediterranean coast and extends over an area of 250km2 of which 68% is marine and 32% consists of sand dunes. The PA represents a unique example of Mediterranean coastal habitats as it includes a wide 62

BirdLife International 2013b

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? variety of ecosystems. It is known worldwide and was established with the objective of protecting the migratory birds passing through during autumn from Asia and Europe to Africa. It is an important staging area for migrating Palaearctic water birds and an important wetland for wintering birds. As regards human resources, the Zaranik PA staff consists of a manager and five researchers, a guard and administrative staff.

Figure 7. Zaranik Protected Area boundaries (yellow area). Salt ponds are marked in blue, red line is main road and villages are red dots. Source: EEAA website for Zaranik PA, accessed Jan. 2013. 63

Conservation activities 64

The 5-year MedWetCoast project included Zaranik PA among the project sites. Outputs included the PA Management Plan (2002), a preliminary site diagnosis for both biodiversity and socioeconomic activities, including design of a monitoring system for endangered plant and animal species and an inventory of land-use practices. The project also sought to promote sustainable economic activities in the area and mounted a public awareness campaign to educate local people on the importance of the Zaranik PA. 65

Additional information on Zaranik PA is available at: http://www.eeaa.gov.eg 64 MedWetCoast was a UNDP project funded by the Global Environment Facilities and the Fond Français pour l’Environnement Mondial. Starting in 1999, the 5-year project worked in 15 sites in: Albania, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Tunisia. Project websites: (a)http://vinc.s.free.fr (b)http://medwet.org/2010/03/medwetcoast-projectfor-the-conservation-of-wetlands-and-coastalecosystems-in-the-mediterranean-region/ 65 UNDP/GEF 1999

CHAPTER TWO: ECOLOGY OF BARDAWIL LAKE

Currently, the Zaranik PA undertakes the following conservation activities: • • • •

Bird, reptile, and mammal identification Sea turtle nesting surveys (Mediterranean coast) Study of Egyptian tortoise movement patterns Public awareness (university, children school, local community, fishermen)

The Global Environment Facility (Small Grants Programme) in Egypt has funded at least two projects focusing on Bardawil Lake. The first was a one-year project that started in 2005 and was titled “Contribution to Sustainable Management of Zaranik Protectorate and Bardawil Lake.” 66 The project focused on sustainable management of fisheries in the lake, through the training of relevant staff involved in monitoring programmes and through the establishment of database for biodiversity. A two-year project started in mid2010, entitled “Protecting Endangered Marine Turtles.” 67 The project trained 50 volunteers from the local community on monitoring and protection of sea turtles and awareness-raising among the fishermen community about the importance of turtles’ conservation. The project was implemented by the local organisation “Environment Protection and Development Association of Bir el-'Abd”. During the November 2012 survey, interviews were undertaken with staff working in the civil society organisation implementing the project. They highlighted that the project was coming to an end and there was no foreseen funding to continue the project and extend the awareness campaign. While the aim of the current assessment was not focusing on enquiring about the impact of the awareness campaign on knowledge, attitude, and behaviour of the fishermen, several fishermen noted that they have been engaged in awareness raising activities and benefited from the information provided, gaining an understanding of the life cycle of sea turtles and their importance to the ecosystem. Finally, within the MedPAN South Project, WWF supported EEAA with a small grant in 2009-10 to conduct a rapid evaluation of management effectiveness of Zaranik PA. 68

GEF Small Grants Programme 2012a GEF Small Grants Programme 2012b 68 WWF 2011 67

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

CHAPTER THREE: AUTHORITIES, LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 3.1.

Administration and authorities

Bardawil Lake belongs to the North Sinai governorate. 69 The North Sinai governorate is divided into six administrative districts named after their main city: Arish, Sheikh Zuwayed, Rafah, Bir el-'Abd, Hasna, and Nekhel. Each of these districts includes a number of agglomerations of villages and hamlets, which are made up of a number of communes (Table 4). Bardawil Lake is located in Bir el-'Abd district and Arish district. Table 4. North Sinai governorate administrative division Village aggloDistricts Cities Communes merations Arish 1 4 24 Sheikh 1 14 140 Zuwayed Rafah 1 11 45 Bir el-'Abd 1 23 89 Hasna 1 20 111 Nekhel 1 10 50 Total 6 82 459 Source: Local Administrative Units manual, Ministry of Local Development (2011)

In North Sinai, as in all governorates in Egypt, each local administration unit operates with two councils: the constitutionally established Local Popular Council (LPC) and the appointed Local Executive Council (LEC). 70 69

In 1979, Presidential Decree No. 84 divided Sinai administratively: the South Sinai with its capital at El-Tur and the North Sinai governorate with its capital at Arish lie exclusively within the Sinai Peninsula. Suez governorate covers the southern end of the Suez canal, Ismailia governorate is at the centre of the Suez canal and Port Said governorate lies at the north of the Suez canal with its capital at Port Said. 70 The members of LECs are government administrators, mostly representing central ministries that have decentralised some of their functions to the local level. At the governorate level, the LEC is headed by the governor who is appointed by the president of the state. For districts and cities LECs, they are both headed by an official appointed by the prime minster, and the villages LECs are similarly headed by an official that is appointed by the governors.

Figure 8. North Sinai governorate administrative districts and main cities (location marked by city seal). Source: North Sinai governorate website, 2013. The LPCs are directly elected every four years, and at least half of the members must be workers and peasants. Although the LPCs have been assigned functions according to the Administration Law No. 43/1979, the reality is that they have very limited power, lacking any meaningful role in the preparation of the budgets of the jurisdictions they represent. The role of the LPCs is restricted to “supervise” and “follow up” the competences assigned to the LEC rather than “provide” or “produce”, and their role in holding the LEC accountable is very much limited to the right of presenting a question to the LEC or the right to have a discussion with them. The main mandate of the LEC is preparing the proposed local unit socioeconomic plan (to be integrated into the national socioeconomic plan at the central level); preparing the proposed local unit budget; and assessing the performance of local administration projects and services. The members of the LEC are mainly representatives of the Ministries that have decentralised part of their competences to local government (such as the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, the Supreme Council of Youth, and the Supreme Council of Sports, etc.). The representatives of these Ministries report back to their Ministries and to the head of the local administration.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? After the recent political changes in Egypt, all LPCs have been abolished and have not been replaced by other councils or any legally recognised institution to perform their function and communicate the viewpoints of the locals, including the fishermen, to the LEC. Based on the interviews with the fishermen, it was clear that representation in LPCs was influenced with the relative weight of the different Bedouin tribes and families; however, there was general scepticism about the performance of the LPC members and their capacity to act as genuine representatives of the fishermen demands and rights. It was clear from the interviews that the revolution had a significant impact in shaking the long standing power structures within the fishermen community, and providing an enabling environment for new groups to emerge, mainly those representing political Islam, and to a lesser extent, youth groups calling for civil state.

Conservation authorities

• • •

Fisheries cooperatives and local Bedouin chiefs are also represented at management meetings.

Fisheries authorities Fisheries management in Egypt is controlled by the central government, and specifically the GAFRD, which is under the Ministry of Agriculture. Box. 2 presents GAFRD key mandates. GAFRD uses several methods to regulate fishing effort (such as fleet size, vessel size, engine power, gear dimensions, closed seasons and areas, minimum fish size) and is reported to promote the use of modern tools and equipment in order to improve the ability of vessels to fish in deep waters. 72 The GAFRD strategy for the development of fisheries has three main objectives: increase fish production; increase quality and exports to new markets; optimize the use of natural and human resources. 73

The Nature Conservation Section of the EEAA is responsible for Bardawil Lake as a RAMSAR site. The EEAA, with the support of the Danish International Development Assistance, developed an Environmental Action Plan of North Sinai Governorate in 1994-5 and updated it in 2007-8. The action plan points to the changes in the lake’s ecosystem, such as the recording of new snail and fish species and the gradual decline of others, and stresses the importance of thorough examination of the key causal factors and recommends projects that would assist in regaining ecological balance.

Box 2. Key mandates of GAFRD The GAFRD was established by Presidential Decree No. 190 (1983) as an economic authority. It has its own board, which develops its policy and strategies. According to the law, GAFRD is responsible for: (i) drafting fisheries and aquaculture legislation, (ii) development and management of fishery resources including aquaculture, (iii) renewing or issuing new licenses for fishing vessels, licenses for fishing, and leases for land holding aquaculture farms, (iv) monitoring and regulating transportation of fry and fingerlings between hatcheries and aquaculture farms, and (v) signing international treaties dealing with capture fisheries and aquaculture, (vi) supervising fishery cooperatives; collecting fry from collecting stations and redistributing them in inland lakes, (vii) producing statistical information on fish production, consumption and trade, and (viii) providing technical support to private farms whenever needed and manages fisheries and aquaculture in accordance with Law No. 124 for the year 1983.

The Nature Conservation Section of the EEAA also manages the Zaranik Protected Area (PA). As mentioned, a Management Plan for the PA was produced in 2002 71 and is in use, but has not been renewed. Nine entities are involved in the management of Zaranik PA, with different roles and levels of responsibility: • • • • • •

Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (includes fisheries authorities) Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Ministry of Defence Ministry of Housing and New Communities Ministry of Health

Source: Presidential Decree No. 190 (1983) and Law No. 124 (1983). 72

Kassas et al 2002

Ministry of Minerals and Petroleum The Governorate of Northern Sinai NGOs (mainly local)

FAO 2012b FAO 2012b

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Pramod & Pitcher (2006) reported that by-catch reduction of non-target species is limited. Stakeholders involved in fisheries are not usually identified nor considered by the central government and that only the government agenda of increasing fish production is considered and applied in fisheries management. In addition, datagathering and analysis is controlled at the central level and information is only disseminated to stakeholders when considered necessary. The accuracy of these data is frequently questioned and lack clear indicators related to social, economic and institutional factors affecting fisheries production and fishermen livelihood sustainability. The principal argument in Egypt in centralising the management of fisheries is that fishermen’s interest will always be geared towards expanding their catch and will not take notice of existing institutional arrangements, regulations, norms and traditions. According to this argument, fishermen will not be capable to cooperate voluntarily in the protection of their common resources. This rhetoric has been consciously giving very limited consideration to indigenous knowledge as a source of innovation and well-tested solutions to manage livelihood security and environmental sustainability. In addition, this argument fails to take into consideration the capacity of fishermen communities to design their own institutional arrangements in order to manage fisheries in a sustainable manner. The centralisation of fisheries management and decision-making negatively impacts on the institutional capacity at the local level, which directly impacts on the awareness levels of fishermen and results in low income, shortage of services, and absence of integrated management and monitoring of resources, lowering quality of life amongst Egyptian small-scale fishermen. 74 Bush & Sabri (2012) presented a detailed assessment of the impact of poor polices and the fragmented institutional setup governing the Northern lakes of Egypt on the vulnerability of fishermen and their livelihood options. The authors concluded that the current fishery management policies are driving fishermen away from fishing (which is their key livelihood option) instead of enabling them to diversify their livelihood options.

Raey 2004

The role of the fisheries cooperatives 75 There are five fishermen cooperatives in Bardawil Lake: El Sahal Cooperative; El Bardawil Cooperative; El Salam Cooperative; Al Arish Cooperative; and Six of October Cooperative. Fisheries cooperatives channel governmental subsidies, provide fishermen with fishing equipment, motors, spare parts and fishing nets, through loans with no interest rate. They also market the fish production on behalf of the fishermen and assist fishermen to meet their essential needs during closed seasons. The cooperatives collect license fees and fines from the fishermen and hand them to GAFRD, and also run an insurance scheme through which fishermen are insured against economic loss in case of accidents, loss of vessels, or death during fishing activity. While cooperatives provide crucial assistance to the fishermen, their role is predominately passive. They do not have an active role in voicing fishermen concerns and priorities and they are not seen as advocates for fishermen’s social and economic rights. The Cooperative Union is represented in the administrative board of GAFRD, however, this representation is not necessarily reflected in the ability of GAFRD to adopt policies that are pro the fishermen rights. More importantly, the fact that GAFRD was mandated by the law to be the entity that is responsible for supervising and regulating fishermen cooperatives activities has resulted in its dominance over the cooperatives mandates and functions. Human rights groups have been advocating for fishermen’s cooperatives to be categorized as civil associations, and therefore be placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Social Affairs and for the amendment of Law No. 123 (1983), which establishes and defines the legal foundation of fishermen cooperatives, as it is considered to breach the Egyptian Constitution and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which was ratified by Egypt (Box 3). 75

Cooperatives received an organisational structure during the 1980s with the establishment of the Union of Fishermen’s Cooperative, which in turn falls under the umbrella of the GAFRD. The fishery cooperative sector in Egypt includes 91 cooperative societies, with 90,000 members, 26,699 fishing motors, and sailing fishing boats, producing 90% of Egypt’s fishing production.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? The lack of pro-fishermen policies and the centralised and fragile institutional setup governing fisheries management in Egypt has resulted in an escalating feeling among the fishermen that they are not dealt with as stakeholders in the lake management and they do not share the responsibility with the GAFRD in co-managing the lake. This has led to overfishing, lack of resources to encourage recovery of the fishery, use of illegal fishing methods, and lack of human and financial Box 3. Articles of Law No. 124 (1983) in violation of Egyptian Constitution and ICESCR Article 2: No independent individual(s), other than governmental institutions, are allowed to establish a fishermen cooperative. This means that the government will always be the body responsible for regulating fishermen’s participation. Article 4: Under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture, the GAFRD is responsible for the implementation of the Law that regulates fishermen’s cooperatives, meaning that these cooperatives will always be under government supervision and fishermen will never be able to organise independent organisations and cooperatives. Article 5: The Minister of Agriculture is responsible for issuing the regulating rules for fishermen’s cooperatives upon recommendation of the GAFRD; therefore fishermen’s participation in formulating the regulations of their own cooperative is denied. Article 29: Members of the fishermen’s cooperative should own fishing gear, or at least be a partner. Therefore, fishermen who do not own fishing gear are not eligible to participate in the fishermen cooperative; this is considered a direct violation to article 40 of the Egyptian Constitution that equates between the members of the same profession. Article 49: The GAFRD has the authority to cancel the membership of fishermen to the board of the cooperative if they did not attend four consecutive board meetings or more than 30% of the total meetings per year. This means that the GAFRD has the power to intervene in internal logistics of the cooperative. Adapted from: Land Center for Human Rights, 2001.

resources to enforce existing regulations in Bardawil Lake, as well as all the Northern Lakes. 76

Institutional challenges Unlike the LECs, several local branches of governmental bodies and institutions, such as the local branches of the GAFRD and the EEAA, do not report to the local administrative units. This means that the GAFRD and EEAA local branches in Bardawil Lake are not under the administrative power of the local government and only report back to the central authority. The centralisation of competences related to fisheries management and wildlife protection result in three interrelated institutional challenges. The first challenge is the detachment of the local government from the lake’s fisheries management and/or nature conservation, and non-integration of these into its responsibilities to provide local economic development, basic services and infrastructure. The second challenge is the inability to develop an integrated management approach towards the natural resources of the lake, and effective coordination of the efforts of the GAFRD and the EEAA at the local level. El Badry (2003) stated that despite the importance of the Bardawil Lake ecosystem and the Zaranik Protected Area especially, the only coordination between the GAFRD and the EEAA mainly focuses on fish productivity at an optimum level (such as the annual decisions to determine the fishing techniques allowed, the duration of the closed season, and the number of allowed fishing days per week). The importance and urgency of better coordination is not a new recommendation; the Ramsar Advisory Mission for Bardawil and Burullus (1991), considered this as “an urgent requirement to improve administrative efficiency and to ensure better conservation and wise use of Egypt’s Ramsar sites and other wetlands”. 77 The third challenge, and the most important, is actively engaging with the fishermen community for the management of the lake’s fisheries and discussing polices to achieve sustainable fishery.

76 77

Moharem & Zahi 2011; Nada 2003 Ramsar 1991

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

3.2.

Sociodemographic characteristics

Socio-demographic information specifically for the communities using Bardawil Lake is scarce; however, estimates and trends can be useful to for inferences at the local level. The population of the North Sinai governorate in 2011 was estimated to be 388,702 inhabitants, constituting about 0.48% of Egypt’s population. 78 There are about 74,489 households, with an average size of about 4.6 members/household. 79 In 1999, it was estimated that there were about 2000 households around the Bardawil lake area. 80 According to the 2006 census, 52% of the population is male and 47.7 % is 15–44 years old; both statistics are close to the national averages. The percentage of inhabitants residing in urban communities has increased from 61.2% in 2002 to an estimated 70% in 2011, which indicates a clear trend towards urbanisation. 81 Bedouins constitute roughly 70% of the total Sinai population, the exact number being difficult to estimate and likely to be somewhere between 200,000-250,000. 82 The Bedouin are a historically nomadic people and their tribes (15 distinct tribes currently in Sinai) are closely linked to other Bedouin populations across the Arab world. 83 The rest of the Sinai population is made up of Palestinians (10%), immigrants from across the Suez Canal (10%), and the descendants of Bosnian, Turkish, and other settlers from the Ottoman period, residing mainly in Arish city (10%). 84 Education attainment in North Sinai: 8% holds a university degree or higher; 3.4% has received education above intermediate level; 26.8% has received intermediate education; 23.7% below intermediate; 13.9% can read and write; and 24.2% is illiterate. At almost all levels of education attainment, fewer females are enrolled in education than males, and the percentage of 78

The 2006 census showed that about half of the total North Sinai population resides in Arish district, predominately in Arish city, followed by Rafah, Sheikh Zuwayed, Bir el-'Abd, and Hasna districts; Nekhel is the least populated. See Fig. 8 for map. 79 CAPMAS 2011 80 UNDP/GEF 1999 81 CAPMAS 2011; North Sinai City Council 2002 82 Strasser 2012 83 ICG 2007 84 Yaari 2012

illiterate females (34%) is double compared to males (15.2%). As for women’s representation in local decision-making, only 7.1% (2008) of the members of the LPCs are women. While the official statistics from CAMPAS and Egypt’s Human Development report (2010) suggest that most of the North Sinai’s social indicators are around or slightly below average compared with Egypt as a whole, Gilbert (2011) argues that these figures are probably not accurate as many of the Bedouin are largely excluded from official statistics.

3.3. Employment, economic activities and development in N. Sinai The North Sinai labour force 85 is distributed as follows: 23.9% work in agriculture, 16.4% in industry and 59.7% in services; national averages are 31.7%, 22.1% and 46.2% respectively. Of the total labour force, 41.7% is employed by the government; national average is 25.6%. 86 These indicators show that North Sinai is in the early stages of economic development, as the region still relies predominately on basic services and employment in the public sector. The employment rate for women in the North Sinai Governorate is about 20.2% (national average is 23.9%) and jobs are predominately restricted to the provision of education and health services, social work, amusement and arts activities. 87 Most of these jobs are poorly paid and are in the public sector: 74% of employees of the public sector and public enterprise sector are female (national average is 30.5%). Male employment is diversified into different fields of economic activities, including: agriculture and fisheries; public administration; whole and retail sales; construction; transportation and storage; and provision of educational services. Seasonal agriculture, which predominately depends on rainfall and/or ground water and the fact that lands are cropped only once per year, is one of the key economic activities in North Sinai, and the area cultivated is slightly above 420 km2 (100,000 feddans) 88 scattered across different Bedouin villages and communes. Since the early 1990s, income from seasonal agriculture has been 85

Citizens over 15 years old. Egypt Human Development Report 2010 87 CAPMAS 2007 88 88 1 feddan is equivalent to 4200 m² 86

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? fluctuating due to unpredictable rainfall, which reduces productivity and renders the economy highly vulnerable to droughts. Other than seasonal agriculture, palm oil plantations are also common and agro-industries depending on them are present on a relatively small scale. 89 Private summer houses, resorts and hotels occupy the coast between Arish city and Bardawil, constructed since 1982. In 2011, the 1515 rooms in North Sinai accounted for just 0.65% of the total hotel rooms nationwide and 0.30% of total guests nationwide. Sixty nine percent (69%) of guests were Egyptian nationals and 39% were foreigners (mainly from other Arab countries). 90 Hotel occupancy in North Sinai is considered comparatively low due to poor infrastructure and geopolitical circumstances. Historically, Bedouins are associated with pastoralism, however most of them today have settled as farmers, fishermen, traders, civil servants, tourist guides or hotel owners, while a minority continues to engage in pastoralism. 91 Goats and sheep are the main grazed livestock and are usually sold live to local wholesalers and retailers at favourable prices. The percentage of Bedouins working in industrial plants along the Suez coast (petroleum, manganese, mining and quarrying) is negligible, as most of the jobs in these plants are usually filled by Nile Valley Egyptians. 92 Gilbert’s (2011) assessment of Bedouins in South Sinai illustrated that more than half of interviewees are living in poverty (whether measured in earned income, material goods and services, or food consumption), while the official statistics in 2005 state that the poverty rate in Sinai as a whole is 5.3%. This unmarked and unrecognised poverty level has been coupled with the failure of Egypt’s successive governments, at least in the past forty years, to undertake a comprehensive plan for developing the Sinai Peninsula and formulating targeted polices to enhance the socioeconomic status of Bedouin communities. This has resulted in hindering the ability of most Bedouins to diversify their livelihood options and find alternative income generating activities, which has forced some of them to get involved in illegal activities. Marx (2008) argues that in the mid-1960s, cannabis smuggling constituted around 30% of the aggregate income of the Bedouin population, and the

government’s standing policy towards Bedouins involvement in this illegal activity was usually to “turn a blind eye”. 93 In addition, the Bedouin grew poppy and other illegal drugs primarily due to a lack of alternative income generating activities. 94 Similarly, Bedouins involvement in trafficking of African migrants has been increasing in recent years, and unlike smuggling, the Egyptian government has been taking hard-line policy to eliminate these activities. 95

Development projects The governorates of the Sinai Peninsula together with the Sharqia governorate form the Suez Canal economic region according to Presidential Decree No. 495 (1977). The Supreme Committee for Regional Planning in the Suez Canal economic region has been dormant, like most of the other regional committees in the past ten years, has been underutilised and understaffed, and has not been engaged in promoting sustainable development in the region at large. This is particularly the case in Bardawil Lake, according to the views of the key stakeholders, as expressed during the interviews of the current assessment. To increase the North Sinai governorate’s contribution to agricultural production, the Government of Egypt (GoE) and the private sector have launched “The North Sinai Development Project” since the early 1990s. 96 The project aims to reclaim 1680 km2 (400,000 feddans) east of the Suez Canal, out of which 1155 km2 (275,000 feddans) lie under the administrative jurisdiction of the North Sinai governorate. These are allocated as follows (west to east): Raba’a block, 294 km2; Bir el'Abd block, 294 km2; El Ser and Qawarir blocks, 567 km2. Irrigation water will be transferred from the Damietta Branch of the Nile, mixed with drainage water from Bahr el Baqar and Hados drains, to North Sinai via a concrete-lined open canal. Once the canal is completed the agricultural activity and thereby the discharge of agricultural drainage water to Bardawil Lake will increase and adversely affect the water quality. 97 Mageed (2006) argues that the inflow of freshwater from the new reclamation lands will change Bardawil from a saline to brackish lake, leading to deterioration of 93

Yaari 2012 Hobbs 1998 95 Marx 2008; Mohyeldin & Makary 2010; Bradley 2010; HRW 2012 96 Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation 2013 97 Coastal Research Institute 2008 94

Coastal Research Institute 2008 CAPMAS 2006 91 ICG 2007 92 Gilbert 2011 90

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? water quality, and hence alter the composition of marine fauna and flora. This could have an impact on sea turtle abundance in the lake.

less than 0.01% to the Gross Domestic Product and large-scale industries (over 50 employees) are very rare. Small and medium size manufacturing enterprises are relatively predominate, and the GoE, through the Industrial Development Authority, has been planning to enhance the role of these enterprises by establishing an Industrial Zone in Bir el-'Abd for small and medium-sized industries (Decree No. 271/1993) and a Craft Area in the south west section of Arish City. 99 These new industrial zones aim to provide new economic opportunities and complement the existing ones in Sheikh Zuwayed and Rafah.

3.4. Economic activities in Bardawil Lake Figure 9. Location of North Sinai Development Project land reclamation blocks (coloured areas) and open canal (black line). Source: Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation, 2013. On 17 February 2012, the Minster of Water Resources & Irrigation stated that 94.4% of the project was completed; however, different assessments concluded that the project faces several interlinked legal and institutional challenges since its inception, mainly related to: land ownership and tenure, coordination between different governmental institutions involved in the project, creation of sustainable rural settlements, and accessing credit. 98 These challenges have resulted in the private sector hesitating to invest in the project and have discouraged the reallocation of labour from the Nile Valley to new communities being built by the project. All indicators suggest that the GoE will not be able to meet its target of resettling around 3 million inhabitants by 2017. The General Organisation for Physical Planning is developing a strategic developmental plan for the Suez Canal region (which includes North Sinai governorate) and another strategic plan that focuses only on the North Sinai governorate. The aim is to provide a strategic vision and development goals for regional competitiveness and sustainable urban development. In addition, Law No. 4/2012 created a governmental entity to oversee development in the Sinai Peninsula, monitor and coordinate the execution of developmental interventions (its regulatory framework is described in Decree No. 915/2012). Industries in North Sinai governorate contribute

Abdel Rahman (2011) presents a comparative assessment of the economic activities carried out in the coastal lakes in Egypt, including Bardawil Lake (Table 5). Other than fishing, which is described in detail in the next section, salt production is considered as the most important activity in Bardawil Lake. There are five salt ponds: two in the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Zaranik Protected Area and three in the southern parts of the lake, near Bir el-'Abd city. Six new salt ponds were recently permitted by the EEAA. Tourism is also one of the key activities, and is mainly restricted to the Zaranik Protected Area (PA) during the bird migratory season. Fig. 14 presents the PA land use plan for permitted activities. Bird hunting is also practiced in the lake, and it is estimated that about 500 families are involved in this activity during the autumn season. 100 Quail is the main quarry hunted, although songbirds, water birds, falcons and other bird species are also caught. A considerable part of the birds caught are consumed by the hunters and the rest is sold to middlemen that sell them to local retailers in Arish city. 101 Bird hunting techniques were recorded during the November 2012 survey, such as coastal trapping nets and dummy birds (Fig. 11-13). In addition, researchers report seagrass harvesting for animal feed, and have observed the decline and possible disappearance of these habitats in some lake areas during the last two years (S.Mehanna pers. comm, August 2013; Mehanna and Hegazi, 2013 in press.)

IDA 2006 Baha El Din 1993 101 Baha El Din 2005 100

Loughlin & Nada 2012

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Table 5. Economic activities in Egyptian coastal lakes (other than fisheries and aquaculture) Bardawil Idku Burullus Manzala Port Fuad Reed harvesting +++ +++ +++ Bird hunting ++ ++ +++ +++ + Salt production +++ + ++ ++ ++ Livestock breeding + ++ +++ +++ Tourism ++ + ++ ++ Vessel building/repair + + + Source: Abdel Rahman (2011)

Maryout +++ + + -

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Figure 14. Zaranik Protected Area land use map. Source: EEAA website, accessed Jan. 2013. CHAPTER THREE: AUTHORITIES, LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Figure 15. Fishing ports in Bardawil Lake. Yellow line is main road and white line delimits Zaranik PA border.

3.5. Bardawil Lake fisheries production and fishing techniques Fishing in Bardawil Lake is an old profession, and it is said that the name of the lake was given by the crusader garrison of Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, when it was cut off from supplies and the soldiers were forced to fish in the lake to sustain themselves. The soldiers gave the name of their king to the lake, which was altered through time to become Bardawil. 102 Nowadays, there are 1,229 licensed fishing boats and 2,645 fishing permits. 103 Bardawil Lake provides for the livelihoods of 3,684 fishermen, 104 supporting approx. 5,000 households, mostly in Arish and Bir el -'Abd districts. About 50 fishermen and their families live within the Zaranik PA during the fishing season, and then return to their permanent living in Arish. For these communities, fishing is the main source of livelihood and is intertwined with their culture and customs, e.g. certain traditional festivities, such as weddings, intentionally coincide with the fishing season. 105 The lake has five fishing ports: Tolol, Agzewan, Nasr, Nagala and Zaranik (Fig. 15). These ports also act as the official fish landing sites within the lake, and GAFRD officials are present on a permanent base.

Box 4. National fish production The fishing industry in Egypt comprises of marine capture fisheries (Mediterranean and Red Sea fisheries), inland capture fisheries (Nile River and lakes) and aquaculture. The production of these fisheries in 2002â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2011 is presented in Annex 4. In 2011, the total fish production of Egypt was 1,362 kilotonnes, of which 5.71% was produced by marine capture fisheries in the Mediterranean and 0.33% in Bardawil Lake. Of the total production, 13,38% was exported and an extra 182 kilotonnes were imported to cover domestic demand. Aquaculture is currently the largest single source of fish supply in Egypt accounting for 72.44% of the total fish production in Egypt and is considered as the only viable option for reducing the gap between fish production and consumption in Egypt. In the past two decades modern aquaculture in Egypt witnessed a rapid development and a sharp increase in production. Egypt was ranked as the first aquaculture producer in Africa and the eighth globally in 2010, according to the FAO 2012 State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Report. In 2011, the average fish consumption in Egypt per capita per annum was about 19.09 kg, and the self-sufficiency ratio was 88.75%.

102

Jobbins & Megalli 2006 GAFRD 2012 104 Salem 2012 105 Ezzat 2011 103

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Bardawil is an important spawning and nursery area for fish. Trammel nets, trawling, purse seines, veranda nets, line fishing and artificial fish trap objects are the main fishing methods used in the lake. Table 6 provides further details on each method. Commercially important fish species in the lagoon are: gilt head sea bream (Sparus aurata), striped mullet (Mugil cephalus), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), common sole (Solea solea), meagre (shade-fish, Argyrosomus regius). Crustacea (shrimp and crab) landings have greatly increased the last two decades. The lake’s fish production in 2011 (4,528.5 tonnes) makes up about 1.21% of Egypt’s total capture fisheries production, and 0.33% of Egypt’s total fisheries production (see Box 4). In 2011, most landings were recorded in May-July and October. Fig. 16 and Annex 5 present catch per month in 2011. Fishing is prohibited during January-April to allow for spawning migration and development of fish stocks. In terms of fish landings, Agzewan is ranked first, followed by Tolol, Nasr and Zaranik (see Annex 5 for landings in 2011). 1600

Others including meagre and seabass Sole, common Gilthead seabream Mullets nei Shrimps nei Crabs

1400 1200 1000

of the snail Murex tribulus (during 1990s), which caused a significant depletion and/or disappearance of common benthic fauna and damaged the feeding ground of bottom-feeding fish such as sea bream and sea bass. However, the main cause is considered to be overfishing and the use of destructive fishing methods since the late 1980’s to date. Economically valuable fish species, such as sea bream, sole and sea bass, are now considered overexploited, with data showing a serious decline in the catches of these species. 107 For instance, sea bream catches declined from 1,804 tonnes in 1982, to 315 tonnes in 2009 and 214 tonnes in 2011; sea bass declined from 186 tonnes in 1990, to 81 tonnes in 2009, and 28 tonnes in 2011. Grouper catch ranged from 4 to 13.5 tonnes during 19942007, but there have since been zero landings. 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1982

800

1987

Sea bream

1993

1998

Sea bass

2003 Crabs

2008 Shrimp

600

Figure 17. Sea bream, sea bass, crab and shrimp catch in 1982-2011 (tonnes). Sources: Mehanna 2006b, Khalil and Shaltout 2006, GAFRD 2012.

400 200 0 May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Figure 16. Bardawil Lake 2011 monthly catch by fish group (tonnes). Source: GAFRD 2012. Several researchers have documented a dramatic change in the catch composition of the lake over the last two decades (see Fig. 17 and Annex 5). 106 This phenomenon is attributed to the change in the ecological conditions of the lagoon, such as the change in salinity levels due to the dredging of the lake sea inlets, and to a lesser extent the outbreak 106

Hanafy 1993; Mehanna 2006a,b; Khalil & Shaltout 2006

The decline in the number of the predators positively impacts on the abundance of their prey, and in the case of Bardawil Lake this meant a significant increase in the size of the shrimp and crab populations, which constitute up to 70% of sea bass feeding sources. 108 Another factor that led to the increase of shrimp and crab populations was the flourishing of sea grasses and seaweeds in the lake, which provides shelter and nursery areas for tiny worms, echinoderms and crustaceans especially shrimp. 109 Shrimp production in Bardawil 107

Ahmed 2011; El-Gammal et al. 1994; Khalifa 2005; Mehanna 2006a,b; Mehanna et al. 2010a,b; AbdelHakim et al. 2010 108 Abdel-Hakim et al. 2010 109 Mehanna et al. 2011

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? expanded rapidly since 1994, with the increase of shrimp abundance in the lagoon. The species composition is: Metapenaeus stebbingi, Penaeus japonicus, P. semisulcatus, M. monoceros and P. kerathurus. The annual shrimp catch has increased from 271 tonnes in 1998 to 1176 tonnes in 2011. The annual crab catch has increased from 552 tonnes in 1998 to 1201 tonnes in 2011. In 2011, shrimp and crab production formed 53% of the catch, of which 26% was shrimp. 110 Mehanna et al. (2011) argues that the introduction of shrimp bottom trawlers had an enormous impact on species equilibrium in the lake, with the use of 8 mm mesh sized nets (globally recommended mesh size is 40 mm) leading to large quantities of by-catch, which includes small sized non-target fish species and crabs. As a result, there is an estimated a loss of more than 3 million sea bream juveniles and 2 million juvenile sole every year. It is widely acknowledged that bottom trawlers have a significant impact on the structure of the macrobenthos, including: physically damaging benthic organisms; reducing the heterogeneity of bottom habitats; reducing the diversity and abundance of some taxa; increasing the abundance of fast growing species at the expense of slower-growing; favouring certain predator species by expositing or damaging buried animals; increasing scavengers and other opportunistic species in disturbed areas. 111 The standing crop of total benthos in Bardawil Lake has been decreasing steadily during the past three decades. In 1984, the total number of individuals counted was 4,164 organisms/m2, decreasing to 3,711 organisms/m2 in 1986-7, which further decreased to 2,230 organisms/m2 in 2003. 112 This significant change was not only observed for the number of organisms per m2 but also in the composition of the macrobenthos, as nine annelid and three mollusc species disappeared, accompanied by the appearance of three arthropods, one nemartine species, one echinoderm and one coelenterate species. 113 This had a direct impact on the decline of some of the key fish species in the lake, as most of the declined fish species are mainly bottom feeders. 114

Box 5. Bottom trawlers in Bardawil Lake Shrimp bottom trawling (kalsa) was introduced to Bardawil Lake in 1995. This industry initially operated during April–July, but is now restricted to April–May. Use of small-sized cod ends in trawl nets result in landings of a sizable quantity of small fish and juveniles, especially sea bream and sole. The catch is mainly composed of shrimp (about 50%), crab (about 25%) and rabbit fish (about 5%). Shrimp is sorted according to size into two groups; small shrimp and large shrimp. Small shrimp constitute up to 70% of shrimp catch attaining a market price never exceed 8 LE/kg, while large shrimp are composed mainly of Penaeus semisulcatus and P. japonicus and reach a market price of 25–35 LE/kg. Direct observation of the kalsa catch proves that this fishing method is the most destructive fishing method in the lake and should be immediately banned. An average of 66 kg of undersized fish, non-targeted species and very small crabs were caught as by-catch daily. Also, an average of 72 sea bream juveniles and 53 sole juveniles were observed dead in the catch. It is worth mentioning that the shrimp and crab caught by trawl nets have lower prices than those caught by shrimp and crab nets (the price of crab in kalsa is 2 LE/kg and in crab nets is 10– 15 LE/kg, while the price of large shrimp caught by shrimp net reaches 50 LE/kg). From a socioeconomic point of view, prohibition of kalsa will not have any negative impact on the fishermen. In contrast, it will improve the ecosystem and fish habitat, in addition to reducing the mortality of fish fry and juveniles. Source: Mehanna et al. (2011)

110

GAFRD 2012 Engel & Kvitek 1998; Ramsay et al. 1998; Sanchez et al. 2000; Simpson 2003; Stone et al. 2005 112 Fishar 2005b 113 El-Shabrawy & Khalil 2003; Fishar 2005a ; El-Shabrawy & Rizk 2005; Khalil et al. 2013 114 Mehanna et al. 2011 111

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Table 6. Fishing methods in Bardawil Lake Name

Arabic name

Description

Catch composition

Trammel net

Dabba

Used during the entire fishing period (beginning of May until the end of December) by most boats currently operating in the lake (1120 dabba boats in 2011, 1144 in 2010, 1156 in 2008; S. Mehanna personal communication).

About 32% sea bream, 25% sole, 6% flathead grey mullet and 37% crabs

The Dabba net is composed of three layers of nets. The two nets in the outer layers have a mesh size of 120 mm and are 1.8 m high (called the “prison”), while the inner layer (the Badan in Arabic) has a much smaller mesh size (33 mm), and is 2.8 m high. The three layers are joined to a single cork rope (4.0mm diameter) at the top end. The distance between two successive cork pieces is about 60 cm. The three layers are also connected at the bottom end by a single line of rope. Lead weights of about 50 g each are placed on the rope at 35 cm intervals. The average length of a single Dabba net is about 30 m. The Dabba net used in Bardawil lake consists of approximately 20 pieces (i.e. the total length of the net is about 600 m). Fishermen set their nets before sunset in a curved shape so that chances of capturing fish is higher than if the net was placed in a straight and sharply perpendicular position. The net is collected at dawn (to minimise the chances of turtles becoming entangled in the net, as turtles tend to rest at night) and the fish caught in the nets are removed and placed in baskets.

Shrimp trawlers

Dahbana

The Dahbana is a floating net used to catch pelagic fish. It is composed of four layers of nets. The two nets in the outer layers have a mesh size of 120 mm and are 1.8 m high, while the inner layer consists of two nets, with the top net having a mesh size of 26 mm and the bottom net having a mesh size of 33 mm. All nets are 2.8 m high. The Dahbana net has more corks and fewer sinkers compared to the Dabba net.

About 83% mullet, 7% striped snapper and 6% rabbit fish

Kalsa

Kalsa is a small trawl net used by the crustacean fisheries in Bardawil Lake. This method was introduced to the lake in 1995 and was predominately used in the first three months of the fishing season (May to July), which is when 80–99% of the annual shrimp catch is recorded. The fisheries authority decided to limit its usage to May and June, to allow the shrimp stock to replenish. See Box 5 for further information. About 800–1200 boats use this method in Bardawil Lake, based on interviews with the fisheries authority and Mehanna et al. (2011).

About 54% shrimp, 41% crabs and 5% rabbit fish

Two boats are used for a single trawl. The gear includes two wing nets and a “bag” net that is attached to the wings. Each wing net is about 10 m in length; however, wing length varies according to how experienced the fishermen are. The wing net is about 2 m high. The head rope of the wing is fitted with floats, which are each separated by a distance of 25 cm. The foot rope of the wing is fitted with weights, which are set 25 cm apart. The bag net is 9-15 m long with a 8 mm mesh size. The mouth of the bag net has a radius of about 5-12 m, with several floats being placed on the head rope to keep the bag open, while the foot line of the bag mouth is fitted with weights that drag it along the sandy or sandy-muddy bottom. After the net is towed, the two wings and bag net are pulled onto one of the two boats to collect the catch. Purse seine

Shanshola

The Shanshola (cionchola) is used year-round, but has become less popular in recent years. This method is used at night, with about 220 boats practicing it.

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Mullets

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Veranda net

Bous

The Bous fishing unit involves 4 boats working together, two of the boats are motorised by 15–25 horse power outboard engines. The other two boats are not motorised, and are used to carry the nets. Fifteen fishermen operate the fishing unit.

93% mullets and 7% halfbeak

The Bous is made up of two nets; the first is a single layer vertical net and the second is a horizontal trammel net. The vertical net is 500 m long and 5 m high, and has a mesh size of 20–24 mm. It is a single layered net that is placed vertically in the water using floats or rubber (placed at 40 cm intervals) and sinkers (placed at 55 cm intervals on average). The horizontal net is a trammel net of about 500m in length and 2.5 m in height; the two outer layers have a mesh size of 120, while the inner net has a mesh size of 26 mm. The horizontal layer is supported by Bamboo rods, which float on the water surface. The fishing unit operates two Veranda nets of about 1 km in length. This fishing method involves encircling the mullet when they leap over the vertical net. The fish land on the horizontal net and are caught. This fishing operation requires about 2 hours and is repeated 3–4 times per day. Seine net

Garfa /Jaraff

This method has not been used in the lagoon for the last 10 years. It was previously used between August and December.

Gilt-headed sea bream

Line fishing

Senar/ Sinnar

Two different types of line fishing gear are used in Bardawil lake; specifically, long-lines and hand-lines. The former consists of a main horizontal line that has floats and branch lines with hooks. The main line is 300–450 m long. Each hooked branch line is about 50–60 cm long. Around 250–300 branch lines are attached to the mainline. Small shrimp and gray mullet are used as bait.

Long lines: mainly eels and grouper. Handlines: mainly sea bass species. Overall catch: about 59% European sea bass, 15% spotted sea bass, 19% grouper,7% eels

Artificial objects

El Tames or El Gatis (the diving method)

In the hand-line, a hooked line is individually set to catch single fish. The line is usually 5-10 m long, containing a single 2-3 cm hook. A light is used to attract the fish. On average, three fishermen per boat use line gears. Line fishing is always operated at the night, as the target fish species are nocturnal. This method is practiced from November to December. About 20–30 boats use this method. Usually fishermen use this method during shrimp trawling. Fishermen using this method submerge artificial objects (such as car tires, metal frames of old cars, etc.) to encourage fish to use them as shelters. In the evening, fishermen dive in the water and shine light on the fish to stun and hand-catch them, and then place the fish in baskets. About 50–100 boats use this method. During the November 2012 interviews, fishermen stated that this technique is illegal; however, some use it as it produces double or triple the yield compared to other fishing techniques. The fishermen also stated that while the fisheries authorities have been tackling this illegal technique, law enforcement after the revolution became much weaker. The increase in use of this technique has had a negative impact on fishermen using legal techniques, and the ineffective law enforcement has started to create tension between the fishermen, as well as between fishermen using legal techniques and the local fisheries authorities.

CHAPTER THREE: AUTHORITIES, LOCAL COMMUNITIES AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Mullets

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE 4.1.

Sea turtles in Bardawil Lake

Nesting activity of both loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas) on North Sinai beaches was reported by the Darwin Initiative project implemented during 1998–2000. Tracks, nests and eggs were found along the Mediterranean coast of Bardawil Lake; the highest concentration was recorded in the coastal area named ‘Abo Flifel’, 115 which lies partially within the Zaranik PA and to the east of the PA. The study concluded that, in North Sinai the loggerhead nesting population did not exceed 20 females/year (93 tracks, 20 nests in 1998; 60 tracks, 27 nests in 1999; 79 tracks, 37 nests in 2000) and that green turtle nesting occurs on an occasional basis (8 nests in 1988; 2 in 1999; 10 in 2000). In 1998, the project reported 16 dead turtles (12 C. caretta; 3 C. mydas; 1 unidentified) along Bardawil Lake’s 116 Mediterranean shores.

and cars are used by fishermen and fishing tours in the nesting area of Boughaz I section of the sandbar to transfer equipment. The Environmental Action Plan of North Sinai Governorate 118 highlights illegal practices related to the destruction of the nesting sites on the Mediterranean coast of North Sinai as one of the biodiversity conservation problems in the governorate. To tackle this, the strategy recommends that the governor issue a decree to reinforce laws banning turtle exploitation and the destruction of their habitat, and insure enforcement through cooperation with borders guards. In addition, the strategy acknowledges the lack of knowledge regarding sea turtle population dynamics using habitats on the Mediterranean coast, and calls for a scientific assessment.

The authors are not aware of any data being published since 2000 regarding sea turtle nesting in the Bardawil Lake area. During the interviews undertaken during the November 2012 survey, the local fisheries authority confirmed that it has documented successful cases of nesting and hatching. Some fishermen interviewed confirmed that nesting occurs on the outer Mediterranean shores of Bardawil Lake; all reported that nesting does not occur on beaches within the lake. C. caretta and C. mydas nesting activity on the Mediterranean shores of Bardawil Lake/Zaranik PA has been recorded during surveys conducted by Zaranik PA researcher Eng. B. Rabia in 2011– 2012 along the coastline from Rafah to Romana 117 (east to west; Figure 21); these surveys were conducted within a project funded by the Global Environment Fund Small Grants Programme-Egypt. Nesting was also recorded in 2004–2010 during surveys that were conducted by the previous Zaranik PA staff. Data have not yet been published or made available. Threats identified to the nesting habitat are rubbish and uncontrolled access to the nesting area by people and vehicles. Motorbikes 115

31° 7'24.00"N, 33°29'17.00"E to 31° 6'47.00"N, 33°36'56.00"E 116 Clarke et al. 2000; Campbell et al. 2001 117 Also known as Rmana, Rumana

Figure 21. North Sinai towns & cities. The authors are unaware of any published work regarding the migration, temporal and spatial distribution and abundance of sea turtles in the marine area of Bardawil Lake to determine habitat use for e.g. developmental phases, foraging, wintering or mating activity. However, at least eight sea turtles, which were found and released in other areas of the Eastern Mediterranean with satellite tracking devices 118

EEEA 2001

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? attached to their carapaces, have migrated to Bardawil Lake. Several of these turtles ceased to transmit data after entering the vicinity of Bardawil Lake. For example, three sea turtles from nesting sites in Cyprus, were tracked to Bardawil Lake. 119 Table 7 and Figure 22 provide further information about these sea turtles and their movements in Bardawil Lake. Table 7. Information about three sea turtles tracked from Cyprus to Bardawil Lake. Device No.

95102 120

95099 121

52817 122

Species

C.mydas

C.caretta

Sex

Female

Male

Female

Date of 24/7/2009 deployment

8/6/2009

1/6/2012

Left Cyprus

28/7/2009

12/6/2009

2/7/2012

Route (countries)

SYR, LBN, ISR, PSE, EGY

TUR, SYR, LBN, ISR, PSE, EGY

Direct

9/8/2009

11/7/2009

10/7/2012

12/8/2009

12/7/2009

11/7/2012

East

Approach of lake Entry into lake Entrance used Last reliable location in lake

30/10/2009 28/8/2009

2/8/2012

Latitude

31.1160

31.1920

31.1880

Longitude

32.9340

33.0350

33.0590

Last Uplink

11/11/2009 28/8/2009

6/1/2013

Latitude

31.1230

31.1850

31.2480

Longitude

32.9390

33.0570

32.9620

Source: Courtesy of Marine Turtle Research Group, Centre for Ecology and Conservation University of Exeter (UK); data assimilated by Robin Snape using STAT for dataset processing and filtering (Coyne & Godley 2005).

119

See Fig. 2 in Wright et al. (2012) for full route of the male C. mydas (95099) 120 View online at

http://www.seaturtle.org/tracking/index.shtml?tag_id=95102 121

View online at

http://www.seaturtle.org/tracking/index.shtml?tag_id=95099 122

View online at

http://www.seaturtle.org/tracking/index.shtml?tag_id=52817

Figure 22. Movements of three sea turtles in Bardawil Lake based on telemetry data. From top to bottom: “a)” is device No. 95102, “b)” is 95099, and “c)” is 52817. Scale is in km. Star indicates last reliable location. Cross indicates location (filtered location classes 1-3, i.e. accuracy to within 1.5 km). Polygons are 75% and 50% utilisation using Fixed Kernel Density Estimator as per Rees et al. 2012. Source: Marine Turtle Research Group, Centre for Ecology & Conservation, University of Exeter (UK); imagery generated by Robin Snape using Hawth's Tools & ArcGIS.

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Trasmissions ceased after these turtles entered the lake and the transmission periods fell shorter than the average deployment period (Robin Snape, Marine Turtle Research group, pers. comm. January 2013). This may be due to device malfunction, detachment of device from the animal’s carapace, or mortality. For instance, the lake is highly saline which would have a negative impact (corrosion) on the saltwater switches, which regulate transmission. In addition, the lake is shallow (just 2.5 m deep at the deepest point), which would result in the heavy biofouling of devices (even if painted with antifouling paint), which might also inhibit transmissions. Furthermore, animal behaviour (i.e. the surfacing frequency) or landscape features might influence transmission rates. In addition, the transmission frequencies used by fishermen or local authorities to communicate (i.e. background noise) might overlap and interfere with the transmission of tracking Box 6. Indicative press coverage of sea turtle mortality in Lake Bardawil. 10 October 2012 • Tahrir News. Author: Yousry Mohamed. http://tahrirnews.com/‫ﺃﺣﺪﺍﺙ‬-‫ﻭﻭﻗﺎﺋﻊ‬/‫ﻧﻔﻮﻕ‬-‫ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬‫ﻟﻠﺴﻼﺣﻒ‬-‫ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺪﺩﺓ‬-‫ﺑﺎﻹﻧﻘﺮﺍﺽ‬ • Anadolu Agency. Author: Walaa Waheed (Ismailia) http://www.aa.com.tr/ar/rss/89390 • Akhbar Al Youm. Authors: Saleh El Alaqmy, Ahmad El Tahawy, & Bahaa El Mahdy http://akhbarelyom.org.eg/news77970_33.aspx 11 October 2012 Seventh Day. Scientists go to Lake Bardawil to determine the cause of death of 70 rare turtles. Author: Abdel Halim Salem (Arish). http://www1.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=81293 6&SecID=296&IssueID=168 28 October 2012 Al Ahram. Secrets behind the death of sea turtles at Bardawil Lake. Author: Khaled Mobarak. http://www.ahram.org.eg/MedicineScience/News/179596.aspx 31 October 2012 Egypt Independent (EN). Sinai sea turtle mass deaths shrouded in mystery. Author: Raghda Mohamed. http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/sinai-seaturtle-mass-deaths-shrouded-mystery 22 November 2012 Nature- Middle East (EN). Scores of endangered turtles killed in Egypt. Author: Mohammed Yehia

http://www.nature.com/nmiddleeast/2012/121122/full/n middleeast.2012.163.html?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureMEast

devices (S. Hochscheid pers. comm.). However, natural or deliberate mortality cannot be ruled out as a cause. Device 52817, after transmitting for 22 days from inside the lake, stopped transmitting on 8 August 2012 but started transmitting again on 29 December 2012. The new transmissions were located at sea off the Egypt coast; the turtle then moved towards Gaza, and ended on the Gaza coast. No further transmitions were received after 6 January 2013. These data were typical of those described by Snoddy & Williard (2010) for turtles that died at sea, i.e. transmissions ceased for a period but frequent high-quality location class transmissions later resumed as the carcass floated high on the surface following putrification and build up of gasses, during which the transmitter was above the surface for extended periods of time (R. Snape, Marine Turtle Research group, pers. comm. January 2013).

4.2. Strandings press coverage When news of the mass mortality of turtles first surfaced, media coverage was intense yet very short- lived. The first article appeared on the eportal of the Turkish Anadolu Agency on 10 October 2012, by its reporter based in Ismailia City. The article reports that an estimated 80 turtles were found on the beaches of Bardawil Lake, based on information received from sources within the GAFRD and the Suez Canal University. Within hours, several Egyptian newspapers, portals, and agencies, including ONA (ONTV News Agency), Al-Dostour Online Portal, Youm El Sabe’a, and Tahrir News, also published the news, mainly through their online portals. Media attention lasted a few days, between 10–13 October 2012. Reports of the number of dead turtles ranged from 64 to 80, depending on the source within the GAFRD. All of the published articles did conclude that the cause of the turtle deaths was unknown, based on the opinions of members of the investigative committee that visited the lake in October. However, some speculations were expressed in the media regarding potential causes, most notably “maltreatment by fisherman” as well as “mass turtle suicide”, as per Akhbar Al Youm’s article. Thereafter, only sporadic articles were published on online portals of newspapers and websites. The online portal of Al-Ahram, one of Egypt’s oldest and widely circulate governmental newspapers, published an article on 28 October 2012 which attributed some of the deaths to turtles being

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? caught as bycatch in the shrimp-trawls. Some articles were also written in English, e.g. Egypt Independentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s article on 31 October 2012. Several local and international media outlets, including Egypt Independent and Nature Middle East, clearly expressed their intent to pursue the incident further once research findings were published; an attempt to decrease the widespread ambiguity over the cause of these deaths. Local scientists,

4.3.

researchers and conservationists decided to delay their interaction with the media until the results of the various site visits were finalised; hence, decreasing the media coverage on the mortality of turtles at Bardawil Lake. GAFRD re-posted news articles on the issue on its online portal; however, it did not publish an official statement.

Overview of stranding surveys All findings from the various surveys were collected and combined, and are presented and analysed in the current report. The findings included photographs, videos, and stranding datasheets.

During October 2012 and on 2-3 November 2012 section of the inner shores of Bardawil Lake were surveyed by the co-authors of the current report. Incidental observations of stranded turtles were also reported on two additional occasions: 5 and 29 October 2012. 123 Table 8 presents an overview of the surveys undertaken. Figure 23 shows survey areas and locations of strandings.

Table 8. October-November 2012 sea turtle strandings surveys Date

No. of records

Surveyor(s)

Area name

2 October 2012

5 October 2012

n/a6

Around El Kals7 and Agzewan fishing port Around Agzewan fishing port

West of Tolol fishing port

East of Tolol fishing port

East of Mosfak

East of Tolol fishing port

West of Tolol fishing port

7 October 2012 11 October 2012

Dr. M. Ommeran1

21 October 2012 24 October 2012 2

24 October 2012

Dr. M. Ommeran & Eng. B. Rabia

29 October 2012

Dr. M. Ommeran

Romyat Mohsen

29 October 2012

Dr. M. Ommeran Dr. M.A. El-Alwany3, Dr. M. Nada4 & Dr. M. Ommeran Mr. N. Noor5 & Eng. B. Rabia Dr. M.A. El-Alwany, Dr. M. Nada, Dr. M. Ommeran, Mr. N. Noor & Eng. Shokry1 Eng. B. Rabia

West of Nagala fishing port

West of Tolol fishing port

East of Tolol fishing port

Around Agzewan fishing port

East of Tolol fishing port

2 November 2012 2 November 2012 3 November2012 3 November2012

Notes: 1 GAFRD Bardawil Lake branch; 2Zaranik PA researcher; 3Suez Canal University; 4MEDASSET/NCE; 5NCE. 6

The incidental finding of one loggerhead turtle on the 5th of October was photographed and filmed, but lacks GPS coordinates or other information, as it was found at-sea.

El Kals is also known as Qals/Qels/Qass, and Mount Casius/Kasion in antiquity (Herodotus, Histories Book III, 450-420 BC).

123

For simplicity, these observations are also perceived as separate surveys.

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

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Figure 23. Survey areas and location of sea turtle strandings in Bardawil Lake. Key:

White dots represent all available records of strandings (includes repeat records). White squares: Fishing ports Yellow line: main road White line: Zaranik Protected Area border

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

Light blue: survey area “East of Mosfak” Yellow: survey area “West of Tolol” Green: survey area “East of Tolol” Red: survey area “Around Agzewan and el Kals”

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

4.4.

Analysis of stranding survey findings

Limitations The assimilation and analysis of the survey findings are subject to limitations, specifically: •

A clearly delineated survey strategy was not adopted prior to the various surveys.

•

The areas covered by the various surveys were selected on the basis that they were located in the direction of prevailing currents (i.e. along the southern shores of the lake), and were located near to fishing ports (human impact).

•

The shores around Tolol fishing port were surveyed on four dates over a 1 month period, shores around Agzewan fishing port were surveyed on three dates, and three other areas of the lake were only checked once (Fig. 23 shows fishing port locations.

•

Surveys were not conducted within the Zaranik PA by the authors during the November visit, due to the events described in the Methodology and Limitations section.

•

In total, at least 60 km of shoreline were surveyed 124 (20 km around Agzewan fishing port and 40 km east and west of Tolol fishing port). However, the inner shoreline of the Lake is over 280 km in length, 125 so just 20% of the shore was surveyed.

•

Decomposition limited the ability of surveyors to verify the species, sex and cause of death with certainty. Necropsies and the collection of samples for microbiological tests must be completed within 24 hours of death, while species identification based on bone structure could not be completed due to the lack of facilities.

•

Consistent information about the stranding records (carcass status, observations, species, size) were not available across surveys. Carapace measurements were taken only when carapaces were intact or accessible using the

minimum curved carapace length and curved carapace width method. •

It was not possible to accurately identify “new” carcasses (freshly washed up or unrecorded), as the old/previously recorded carcasses were left on the shore unmarked. Hence, to maintain objectivity, it has been assumed that the assimilated datasets include records of both fresh/newly discovered carcasses and older carcasses that were already documented in previous surveys.

•

In several cases, successive carcasses were pieces of bones, hence it was not possible to identify if this related to one or more individuals; therefore, the stranding numbers may be underestimated.

•

It should be noted that there may be carcasses that have sunken to the seabed that have not been recorded.

•

GPS coordinates could not be used as a basis for data assimilation as there was inconsistency across surveys, probably due to the use of different GPS devices, human error, or natural causes (many of the turtles were found in the water along the shoreline and hence the carcass location changed between surveys based on the wave action/prevailing wind direction). Human error and decomposition meant carapace measurements could not be used as the parameter to merge the datasets.

Aims and methods The aim of the analysis: •

Determine the minimum number of dead sea turtles that were found during the surveys.

•

Assimilate and present available information about the sex, species and size of stranded turtles.

•

Define time span of deaths to provide insight on whether this was mass mortality case or not.

•

Provide information on possible cause of death.

124

The shoreline surveyed on 29 October 2012 is not known and is not included in this calculation. 125 This is an indicative and approximate calculation based on satellite imagery; it includes 4 of the lake’s islets shoreline and the inner shoreline of the sand bar, but does not include the shoreline inside the Zaranik PA.

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Methods: •

Analysis of stranding datasheets

•

Analysis of photographic evidence

Firstly, the strandings datasheets of the surveys were assimilated and analysed. The datasheets were re-grouped into six coastal sub-areas of the lake. Table 9 presents a summary of the information collected by the surveyors: the number

of GPS coordinates records (longitude/latitude) for specimens (carcases) recorded during each survey, as well as any information recorded regarding species, sex, size, injury type and decomposition level. As mentioned in the limitations, this information was fragmented as it was not consistently recorded across surveys (due to surveys being conducted independently by different bodies).

Table 9. Summary of the stranding information assimilated by surveyors in datasheets Location Survey dates

West of Tolol fishing port

East of Tolol fishing port

7 Oct, 24 Oct, 2 Nov 3

11 Oct, 24 Oct, 2 Nov, 3 Nov 4

Around Agzewan fishing port

East of Mosfak

West of Nagala fishing port

Romyat Mohsen

2 Oct., 3 Nov.

21 Oct.

29 Oct.

Total

Number of surveys 2 1 1 1 12 Total records (GPS 114 58 18 3 1 1 195 coordinates) Records per survey 50, 43, 21 8, 12, 26, 12 3, 15 3 1 1 (GPS coordinates) State of decomposition Records available n/a 21 6 n/a n/a n/a 100% n/a 12 1 n/a n/a n/a 50% n/a 6 3 n/a n/a n/a 25% n/a 3 2 n/a n/a n/a Identified species Records available 23 7 2 n/a n/a 1 (alive) Loggerhead 15 7 2 n/a n/a n/a Green 7 0 0 n/a n/a 1 (alive) Leatherback 1 0 0 n/a n/a n/a Size range (unspecified species) Records available 30 25 6 n/a 1 1 Mean size 66 67 66 n/a 55 76 Min size 50 49 59 n/a n/a n/a Max size 84 79 77 n/a n/a n/a Standard deviation 9 8 7 n/a n/a n/a Sex (unspecified species) Records available 4 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Male 1 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Female 3 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Reason for injury Head absent 4 n/a 4 n/a n/a n/a Injured head n/a n/a 1 n/a n/a 1 (alive) Notes: The table provides a grouped view of the information that could be drawn from the various survey data sheets. A separate analysis was implemented using the photographic records assimilated during the surveys. -The sea turtle found on 5 October 2012 is not included in this table as no data was recorded. -‘Size’ is Curved Carapace Length. - n/a stands for not available. -‘Records available’ is the number of datasheet records provided by surveyors that included information on the specific parameter

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Secondly, the photographic evidence was assimilated and analysed. A total of 851 photographic records were collected during the surveys. These include turtle carcasses and visual records of subjects other than carcasses (locations, fish, birds, fishermen, etc., all available upon request). It should be noted that very few photographs could be conclusively matched to specific stranding records in the datasheets. The 851 photographs were re-assessed separately to obtain an independent evaluation of the various parameters of interest, specifically: •

Species

•

Sex

•

Cause of death

•

Stranding number: because unique turtles were identified and confirmed, the number of turtles identified in this assessment was used to infer the minimum number of strandings that occurred in the lake area.

•

Degree of degradation, indicating how recently turtles died. A subjective analysis of the photographic records was implemented to infer the timeframe of the death of the sea turtles for which photographic evidence was collected during the surveys at Lake Bardawil. Results were used to determine whether it was a single mass stranding event or a succession of strandings over a protracted timeframe. The turtles were grouped into four general categories, which were used to infer the degree of degradation, and hence approximate the length of time that the individuals had been dead. The four point scale system used to estimate the degree of degradation of each

CHAPTER FOUR: SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN BARDAWIL LAKE

uniquely identified turtle through the photographic records is presented in Table 10. It should be noted that, with some injuries, turtles may begin decomposing (losing skin) while still alive, dead turtles in the water may have been subject to delayed decomposition due to the highly saline waters of the lake, while others may have been washed ashore and dried completely intact in the sun, for which the length of decomposition would be arbitrary. A carcass could also be transformed to bones much faster if foraged on by other animals. However, all of these factors require examination within the local setting. The scaling system requires validation through experimentation, as different turtles will decompose at different rates depending on the injury type, sea salinity (potentially preserving carcasses), when they were washed out of the sea, duration/level of exposure to the sun, time of year (i.e. air and sea temperature conditions), scavenging activity by marine/terrestrial animals, among other factors. Therefore, the stated timing of death should be perceived as an indicator, rather than an exact prediction. While local information or published information about decomposition rates is not available, this system is based on personal observations of sea turtle experts in other parts of the Mediterranean (S. Hochscheid and R Snape); however, it should be kept in mind that Bardawil is a unique system with extremely high salinity, which might preserve turtles in a fresh state for longer.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Table 10. Decomposition scaling system Decomposition level categories and brief descriptions

Figure 24a-d. Examples of turtles pertaining to the four decomposition level categories.

1. Fresh. <25% degradation, indicating the turtle has been dead less than about 2 weeks. Turtles placed in this category appeared completely intact, or with some bloating, with no external evidence of decomposition. Fresh loggerhead. ©2012 NCE, Photo N. Noor 2. Slightly decomposed. 25–50% degradation, indicating that the turtle has been dead in the region of 2 to 4 weeks. Turtles placed in this category were partially intact, with external evidence of decomposition on parts of the body, such as flaking skin or scutes.

Slightly decomposed turtle.

3. Severely decomposed. 50–75% degradation, indicating that the turtle has been dead in the region of 1 month to 6 months. Turtles placed in this category were largely decomposed with exposed bones over much of the body.

Severely decomposed turtle.

4. Completely decomposed. 100% degradation, indicating the turtle had been dead for at least 6 months, probably more. Turtles placed in this category were those where only bones remained. Completely decomposed turtle.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Analysis results Based on the strandings datasheets, 195 carcasses were recorded in total by all surveys. By using the survey that recorded the highest number of carcass in each area, 126 96 sea turtles are estimated to have been found stranded in the areas surveyed. Based on the analysis of the photographic records of all 13 surveys 127 of the 6 coastal sub-areas of the lake that were surveyed, 87 unique dead sea turtles (plus 1 live injured), with 32 repeat records, were identified. Therefore, based on these two evaluations, it may be safely stated that from 80 to 100 carcases were identified during the October and November 2012 surveys. The photographic database represents the minimum number of confirmed dead sea turtles, while the strandings database represents the possible upper limit of 96 dead turtles discovered dead in the areas surveyed. These figures fall within the range stated by the authorities (estimated more than 80 turtles).

120

114

In the strandings datasheets, information about the state of decomposition was reported for 27 turtles in two surveys, with 48% (n = 13) of turtles being 100% decomposed, 33% (n = 9) of turtles being about 50% decomposed, and 19% (n = 5) of turtles being relatively fresh. 128 It was not possible to determine whether this information is representative of all surveyed specimens based on the information provided by the surveyors alone. Therefore, from the photographic database, each unique dead turtle (n = 87) was categorised according to the level of decomposition. 48% of turtles were completely decomposed (n = 42), indicating that these turtles had been dead for a minimum of 6 months, and potentially longer. 33% of the turtles were heavily decomposed, indicating that these individuals had probably been dead for 1 to 6 months (n = 29). 13% of the turtles were slightly decomposed (n = 11), indicating that these individuals had probably been dead for 2 to 4 weeks. Finally, 6% of the turtles were fresh (n = 5), indicating they had died within 2 weeks of being found. Figure 27 shows the distribution of these 87 unique dead sea turtles across the surveyed lake areas with respect to their level of decomposition.

All records

100

60%

Maximum survey record

50%

80 60 40 20 0

40%

30% 26

18 15

20% 3 3

10% 1 1

1 1

West of East of Around East of West of Romyat Tolol Tolol Agzewan Mosfak Nagala Mohsen Fishing Fishing Fishing Port Port Port Port

Figure 25. Overview of all stranding records per area and highest (maximum) number of sea turtle carcases recorded in each area.

0% -10%

<25% 25–50% 50–75% (<2 weeks) (2-4 weeks) (1 to 6 months)

75–100% (6+ months)

Figure 26. Decomposition levels of sea turtle carcases based on the photographic database, indicating possible time of death.

126

Specifically, to make this calculation: for each subarea, we selected the survey which reported the greatest number of turtles in this sub-area; and then summed these numbers to obtain a total number for the entire survey area. We did not sum all carcasses reported by each survey, as this would have led to a major overestimate due to repeat counts. 127 For simplicity, incidental observations are also perceived as separate surveys.

128

This does not include the two turtles reported found alive.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? 35

<25%

25–50%

50–75%

75–100%

80 70 60 40

20 Around Tolol Fishing Port

Around Agzewan Rest of Locations Fishing Port

Photographic database

Strandings database

10 0 Loggerhead

Figure 27. Number of turtles found stranded in each sub-area of the lake with respect to decomposition levels based on the photographic records.

Figure 28. Stranded leatherback.

Green

Leatherback

Figure 30. Sea turtle species identified in the strandings datasheets and the photographic database. In the strandings datasheets, species information was provided for 33 turtles (Fig. 30). Of these turtles, 73% (n = 24) were identified as loggerheads, 24% (n = 8) as green turtles, and 3% (n = 1) as a leatherback. Due to the high decomposition level of turtles, it is likely that many were not identifiable. Photographic records were also re-checked. Due to the fact that many of the turtles were highly decomposed, the identification of species was difficult. Of the 88 photographic records of unique sea turtles (87 dead, 1 live), species identification was possible for 74 of these. The majority of identifiable individuals appeared to be loggerhead, with one definite green turtle and one definite leatherback turtle. Further visual analysis of the bones of the skull or carapace might allow identification to the species level (loggerhead versus green), however, this was not possible here. As regards the size of the stranded animals, in the strandings datasheets, the curved carapace length and width was measured for 64 turtles. Of these, 17 were identified as loggerheads, 6 were greens, 1 was a leatherback, and the species was not recorded for 40 individuals. There is also a chance that some turtles might have been measured on more than one occasion at the East of Tolol fishing port survey area, as measurements exist for three separate surveys (however, the average CCL for each survey at this site was 65, 67 and 67 cm, so even with repeats, these measurements should be reliable); measurements were available from just one survey at all other locations. More specifically, the size (curved carapace length and width) of 63 loggerhead and green specimens was obtained during three separate surveys to the

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? west of Tolol fishing port (n = 30), to the east of Tolol fishing port (n = 25), around Agzewan fishing port (n = 6), as well as the individual turtles found near Romyat Mohsen (n = 1) and West of Nagala Port (n = 1). Species specific information was only available for green turtles (n = 6) and loggerheads (n = 13) at West El Tolol, and for loggerheads (n = 4) at West and East El Tolol. At West El Tolol, green turtles were slightly larger than loggerheads; while loggerhead measurements were similar at East and West El Tolol. The turtles of unidentified species at the other locations, were also of a similar size range. This information indicates that both loggerhead and green turtles in the lake are generally around 50 to 80 cm in carapace length, and that both subadult and adult sea turtles probably frequent the lake. Table 11. Size of 63 stranded sea turtles in Bardawil lake sub-areas Curved No. of Carapace Length Species Loggerhead

Location West of Tolol East of Tolol Green West of Tolol Leatherback West of Tolol Unknown West of Tolol East of Tolol Around Agezwan West of Nagala Romyat Mohsen

records

av min max sd

84 10

1 120 11

The sex of four individuals was reported in one stranding survey; specifically, one male and three females. 129 Due to the average curved carapace length of observed carcases being about 66/67 cm, and the fact that it is only possible to differentiate

males from females above 70 cm as a minimum value, 130 it was not possible to validate the number of males versus females from the photographic records. However, some of the loggerheads might have been adults, as the minimum carapace length of loggerheads from Cyprus is 60 cm; 131 however, if loggerheads originated from areas such as Libya, or Turkey, a 70 cm minimum curved carapace limit applies. 132 Therefore, it is important to identify the breeding populations that frequent this foraging area. In addition, the position of the cloaca in relation to the carapace is required. 133 A visual reevaluation would be extremely tenuous due to the fact that 81% of the photographic records were heavily decomposed. One definite male was confirmed, based on the photographic image showing a long tail and an extended penis. The cause of death was generally not recorded in the strandings database: for four of the turtles the head was absent, while one had evidence of head trauma (most probably being hit with a blunt instrument, see Fig. 32). Four of these five turtles were found in the Agzewan fishing port area. All photographic records were checked carefully for physical evidence of a cause of death (i.e. propeller marks, blunt head trauma, evidence of net entanglement via line marks around flippers or the neck); however, again evidence for the cause of death was not clear. It should be kept in mind that 81% of the turtles were heavily decomposed or bones; hence, evidence might have been lost from such records. For turtles that were still relatively intact (about 19%), there was no evidence of propeller injury or net entanglement. As in the strandings database, five turtles appeared to have had the head deliberately removed (scavenging activity by wild animals cannot be discounted), with one turtle evidencing deliberate head trauma. In 18 records, it could not be determined whether the head was present or not, while the head was present in the remaining 64 turtles. Therefore, the general cause of death cannot be specified from the current data and photographic analysis.

129

In general, loggerhead females are assumed to reach maturity in the Mediterranean at a minimum of 72 cm (Margaritoulis et al. 2003), with the tails of male loggerheads elongating at 70 cm, and maturity being attained at a minimum of 75 cm (Casale et al. 2005).

130

Casale et al. 2005; Chaloupka et al. 2004 Margaritoulis et al. 2003 132 Margaritoulis et al. 2003 133 Casale et al. 2005 131

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

Analysis conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn following the analysis of the stranding records and photographic database: •

•

Based on the analysis, 80–100 turtle carcasses were documented in October to November 2012. This number is very similar to that reported from official reports. There could be more carcasses that were not documented. Areas where stranded sea turtles were not reported do not necessarily indicate that strandings were not present. It is clearly demonstrated that the dead sea turtles did not form part of a single “mass stranding event”, rather the carcases had accumulated along the shore over an extended period of time, of at least 6 months, possibly longer. Based on the photographic evidence, within a 1 month period, 16 turtles were stranded, and then over the subsequent 6 months a further 29 turtles were stranded; the remaining 42 of the photographed carcasses were completely decomposed, indicating that mortality may have occurred at least 6 months before. As explained, the rate of degradation at this site requires validation and, hence, it cannot be discounted that deaths may have occurred in a shorter or longer period of time. Nevertheless, it still stands that a large number of turtles is being washed ashore, even if they do not constitute a single mass stranding event but are rather a series of multiple strandings or ongoing strandings. The record of 16 strandings within a 1 month period appears unusually high, however, this number depends on the current population size of the lake; hence future research is required.

•

The information obtained from the two analyses indicates the presence of loggerhead and green turtles in the lake area, along with the incidental presence of leatherbacks.

•

Existing tracking data of adult female sea turtles from other nesting grounds in the lake confirms the presence of females, while observations of mating activity by fishermen and documentation of nesting activity by adult female greens and loggerheads, confirm the presence of adult males and females of both species in the lake.

•

The size measurements of the carcasses indicate that primarily sub-adult to adult classes of loggerhead and green turtles are present in the lake. Therefore, the stranding information contributes novel information about the possible presence of sub-adults in the lake, and its potential use as a foraging or wintering habitat for different age classes of turtles. However, this subject requires further evaluation.

•

None of the stranded turtles had flipper tags, which might have been used to confirm adult female status and/or link turtles to breeding grounds in other parts of the Mediterranean. However, due to decomposition, the possibility of some of the dead turtles having had tags cannot be excluded.

•

It appears that while head removal by fishermen does occur, it does not seem to be common practice. It should be noted that the head might also be removed after death by a non-perpetrator for other purposes; or by scavenging animals. Four of the five instances were recorded in the vicinity of Agzewan fishing port; however, long-term consistent stranding records are required to confirm this possible trend. In the interviews with fishermen, some individuals mentioned that poison is used to kill turtles (see next section), in which case external evidence of trauma would not be clear. To confirm whether this activity is common practice, it would be necessary to regularly survey the lake for strandings and take tissue samples from fresh carcases (within hours or few days). Hence, whether the cause of death was natural or human-induced cannot be clarified just from the strandings datasheets or photographic records.

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

4.5. Review of possible causes of sea turtle mortality

consequently die. As mentioned previously, several females have been tracked from breeding grounds to Bardawil Lake.

This section presents a review of possible causes of sea turtle mortality in Bardawil Lake based on the desktop review and interviews. See the previous section for possible causes of death based on the stranding survey analysis results.

Turtles may also incur buoyancy disorders that may not recover within hours or days. Usually turtles inhale extra air if stressed following interactions with conspecifics (or alternatively if hit by a boat). 140 If turtles cannot regain normal buoyancy levels, they may float, and be unable to forage for molluscs and other invertebrates inhabiting the seabed (loggerheads) 141 or forage on Cymodocea nodosa and other marine plants (greens). 142 Sea turtles have been documented to be attacked by sharks, which may cause injury (flipper loss) or death. Sharks are present in the Mediterranean; however, their numbers are depleted and the extent of interaction with sea turtles remains unconfirmed. 143 Cold stunning is another possible cause of death; however, this primarily occurs in oceanic areas where sea temperatures drop rapidly below 13 Â°C, which does not occur in the southern Mediterranean. 144 If storms occur for several days or consistently throughout the winter months, sea turtles that are unable to forage to sustain energy levels may be impacted, become exhausted and even die.

Natural causes Sea turtles die from a number of natural causes. For instance, post-nesting females are at potential risk of emaciation and dying. In general, female sea turtles do not forage at breeding grounds 134 (however, leatherbacks are suspected to forage between nesting events, 135 while green turtles have been documented to forage during the nesting period on Cyprus, 136 with other examples potentially existing for other species); hence, they may not feed for up to 6 months (encompassing the time required to migrate to and from the breeding ground, mate, mature the initial clutch of eggs for 30 days and nest a minimum of 2 times with inter-nesting intervals ranging from 12 to over 20 days in different parts the Mediterranean, depending on ambient sea temperature). 137 After migrating long distances, often of over 1000 km from nesting to foraging areas, female turtles may become emaciated, and if known foraging grounds are depleted, they may not have enough energy reserves to reach alternative sites, and thus die. In addition, reproductively active males are also subject to similar high levels of energy expenditure during the breeding season. Males also migrate long distances to and from the breeding areas, 138 usually arriving earlier than the females, and remaining for up to 4 months before departing at about the onset of female nesting activity. During this time, males do not forage, but expend large amounts of energy patrolling the coast for receptive females, fighting other males, courting and mating females. 139 Therefore, if males and females migrate from breeding to foraging grounds in Bardawil Lake, but resources are depleted when they arrive, they may not have sufficient reserves to reach an alternative foraging site, and

Other natural causes of death could be the high temperature of the lake and the high salinity registered. If both components were equally high (around <40 Â°C and >60 g/L salt) at the end of the dry season (September-October), this may cause stress and changes in neuroendocrine responses (stress hormones), which may explain the higher level of sea turtle mortalities recorded during this period. In addition, new concessions for salt extraction have been allowed. This could increase the salinity of the lake and create more accrued salinity gradients that could be toxic to the turtles. Turtles cannot eliminate excess salts; hence, the high salt levels registered (more than 60 g/L) could be toxic and could create problems for the turtles before being able to respond to and evade such unfavourable environmental conditions. In addition, algal blooms degrade the marine environment, and hence species that are foraged by sea turtles in the food chain (particularly shellfish, which quickly accumulate such toxins,

134

Schroeder et al. 2003 Myers and Hays 2006 136 Hays et al. 2002a 137 Hays et al. 2002b; Schofield et al. 2013a,b 138 Schofield et al. 2013b 139 Schofield et al. 2006 135

140

Schofield et al. 2006, 2007 Schofield et al. 2006 142 Hays et al. 2002a 143 but see Fergusson et al. 2000 144 Schofield et al. 2013b 141

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? with potentially lethal effects on human consumers leading to the introduction of regional management programmes of shellfish fisheries throughout the Mediterranean region). Therefore, short and long-term exposure to biotoxins may exert potentially lethal effects on sea turtles (depending on the species), as well as impaired feeding, physiological dysfunction, and impaired immune function (which might also result in the incidence of disease). 145

The current survey found that the vast majority of the lake’s shores did not have significant visible anthropogenic debris, with the exception of light bulbs used by fishing boats. Levels of debris on the seabed are unknown. Necropsies would reveal if turtles died due to ingesting debris while foraging, as these items can block the digestive tract and cause death. However, it seems improbable that this could be the cause of death for all of the turtles found stranded in the lake.

However, if extreme salinity or algal blooms were the cause of death, other marine species should have also demonstrated symptoms, with large numbers of live or dead animals of various species being found stranded along the lake shores. Finally, disease is a possible cause of death; however, little is known about this parameter, except for major diseases, such as fibropapilloma, 146 which to date has not been documented in the Mediterranean.

Pollution and debris As stated, Bardawil Lake is considered the least polluted lake in Egypt and according to the EEAA’s 2012 Annual Environmental Assessment Report on the Status of Egypt’s Northern Lakes, is free of wastewater and results of almost all biochemical and microbiological tests were within the permissible limits of international standards. 147 No industrial facilities or energy production facilities are present that could discharge waste water in the lake. As mentioned in the previous section on natural causes, the new salt ponds could potentially affect lake salinity levels; however, the authors are unaware of any salt pond by-products that could qualify as pollutants potentially causing the sea turtle deaths. 148

145

Milton and Lutz 2003 146 Quackenbush et al. 1998 147 EEAA 2012a 148 One potential problem is the management of bittern, the extremely salty byproduct of the salt harvesting process (magnesium chloride- chemical compounds with the formulas MgCl2 and its various hydrates MgCl2(H2O)x). Salinity in the bittern ponds can exceed 300 ppt. Due to its potential toxicity bittern cannot be discharged. Direct discharge could be disastrous as it is toxic to aquatic organisms due to its hypersalinity and ionic imbalance. One other issue is that the solar evaporation of water concentrates pollutants in the ponds proportionately with salinity.

Figure 31. Fishing boat light bulbs on Bardawil Lake shore, west of Tolol fishing port.

Persistent Organic Pollutants and heavy metals are known to negatively affect development, reproduction, and immune function in fish, birds, reptiles, and mammals. Several studies have recorded heavy metals in various sea turtle populations and described possible adverse effects on growth, reproductive and immune functions. 149 Although heavy metals have been detected in fish in Bardawil Lake with detrimental effect (see section 2.3), impacts on sea turtles are usually longterm and not acute to the level that these could cause a mass mortality event. Based on the above, pollution and anthropogenic debris are not viewed as a possible cause of the turtle mortality.

Beach development and tourism Beach development activities are almost nonexistent along the shores of the lake. The fishermen community resides few kilometres from the shore of the lake. There are almost no touristic activities, with the exception of the Zaranik PA; and no tourist facilities or eco-lodges exist. In fact, entering the lake is like entering a military facility, with the coast guards checking the identity 149

Godley et al. 1999; Milton and Lutz 2003; Vos et al. 2000

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? of the visitors and inspecting the purpose of the visit. This has resulted in limiting those having access to the lake: fishermen (including fishmongers and other fishing related professions); salt workers; and employees of the fisheries authorities. The main buildings in Tolol and Agzewan ports are the fisheries authority facilities, a relatively large mosque and a wholesale fish market. On the one hand, this could be seen as a positive situation for the sea turtle population, as it limits potential disturbance by other activities. On the other hand, this situation has resulted in limiting the capacity of the fishing community to diversify livelihood options and adapt to potential shocks and stresses (e.g. weather related, fluctuations in resource abundance, changes in access, idiosyncratic shocks, economic and policy drivers affecting prices, markets, purchasing power, civil strife, etc).

Fisheries interaction There is growing concern that small scale fisheries are impacting on marine vertebrates, especially sea turtle populations. 150 Hence, a key aim of the November 2012 fieldwork was to interview the local fishermen regarding the sea turtle mortality. Fishermen interviewed stated that the army provides fishing permits for leisure fishing in the lake. These boats enter the lake from the Mediterranean though the lake’s inlets and can remain at the lake for several days. The interaction of these boats with the turtle population was not investigated in this assessment. The vast majority of fishermen interviewed expressed very negative attitudes towards the increased, as they perceive it, presence of sea turtles in the lake, which, as reported by interviewees, is due to the negative impact that turtles have on fish catch and on fishing gear (when entangled). More specifically: • All fishermen interviewed using nets stated that turtles become entangled accidentally, and none of them aims to capture turtles purposefully. They stated that the turtles manage to escape alive from their nets and they do not recall any case of mortality, attributing this mainly to the fact that they apply their net usually for a short period of 150

Lewison & Crowder 2007; Soykan et al. 2008; Moore et al. 2010 ; Wallace et al. 2010; Alfaro-Shigueto et al. 2011

time. They mentioned that turtles damage their nets and in many cases to the extent that the nets become useless and need to be replaced. The cost of the new nets in some cases exceeds 2,000 Egyptian pounds (about US$ 320). • All fishermen interviewed stated that turtles eat a significant portion of the shrimps and crabs in the lake, and thus compete with their fishing effort. Most of the fishermen stated that this is not the core cause for their negative feeling about the turtles as they consider that this as a right of every living creature. This attitude is driven by the fishermen’s religious convictions; according to Islam, every creature has its own share of food that is predetermined by God, and there is no creature that can interfere with this divine rule. They stated that “we do not even mind the shrimps, crabs and fish that are being eaten by turtles when they get entangled in our nets, it is only when they cut our nets that we get frustrated” • Fishermen reported that the presence of turtles near artificial obstacles used for fishing (see section 3.5 for description) scares the fish away, and therefore significantly reduce the amount caught. • Fishermen mentioned that they perceive a steady increase in the turtle population in Bardawil Lake over the past 2-5 years and most of them now consider turtles to be a “pest” that should be eradicated from the lake. Almost all fishermen interviewed argued that they have seen turtles mating in the lake (at least during the past 10 years) and that the frequency of mating has increased. Several fishermen indicated that there are areas in the lake where turtles are found more often than others. • During the interviews, most of the fishermen in both Tolol and Agzewan ports argued that the male turtle dies 40 days after mating with the female. When asked if this was a recent observation, they mentioned that this is something they have known for years and have learned from their ancestors. This misconception should be rectified, based on the available information worldwide of post-mating tracking of male sea turtles. • Fishermen stated that boat collision with turtles does occur. Several fishermen reported that their boat’s propeller was damaged when it hit the carapace of a turtle.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Due to time limitations, the current assessment did not directly or thoroughly investigate the levels and impacts on turtles of the various fishing methods used in the lake. It is suggested that fishing methods used in the lake other than nets, do not pose a threat of entanglement to turtles but hooked lines could also potentially cause injury. Three methods of intentional recorded though interviews:

killing

were

• At-sea slaughter. Eight fishermen indicated that if they found turtles basking on the surface or entangled in their net, they would kill them by hitting them with a hard object on the head. The November 2012 survey team did not encounter any carcass washed ashore showing skull fracture. As mentioned, skull fracture was recorded from the photographic database for one individual. • At-sea capture of turtles and onshore slaughter. The November 2012 survey team found one recently dead turtle in the area near Agzewan fishing port that was decapitated, with fresh blood covering the area around the body. Within a few minutes, a fisherman joined the team and admitted to being the person who decapitated the turtle and threw its head in the water. He mentioned that this was not the first time he had decapitated a turtle and that he did so mainly because he believes their numbers have been increasing in the lake and cause harm to the fishing nets and the motors of the fishing boats. According to the fisherman, by decapitating these turtles, he felt he was doing a service to the lake’s ecosystem and to the fisheries of the lake.

Alwany.

Other fishermen shared the same negative attitude about the increased presence of the turtles in the lake and complained to the survey team hoping it

could suggest methods to eliminate turtle presence in the lake. It should be noted that just six turtles were not severely decomposed (<25%) based on the assessment of the photographic database, with these individuals being found in all surveyed areas of the lake. In addition, four of the five turtles found without a head/skull were located in the shores around Agzewan fishing port. • Use of poison. Fishermen in Tolol port were aware of this method, and most stated that they considered this to be the cause of the deaths (unlike fishermen from Agzewan port who were unaware of the turtle deaths and the poisoning method). These fishermen did not admit using the method nor did they know the fishermen who did. During the interviews with members of the NGO in Bir el-'Abd, they stated “do not expect fishermen will tell you the names of the fishermen using this technique, as they all belong to the same tribe and they will never cause harm to each other”. Fishermen pointed out that poison was mainly used by fishermen using illegal artificial objects for fishing, as turtles are thought to scare off the fish, shrimps, and crabs around these. With tensions between fishermen using legal and illegal techniques escalating and due to the belief that turtles negatively impact the fish catch, fishermen using this illegal method were said to find themselves forced to find a way to eradicate the turtles from the lake, to be able to make a quick profit while the relaxed enforcement of the fisheries regulations lasts. Fishermen stated that only few of them used the poisoning technique and for a short time, but it was potent enough to cause numerous deaths. They gave detailed description of the technique used: a potent rodent pesticide is put inside a small dead fish which is then hooked with a thread of nylon (the same used for fishing) attached to the long stick that is placed in the water to signal the location of the artificial objects. They also stated that during the time that the poison was used many fish were found dead and floating on the water surface, and several ducks bred by the fishermen were also found dead after eating the small poisoned fish. The fisheries authorities stated they were aware that this was stated by the fishermen, but did not investigate it or confirm it. Almost all fishermen that were interviewed stated that using poison to kill the turtles was an unacceptable practice, as it affects the overall ecology of the lake. One of them stated “I believe

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? the fishermen that used the poison are filled with voraciousness and greediness and they are willing to destroy the lake for their short term personal benefit. All the fishermen in the lake feed their families from the fishes caught from the lake and I do not know how they would feel if they poisoned their own family with fish contaminated with this poison”. While these reports were almost consistent among fishermen interviewed at the Tolol port, the authors do not have any evidence of the practice beyond the interviewee statements. The turtle carcasses found during the 2-3 November 2012 survey were highly decomposed, with the exception of one turtle found freshly slaughtered (Fig. 27), and another estimated to have been dead for 2-5 days, but the survey team was unable to collect samples for toxicological tests. Prior to the November survey, two turtles were found alive by the fisheries authority on 20 October 2012. Both turtles were found floating at the water surface and unable to swim. One turtle was sent to the School of Veterinary Medicine of the Suez Canal University, while the other was sent to the conservation branch of the EEAA. Both turtles died within days of being transferred: the turtle at the Suez Canal University died after 6 days, on 26 Oct.; the turtle at the EEAA died on 24 Oct. Both turtles were debilitated and would not feed. Toxicological tests were performed on both turtles, but evidence of toxins or abnormality was not found. Detailed reports are not available about the procedures performed, nor were any detailed observations made during the necropsies.

Sea turtle consumption in Lake Bardawil Consumption of sea turtles has been documented in many parts of the world, including the consumption of turtles captured incidentally in fisheries. 151 In the assessment undertaken in 2009, four out the 12 fishermen interviewed in Lake Bardawil declared that they have consumed sea turtles or their eggs at least once in their life time, as did two out of the six community members interviewed. 152 During the interviews with the fishermen in the current survey, about 15% of them indicated that they had consumed a sea turtle at least once in their life time and most said they did it out of curiosity. It was clear that while this practice does exist among some of the fishermen, it is not however popular, and none reported doing it regularly. One of the fishermen mentioned that eating turtles is not very common in their tribe and that this is more common among tribes originating from Al Arish. When asked if they have any preference between green and loggerhead turtles, fishermen showed no preference and were unsure if there would be difference in taste. This is very different to the responses of the fishermen in Alexandria, who prefer green turtles. All the fishermen that declared that they had consumed a turtle mentioned it was not traded and was either found in their net as bycatch or was provided by other fishermen who did not see any value in trading it. In addition, when asked whether they would be interested to consume turtles again, about one third of them said they would not mind repeating it. In brief, consumption of turtles does exist but it is not a key feature of the culture and habitats of the local communities residing around Bardawil Lake. The significance of this threat to the turtle population is considered to be low to moderate, relative to the impact of intentional killing, and in comparison to the spread of this habit among fishermen communities in Alexandria. This does not mean that this threat should be neglected, and this issue should also be integrated into awareness campaigns.

151

Nada 2001; Alfaro-Shigueto et al. 2007; Peckham et al. 2008; Casale 2010; Plug 2004 152 Nada & Casale 2011

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1.

Conclusions

The current assessment included: the collection and analysis of all data and photographic evidence of the rapid sea turtle stranding surveys undertaken over a one-month period (2 October - 3 November 2012) by local authorities and coauthors; interviews with relevant local stakeholders; roundtable discussion with key experts at the national level; and a desktop literature review to define context and background. The analysis of the stranding data and photographic evidence provided by the surveys undertaken confirms that 80â&#x20AC;&#x201C;100 sea turtle carcasses in Bardawil Lake; however, this may be an underestimation as the seabed and about 78% of the lake shoreline was not surveyed (see also limitations in section 4.4). Unlike the press reports, evaluation of the photographic records of 88 unique turtles indicates there was no single mass death event/incident in Bardawil Lake. The sea turtle deaths occurred over a period of time of at least 6 months. So, while the deaths recorded at Bardawil Lake do not represent a single mass stranding, the accumulation of carcasses might indicate that mortality has been occurring regularly over a protracted time scale. In addition, 16 of the turtles were estimated to have died within a 1 month period, which appears unusually high, however, this depends on the current population size of the lake; hence future research is required. Due the closed nature of the lake, with small outlets to the sea, and the fact that stranded turtles were located within the lake, it may be safely concluded that the deaths occurred within the lake, and turtles were not washed into the lake from the outer sea. Sea turtle mortality in Bardawil Lake affects all three species of sea turtle in the Mediterranean: loggerheads, greens and leatherbacks. The available tracking data shows that green and loggerheads nesting in Cyprus and other areas of the eastern Mediterranean may be among the stranded turtles found in Bardawil Lake. A significant finding is that the strandings include both sub-adult and adult turtles.

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The current assessment provides further indication that the area may be used for foraging, mating, wintering and development, in addition to nesting (on the outer shores/sandbar of the lake). Reports by fishermen of an increase in sea turtle numbers in the lake were also recorded, and further support the need for systematic monitoring and research. Taking into account the existing limitations described in the previous chapters, the authors suggest that the immediate cause of death remains subject to further investigation. Natural causes cannot be ruled out; however, humaninduced sea turtle mortality remains the largest threat to sea turtles worldwide. With the exclusion of fishing and salt extraction, other human activities in the lake do not seem to be a probable cause of mortality. Turtle consumption was reported but is not widespread. Physical evidence of anthropogenic causes was not present on most of the recently dead carcases; only five turtles showed evident signs of human-induced death. The cause of death could not be verified for the vast amount of sea turtles due to severe or complete decomposition. It is possible that fishermen intentionally kill some turtles, by hitting or removing the head, while others might be killed by poisoning, however there is no physical evidence at present to support the latter, except the statements of the fishermen during interviews. 153 The use of poison would also risk poisoning the local ecosystem and food source; therefore, these statements require validation. Hence, regular and standardised stranding surveys and subsequent tests need to be implemented, and collaboration with local fishermen should be sought, to better understand the reasons for sea turtle strandings in this lake, in addition to it being important to quantify the actual contribution of fishermen to turtle deaths.

153

Toxicology test results of the two turtles found alive by the fisheries authority are not available; it was not possible to conduct tests on sea turtles in the 2-3 November 2012 survey; physical evidence of the poisoning method was not obtained.

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? The survey documented a hostile attitude of fishermen towards the turtles, due to low awareness of their ecological value and endangered status, and the conflict arising due to their presence in the lake and interaction with fisheries (with impacts on fishing gear and fishing effort). This finding further supports the need for continued research to fully document the conflict and its results, and calls for urgent action to raise awareness among fishermen. The fishermenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitude is also linked to the limited capacity of the GAFRD Bardawil office to enforce national legislation protecting sea turtles and fishing regulations to combat illegal fishing and tackle overfishing. This, in addition to the dependence of the fishermen community on the lake as their main livelihood option and the limited opportunities they have to diversify their income sources, further aggravates the situation. It is suggested that there are underlying causes, related to the institutional and legal set up for

managing territorial governance 154 and the coastal zone, which affect the legitimacy, efficiency and capacity of central government in the decisionmaking process. The central government has been dealing with the management of coastal areas in silos that work in isolation, lacking communication or integration with each other. Bardawil Lake is under the control of the EEAA and of the GAFRD which however is mainly striving to increase fishing output, with limited consideration to nature conservation. Fishermen have very limited involvement in the decision-making process related to the management of the lake, and the key approach endorsed by the GAFRD is command and control, a technocratic and blue-print approach. The marginalisation of the fishermen from the decision making process is further aggravated by the very limited capacity of fishermen cooperatives and other forms of civil society organisations to voice fishermen concerns and priorities.

Figure 34. Potential causes leading to possible intentional sea turtle killing in Bardawil Lake. 154

i.e. the distribution of roles and responsibilities among the different levels of government and the underlying processes of relationship, negotiation and consensus building.

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? The geopolitical significance of Sinai, and of North Sinai in particular, has also shaped the existing situation in Bardawil Lake. Its significance is a double-edged sword, as from one side, due to the geopolitics in play, there is relatively limited anthropogenic intervention in the lake area and low pressure from industrial and extensive agriculture activities, thus leaving the lake relatively pristine. This may have had a positive impact on the quality of fisheries of the lake and abundance of feeding resource, and quietness may form important habitat attributes which explain the presence of sea turtles here. On the other side, the limited developmental interventions in the area have increased the dependence of fishermen on fishing in the lake and the instability in the area may also be affecting the number of missions and conservation projects. The fishermen in Bardawil Lake and the Bedouin community in Sinai in general have been marginalised in the last few decades, and this had a negative impact on their livelihood strategies and institutions. After the 25th of January revolution, the GoE has stated that the development in Sinai is among its top priorities and the Bedouin community and their indigenous institutions will spearhead its development. This requires monitoring in the coming years, and it is hoped that such development plans will strike a balance between job creation and economic development with conservation of the natural environment and of the cultural heritage of the Bedouin community. Future development that could alter the lake ecosystem, lead to pollution and heavy metals accumulation, further overfishing or depletion of other feeding sources, could have gradual impacts on the habitat and eventually affect the turtles

using the lake if they remained in the area rather than moving to other foraging locations. The mortality rate of sea turtles in Bardawil Lake is a cause for concern given the protected status of the species. Hence, the implementation of a consistent and long-term monitoring programme of strandings and live turtles in the marine area of the lake is required. Results could be useful to determine whether the level of mortality is similar or higher compared to other comparable areas of the Mediterranean and the world in general. Every effort should be made to study and reduce the mortality of sea turtles at this site, especially as there are indications that it may be humaninduced, and to further investigate the importance of the habitat for sea turtles as a feeding, developmental, breeding and/or wintering site. The current assessment reiterates the high ecological value of the Bardawil Lake and the need for improved monitoring, ecosystem-approach management and regulation, as well as for local development through a bottom-up approach, to the benefit of the habitat, the local communities and the nation as a whole. Bardawil Lake, as a whole, is a protected Ramsar site and, as such, deserves management decision and measures, which are currently lacking. International binding and non-binding agreements and instruments related to fisheries and nature conservation, including the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, do not seem to be implemented in Bardawil Lake. The next pages provide recommendations and steps to reduce sea turtle mortality and improve site protection, while taking into account the local socioeconomic condition and development needs.

Box 7. Discussion meeting A roundtable discussion was organised on 22 January 2013 at NCE's office in Cairo. The meeting was attended by NCE and Greenpeace members as well as a FAO representative. The information compiled during the November 2012 survey was presented, in addition to draft conclusions and recommendations. The reported increase in sea turtles in the lake, as perceived by fishermen, and the available information from projects which tracked turtles to Lake Bardawil from other locations in the Mediterranean, raised much interest and further questions. There was general agreement about the recommendations; some participants expressed concern that the application of the long-term recommendations will be challenging. It was agreed that human interaction seems to be the key threat to turtles in the lake, hence, an in-depth assessment to understand the changes occurring in the lake was encouraged as well as an immediate awareness-raising campaign.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

5.2.

Recommendations

Based on the previous analysis and conclusions the authors hereby present recommendations, categorised temporally from the short to the long term.

In the short term: 1. Bardawil Lake, as a whole, is a Ramsar site and deserves management decision and measures. A joint national taskforce should be formed by the Head of the EEAA’S Nature Conservation Sector and the chairman of GAFRD to monitor sea turtle conservation and mortality problems in Bardawil Lake and take action towards implementing the existing legislation. This committee should take note of the international binding and non-binding agreements and instruments related to fisheries and nature conservation, including the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. 2. A local taskforce should be formed by the Governor of North Sinai and the Head of the Environmental Department in the North Sinai Governorate, the local offices of GAFRD, the EEAA local representative, the Head of the Zaranik PA, Coastal Guards, conservation and fisheries experts from e.g. Suez Canal University, a representative from the fisheries cooperatives and Civil Society Organisations active in Bardawil lake. The role of this committee should be to oversee conservation efforts and report back to the national taskforce. In addition, this taskforce will form a technical working group that will be involved in undertaking the necessary fieldwork: i. Create a fieldwork schedule and protocols to monitor the marine area of the lake and shores for injured or freshly dead sea turtles. See Box 8 for details. ii. Identify committee participants who have the necessary skills to conduct the above data collection and sampling. Should capacity and equipment be lacking, training and equipment should be requested at national or international level. iii. Formulate a contingency plan to respond to any future (mass or protracted) mortality event, with the aim to swiftly react and collect physical evidence that will further corroborate cause of death. iv. A communication strategy should also be agreed upon as regards press reports. v. Assess, in collaboration with sea turtle veterinary care experts, national facilities with the capacity, both in terms of equipment and expertise, to safely transfer, receive, treat and care for live CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Box 8. Fieldwork specifications. Despite this not being a single mass stranding event, a large number of turtles appear to have died within a relatively short time frame. If the causes of death are not natural, the phenomenon should repeat again, rather than being an isolated case; therefore, it is important to have an ongoing survey with set protocols in progress as soon as possible, in the event of a repeat occurrence. Fieldwork should include: • Clearly delineated strategy to cover all marine and coastal areas of the lake, with a clear timeframe which will ensure regular surveying. Underwater surveys could be conducted to also check the lake seabed for carcasses. • Standardised stranding report form and clear instructions on data recording methods. • Necropsy procedures and a standard procedure for sampling dead turtles and storing samples to conduct tests to verify cause of death. Necropsies should aim to investigate all possible causes of death mentioned in the current report. • Tests to determine decomposition rates specific to the lake environment. For example, daily photograph freshly dead animals on land and also in water; the test should be repeated every 2 - 3 months to determine if decomposition rate varies across seasons. • Protocols would require a clear method of differentiating new strandings from old strandings. Currently, carcasses are left on site. Therefore, the removal and safe disposal of carcasses is strongly recommended. The non removal of carcasses not only causes many difficulties to strandings monitoring, but decaying carcasses may also pose a serious risk to public health. If the safe disposal of a carcass is impossible, it should be marked (sprayed) in addition to being moved at least 10 metres above the storm line of the lake. In this way, any carcases located a certain distance (to be determined based on the storm line) above the calm sea line would be assumed to have been previously recorded. The simple painting of the carapace would be insufficient, as once the carapace scutes peel off, it would no longer be clear if the turtle had been previously documented. • Dead and live turtles should be checked for flipper tags as well as PIT tags (inside neck and all flippers; a scanner would be required). Tagging of live turtles is encouraged by trained personnel. • Surveys could include rubbish count (volume) and collection, as well as counts of other dead animals.

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EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? injured turtles; and conduct necropsy procedures, toxicological and microbiological tests on dead turtles to verify cause of death. Genetic tests should be conducted to identify the population (stock). If facilities and/or expertise are not available nationally, the feasibility of alternative options should be assessed and assistance can be requested for e.g.: sending samples to overseas laboratories, foreign experts providing remote assistance to the involved national vets and toxicologists, etc. In the midterm, a facility suitable to act as a First Aid Centre for injured turtles found in the N. Sinai coastal area and/or a national facility to act as a sea turtle rehabilitation centre should be identified, and expertise and infrastructure improved if necessary, with the support of international experts. vi. Set-up and implement law enforcement and awareness raising actions to prevent use of illegal fishing methods and intentional killing of sea turtles by fishermen, and to alter their negative attitude towards the presence of turtles in the lake. vii. Create an annual report on the progress of all of the above. viii. Communicate with donors and grantmaking entities regarding the possibility of financing research and conservation activities 3. Water, sediment, fish and aquatic birds should be tested, by the EEEA and/or research institutions, aiming to further investigate pollution as a cause of death for marine life and the alleged use of toxic substances by some fishermen. Sample collection can be facilitated by the proposed technical working group. 4. Public consultation with the fishermen community should be undertaken to discuss the conservation status and the impact of the intentional killing of sea turtles on the lake ecosystem and the Mediterranean in general. The issue of sea turtle consumption also needs to be addressed. The awareness campaign should be continued and expanded to target a larger number of fishermen, using different approaches. Should sea turtles be a contentious species, a more palatable approach might be to broaden the message and emphasize the importance of coastal ecosystem health management (which translates to healthy fisheries). Mosques, as a religious institution respected by the fishermen community, should be considered as a venue for spreading awareness and creating a dialogue. CSOs could seek advice and know-how from national and international experts and organisations when developing the campaign approach and content. CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

5. Donors and international organisations should consider funding projects aiming at the study and conservation of sea turtles in Bardawil Lake and provide technical assistance.

In the short to mid-term: 6.

A two-fold project should be undertaken: i. A study on sea turtles and fisheries that will produce the needed scientific knowledge and propose conservation and impact mitigation measures. See Box 9 for details. This assessment should subsequently highlight the relevant conservation and threat mitigation measures. Use of specific lake areas by sea turtles during specific periods of the year could lead to zoning measures. These measures could require vessels to adhere to specific boat speed limits. The possibility and feasibility of declaring no-take zones within the lake should be considered, applying the precautionary approach and provided this is also accompanied by an impact assessment regarding the economic implications of such zoning, with the aim of integrating local livelihood needs into environmental conservation. Any such zoning and implementation of management measures should be preceded by a wide consultation process with fishermen and local stakeholders. ii. An in-depth assessment focusing on the livelihoods of the fishermen and the socioeconomic and institutional factors affecting them should be undertaken. The analysis should also focus on the new groups (political parties, youth groups, etc) that emerged following the revolution and assess their capacity to represent the fishermen demands and rights, and their agenda for nature conservation and wild life protection. This assessment or the study mentioned above should also include a financial appraisal of the economic impacts of any new conservation measures that could restrict human acitivities (zoning, etc). Potential activities that could be undertaken by the local community, which relate to sea turtles or which could indirectly benefit the conservation of the species should be assessed. If such activities are identified, these would need to be sustainable and not increase disturbance to the species present in Bardawil Lake; detailed terms of operation or conduct would therefore need to be prepared; the entire process should be implemented in consultation with the local community.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Box 9. Sea turtle & fisheries study specifications. A study on sea turtles and fisheries in Bardawil Lake should include: • Implementation of a thorough bycatch assessment for all fishing methods and tools used in the lake is crucial. The impact of fishing methods on the sea turtle population in the lake should be quantified. Strong focus on developing an understanding of fishing activities, target fish species and area use in relation to sea turtle area use; with the aim to indicate when and where there is a strong overlap in area use, and develop ways that could enhance fishing practices as well as avoid bycatch. Destructive fishing methods, such as trawling, should be included in the study and results taken into account as regards the need to further regulate or ban these methods within the lake. Examining measures that benefit both turtles and fishermen increases the chances of fishermen adhering to best practices. • The study should take into account and add to the existing studies regarding overfishing problems in the lake by providing an updated fish stock and fleet capacity assessment and an action plan to resolve overfishing problems. • Monitoring of mating, feeding, nesting and migrating behaviour of sea turtles over a longterm period in order to determine possible trends and population dynamics (e.g. the increased trend perceived by fishermen). Together with the bycatch study results, systematic sea turtle monitoring of the lake sea area (through boat surveys and underwater surveys) will reveal species and size ranges of turtles present in the lake, and genetic analysis will show how many different turtle populations the lake supports. Standard capture-mark-recapture surveys through the year will show the average number of animals supported by the lake at different times of year. • Investigation of all physical parameters hyper-salinity, water temperature both at the surface and at various depths throughout the year, presence of heavy metals, currents etc. - that may or may not affect turtle population dynamics and health in the lake. Investigating and correlating possible site fidelity to heavy metal accumulation would also be of scientific and conservation value. Timing, frequency and extent of algal blooms and any potential negative impacts on sea turtle physiology and functioning should be evaluated. • Since fishermen stated perceived sea turtle post-mating death, this misconception should be investigated in more depth and, awareness raising activities should include this topic to re-educate fishermen regarding the life cycle of sea turtles.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

7. Salinity levels, algal blooms, (persistent) organic pollutant and heavy metal accumulation in species in Bardawil Lake should continue to be monitored, studied and reported. 8. The above study results should be fed into targeted local awareness raising and capacity building. Existing best practices and lessons learned regarding mitigating the impact of small-scale fisheries on turtle sand other non-target species should be taken into account, adapted and applied at the local level. Capacity building activities targeting key national and local stakeholders involved in fisheries, turtle conservation and wild life protection should be implemented. 9. Six new salt ponds have obtained permission by the EEAA to operate in Bardawil Lake. The impact of the new salt ponds, along with existing ones, should be closely monitored as these may have an adverse effect on the planktonic communities, resulting from water evaporation. 10. Although the entire lake is a Ramsar site, currently only the Zaranik PA section is protected by law. National declaration of the whole lake as a (marine) protected area should be considered based on the above study results and consultations; and the management plan should subsequently be extended to the entire lake. 11. A renewed comprehensive management plan is needed in order for the Zaranik Protected Area to fulfil its mandate. 12. Government at the national level should assess the existing structures and human resources responsible for fulfilling Egypt’s international commitments and enactment of laws aiming at conserving biodiversity. Specific actions should be undertaken to enhance the role and performance of these structures and set clear targets and indictors to assess the progress. 13. GAFRD should revise its legal and policy framework to be consistent with the objectives of the FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. 14. The Egyptian legislator should consider reviewing laws and legislation that penalise anthropogenic interventions that impact negatively on biodiversity. New legislation, or amendment to Law 4/1994 for the Environment, should include deterrent penalties for violations and specify a system for their implementation, detailing the role and responsibilities of the various authorities. More importantly, law enforcement mechanisms should be revised to ensure better compliance and adherence to regulations.

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In the medium to long term: Lessons learned suggest that decentralisation, and empowerment of local communities is essential for achieving sustainable fisheries. It is recommended that the Egyptian government undertake a profound shift in its centralised “top-down”, “technocratic”, “blue print” approach to territorial governance and management of natural resources. The current approach has proved to fail to deliver the economic growth, achieve sustainable yield of the fisheries, and provide sustainable livelihoods to the communities residing around the Bardawil Lake.

An alternative agenda that endorses the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) should be adopted. The key pillar of this agenda is to strive to include the expectations and priorities of all “stakeholders into management without threatening the options for future generations to gain from the goods and services of resources and ecosystems”. To achieve this, the Egyptian government should direct part of its attention to investigate the livelihoods of the fishermen and the role of socio-institutional mechanisms that enable effective resource-user participation in the decision making regarding the access, control and redistribution of these resources. 155

Box 10. Key guiding principles and lessons learned • Acknowledge the complexity of the process, which aims at designing an institutional set up that ensures harmonisation between different levels of government and between sectors in a politically acceptable manner. • Leadership and commitment at a very senior level within the government should be in place, as this reform will challenge the way government has been operating for a very long time. This process will tackle the existing fragmentation and the silo system inherent in the sectorial management approach adopted by the Egyptian government and the split in jurisdictions between governmental entities mandated to manage fisheries and those managing conservation. It will contest the conventional wisdom that tends to centralise powers within the realm of the national government and detach local government from fisheries management and wild life conservation. • Sound territorial governance, especially for coastal areas, is a dynamic process which requires flexibility, innovation and testing of different approaches in order to create discussion that ensures sustainable resource use. • Development plans for the Bardawil Lake should consider different scenarios with the aim to expand and diversify livelihood options and enable the fishermen community to have the option to regulate their dependence on fisheries. Future developmental interventions should aim at considering the very special nature of the lake and its importance to Mediterranean and global biodiversity. Possible developmental interventions could focus on ecotourism, agriculture and agro industry. It should be noted that any development plan should give ample time to assess and analyse the implications of proposed developmental interventions, conflicting uses, and interrelationships among physical processes and human activities. • Acknowledge that fishermen communities around Bardawil Lake are not just a small spatial unit, with a homogenous structure and a set of common interests and shared norms. Agrawal & Gibson (1999) have indicated that in reality, members of a community, no matter how small it is, pose differences according to wealth, age, ethnicity, cast and gender. Allison & Ellis (2001) argued that if the decisions of either state-led management or community use-rights approaches were based on incomplete understanding of small scale fisheries livelihoods and the differences among them, this could result in management and policy formulation that is unable to deliver resource conservation as well as socioeconomic goals. Co-management is not a ‘magic wand’ and its translation into successful practice and fulfilment of its potential is not a quick fix (Kuperan & Abdullah 1994). International experiences have illustrated that in several cases, the devolution of authority is largely rhetorical, with the key responsibilities found to be in the hands of the State through its decentralized institutions, with minimal contribution of the fishermen in the decision making process. In other cases, actors who are only accountable to themselves or to the community elites dominate local participation, and therefore, there is no specific mechanism to protect and involve the poor and the marginalised (Crook & Manor 1994; Saxena & Sarin 1999; Kumar 2002). Also, in many cases, instead of establishing gender and ethnic equity, women were physically excluded from participation in meetings that were, ironically, organised to try to begin a process of new institutional structures, enabling better representation and participation (Sullivian 2000; Nabane 1995; Gaisford 1997; Matenga 1999; Wells 1999). Also in areas of historical overlapping and contested claims to resources, the group contesting tends to be the one that is marginalised from decision-making by the decentralised local authority (Marindo-Rangani & Zaba 1994; Mosimane 1996; Sullivan 1999; Taylor 1999). 155

Kuperan & Abdullah 1994; Sarch et al. 1997; King 1995; Jentoft & McCay 1995; Lane & Stephenson 1995; Swift 1989; Gore 1993; Gasper 1993; Devereux 1996; Allison & Ellis 2001; Béné 2003

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? The EAF provides an integrated structured decisionmaking process that is capable of linking the economic and biological dimension of fisheries management to the socio-institutional one. According to FAO, the EAF presents “a satisfactory balance between ecosystem conservation, which focuses on protecting ecosystems, and fisheries management that focuses on providing food and income for people’s livelihoods by managing fishing activities”. 156 In addition, the approach calls for an integrated, decentralized and inclusive model of territorial governance that deals with fisheries in a holistic way and considers potential impacts of fishing on the ecosystem health. For the Egyptian government to adopt this approach, the below guiding principles, lessons learned and proposed actions should be considered: Proposed actions: 15. Create mechanisms for fishermen to engage in the management of fisheries and the development planning of Bardawil Lake. Gradual engagement should be developed and should start with providing fishermen communities with information about current and future decisions, and consulting with them on the impact of these decisions on their livelihoods and fisheries. With the creation of a culture of civic engagement and the realisation of rights and responsibilities of each actor, more progressive forms of fishermen engagement could be materialised. This could take the form of co-management whereby a partnership is established between government agencies, local communities and resource users, nongovernmental organizations and other stakeholders share. During the workshops with fishermen and other stakeholders, a consensus has to be reached among all involved regarding the vision that they have for the lake and its resources. This is one of the first issues to consider when designing a consultation process. Stakeholders have to decide themselves on if and how they would like to see the area developing, and take responsibility and ownership of this decision, its results and impacts. In this setting, the authority and responsibility for the management of the lake is co-managed by the joint local government authority (that is mandated to manage fisheries, undertake socio-economic development, and conserve nature), and representatives from the fishermen communities. International experience suggests that under this management scheme, the decisions made are seen 156

as more legitimate and fishermen are more willing to follow regulations, as it suits their existing values and priorities. Throughout this long term process, access to information and awareness is increased among the stakeholders. 16. Develop a strategy with a clear vision for reforming the legal and institutional set up for territorial governance and integrated coastal zone management. This vision should guide the changes in the roles and responsibilities at the national and sub-national levels, as well as the mandates and functions of different governmental and nongovernmental institutions, most importantly: i. GAFRD needs to decentralise key functions related to the direct management of the lake to its local office. ii. Similarly, the EEAA should decentralize key functions to its local office in the Zaranik PA. This process will be successful if both agencies equip their offices with adequate and well trained staff. The supervision over the work undertaken by the local office of GAFRD and the EEAA should be executed by the governor of the North Sinai governorate. The Governor should be given the responsibility to ensure the complementarity of their work, as well as the integration of their activities with an overarching strategy for the development of the north Sinai governorate in general and the Bardawil Lake specifically. 17. The capacity of the cooperative associations, non-governmental organizations and other forms of civil society organizations should be enhanced to effectively represent the fishermen community and voice their suggestions and concerns. 18. Intergovernmental, bilateral or multilateral agencies and other donors should consider contributing and assisting the short to longterm actions needed to provide a viable and sustainable solution, to the benefit of the local society and the natural environment.

FAO 2003

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Quackenbush, S.L., T.M. Work, G.H. Balazs, R.N. Casey, J. Rovnak, A. Chaves, L. du Toit, J.D. Baines, C.R. Parrish, P.R. Bowser, J.W. Casey. 1998. Three closely related herpes viruses are associated with fibropapillomatosis in marine turtles. Virology 246: 392-399 Raey, M.E. 2004. Adaptation to Climate change for sustainable development in the coastal zone of Egypt. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Global Forum on Sustainable Development, Paris, 11-12 November 2004, 19 p. Ramsay, K., M. J. Kaiser and R. N. Hughes. 1998. Responses of benthic scavengers to fishing disturbance by towed gears in different habitats. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 224:73-89. Ramsar. 1991. Ramsar Advisory Missions. Report No. 26. Preliminary mission to Egypt. Lakes Bardawil and Burullus (4-15 October 1991). Accessed on 18th of November, 2012. Ramsar. 2011. The Montreux Record. Available at: http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documentsmontreux-montreux-record/main/ramsar/1-31118%5E20972_4000_0__ Ramsar. 2012. The Annotated Ramsar List: Egypt. Available at: http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsarpubs-notes-anno-egypt/main/ramsar/1-30168%5E16425_4000_0__ Rees A.F., M. Jony, D. Margaritoulis and B.J. Godley. 2008. Satellite tracking of a green turtle, Chelonia mydas, from Syria further highlights importance of North Africa for Mediterranean turtles. Zoology in the Middle East 45:49-54 Rees, A.F., D. Margaritoulis, R. Newman, T.E. Riggall, P. Tsaros, J.A. Zbinden, B.J Godley. 2013. Ecology of loggerhead marine turtles Caretta caretta in a neritic foraging habitat: movements, sex ratios and growth rates. MarBiol 160:519-529. Saad, M.A. 2006. Phytoplankton and Periphytic Algae. In Shaltout K. and Khalil, M (eds) Bardawil lagoon EEAA publication 604pp Sabae, S. 2006. Spatial and Temporal Variations of Saprophytic Bacteria, Faecal Indicators and the Nutrient- Cycle Bacteria in Bardawil Lake, Sinai, Egypt, International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. Vol. 8, No. 2 (p178–185) Sabae, S. Z. 2006. Spatial and temporal variations of saprophytic bacteria, fecal indicators and the nutrient cycle bacteria in Lake Bardawil, Sinai, Egypt. Int. J. Agric. And Biol, 82, 178-185. Salem, A.H. 06 April 2012. Thousands of Fisherman Inaugurate Fishing Season. Youm El Sabe'a (Egypt). http://www3.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=646577

Sanchez, P., M. Demestre, M. Ramon and M. J. Kaiser. 2000. The impact of otter trawling on mud

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communities in the northwestern Mediterranean. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 1352-1358. Saxena N.C. and M. Sarin. 1999. The Western Ghats Forestry and Environmental Projects in Karnataka: a preliminary assessment. In R. Jeffery, & N. Sundar (Eds.). A New Moral Economy for India’s Forests? Discourses of Community and Participation. Sage Publications, New Delhi. pp. 181- 215. Sarch, M., S.P. Madakan and B.L. Ladu. 1997. Investigating systems of fisheries access along the. River Benue in Nigeria. PLA notes, Issue 30.International Institute for Environment and Development, London. pp.40-44 Schofield, G., K.A. Katselidis, J.D. Pantis, P. Dimopoulos, G.C. Hays. 2006. Behaviour analysis of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) from direct inwater observation. Endangered Species Research 2:71-79. Schofield, G., K.A. Katselidis, J.D. Pantis, P. Dimopoulos, G.C. Hays. 2007. Female-female aggression: structure of interaction and outcome in loggerhead sea turtles. Marine Ecology Progress Series 336: 267-274. Schofield, G., R. Scott, A. Dimadi, S. Fossette, K.A. Katselidis, D. Koutsoubas, M.K.S. Lilley, J.D. Pantis, A.D. Karagouni, G.C. Hays. 2013a. Evidence based marine protected area planning for a highly mobile endangered marine vertebrate. Biological Conservation 161:101-109. Schofield, G., A. Dimadi, S. Fossette, K.A. Katselidis, D. Koutsoubas, M.K.S. Lilley, A. Luckman, J.D. Pantis, A.D. Karagouni, G.C. Hays. 2013b. Satellite tracking large numbers of individuals to infer population level dispersal and core areas for the protection of an endangered species. Diversity and Distributions doi: 10.1111/ddi.12077. Schroeder B.A., A.M. Foley, D.A. Bagley. 2003. Nesting patterns, reproductive migrations, and adult foraging areas of loggerhead turtles. In Loggerhead Sea Turtles, Editors Bolten AB, Witherington BE. Smithsonian Books Washington Simms, C.N., M. Clarke, and A.C. Campbell. 2002. Ghost crab predation of loggerhead turtle hatchlings in the Sinai Region of Egypt. Pages 202-203 in Mosier, A., A. Foley, and B. Brost (compilers). Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-477. Simpson, A. 2003. An investigation of the cumulative impacts of shrimp trawling on mud bottom fishing grounds in the Gulf of Maine: effects on habitat and macrofaunal community structure. MSc thesis, University of Maine. Snoddy J. E. and A. Southwood Williard. 2010. Movements and post-release mortality of juvenile

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? sea turtles released from gillnets in the lower Cape Fear River, North Carolina, USA. . Endang Species Res 12:235-247 Soykan, C.U., J.E. Moore, R. Zydelis, L.B. Crowder, C. Safina, R.L. Lewison. 2008. Why study bycatch? An introduction to the theme section on fisheries bycatch. Endangered Species Research 5:91-102 Stone, R., M. M. Masuda, and P. W. Malecha. 2005. Effects of bottom trawling on soft sediment epibenthic communities in the Gulf of Alaska. In: P.W. Barnes and J.P. Thomas (editors), Benthic Habitats and the Effects of Fishing. Am. Fish. Soc. Symposium 41. pp. 461-475. Strasser, M. August 2012. Sinai: A war zone in waiting. The New Statesman. Sullivan, S. 1999. Folk and formal, local and nationalDamara knowledge and community conservation in Southern Kunene, Namibia. Cimbebasia, 15:1-28. Sullivan, S. 2000 Gender, ethnographic myths and community conservation in a former Namibian ‘homeland’. In D. Hodgoson (ed). Rethinking pastoralism: Gender, culture and the myth of the patriarchal pastoralist”, 142-64. London. Swift, J. 1989. Why are rural people vulnerable to famine? IDS Bulletin, Vol.20, No.2, 8-15, Institute of Development Studies, Sussex. Taylor, M. 1999. You cannot put a tie on a buffalo and say that is development. Differing priorities in community conservation, Botswana. Paper presented at Conference on African Environments-Past and Present, St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford, 58 July. UNDP/GEF, 1999. MedWetCoast project (Conservation of Wetland and Coastal Ecosystems in the Mediterranean). Egypt project document. UNEP-MAP RAC/SPA. 2007. Action plan for the conservation of Mediterranean marine turtles. Ed. RAC/SPA, Tunis, pp 40.

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Variy, N. 1990. Assessment of the importance of Lake Bardawil for birds and the likely impact of the north Sinai agricultural development project on the region’s bird population and their habitats. Int. Council. For Bird Preserv., U.K. Final report: 12 pp. Venizelos L. and M. Kallonas. 1999. The exploitation of sea turtles continues in Egypt. Testudo 4:53-58. Venizelos L. and M. Nada. 2000. The exploitation of loggerhead and green turtles continues in Egypt. Marine Turtle Newsletter 87:12 Wallace, B.P., R.L. Lewison, S.L. McDonald, R.K. McDonald, C.Y. Kot, S. Kelez, R. Bjorkland, E.M. Finkbeiner, S. Helmbrecht and L.B. Crowder. 2010. Global patterns of marine turtle bycatch. Conservation Letters, 10, 131–142. Wells, H. 1999. The origin and spread of private wildlife conservancies and neighbour relations in South Africa, in a historical context of wildlife utilization in southern Africa. Paper presented at a conference on African Environments –Past and Present, St. Antony’s collage. University of Oxford, 5-8 July. Wright, L.I., K.L. Stokes, W.J. Fuller, B.J. Godley, A. McGowan, R. Snape, T. Tregenza and A.C. Broderick. 2012. Turtle mating patterns buffer against disruptive effects of climate change. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.2285. WWF. 2011. The MedPAN South Project 2011Mid-Term Report . Yaari, E. January 2012. Sinai: A New Front, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, policy Notes No. 9. Yacoub, A.M. and Abdel-Satar, A. M. (2003): Heavy metals accumulation and macronutrient in the livers of some fish species of Bardawil Lagoon and their histological changes. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. & Fish., 7 (4): 403-422. Zahran, M. A. & Willis, A.J. 2009. “The Vegetation of Egypt”. 2nd Edition. ISBN-10: 1-4020-8756-X. 437pp.

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EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 1: International organisations for sea turtle conservation Worldwide, as well as in the Mediterranean, a large number of institutions, authorities, universities, researchers, conservationists and NGOs, have invested much effort and a great amount of resources towards studying the species in order to better understand its biology and population dynamics, identify conservation needs and propose strategies and policies to reduce negative impacts. A list of the key institutions and conservation efforts follows: •

The Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG) is part of the Species Survival Commission of IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and was founded in 1966 in response to a growing recognition of the endangered status of marine turtles. It comprises of more than 230 expert members in over 80 countries. The Mediterranean Regional Group was one of the first Regional Groups to be established within the MTSG, and now consists of 30 members.

•

Once a year, a wide variety of individuals and entities from around the world that are involved in sea turtle research and conservation meet at the International Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation hosted by the International Sea Turtle Society (ISTS), a global network with the aim of sharing knowledge, ideas and inspiration to ensure healthy sea turtle populations worldwide.

•

157

protect turtles, for setting up and improving Rescue Centres, for Sea Turtle Handling by Fishermen (the Fishermen’s Handbook). In cooperation with the Bonn and Bern Conventions it co-organises and supports the Mediterranean Conferences on Marine Turtles (Rome 2001, Kemer 2005, Hammamet 2008 and Napoli 2011). The Action Plan for the Conservation of Sea turtles in the Mediterranean outlines objectives, priorities, and recommended measures in protection & management, scientific research & monitoring, public awareness, education and capacity building, as well as the coordination of these efforts at a regional level. Annex 1 of the Action Plan provides a tabled view of the necessary measures under each priority identified. It acknowledges that the impact of fishing activities is one of the most important anthropogenic mortality factors for sea turtles in the Mediterranean Sea and has identified the minimisation of incidental catches as a priority. RAC/SPA has published the Sea Turtle Handling Guidebook for fishermen (Arabic, Greek, Spanish, Croatian, Turkish, Slovenian, Italian) and the report ‘Interaction of the marine turtles with fishing in the Mediterranean’ (1999) 158 which describes fishing methods used in the Mediterranean, interaction levels, key priorities and possible ways to reduce fishinginduced sea turtle mortality. •

The Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) was established by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols in order to assist Mediterranean countries in implementing the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean and the related species Action Plans. It catalyses the implementation of the Action Plan for the Conservation of Sea turtles in the Mediterranean 157 through a variety of initiatives and actions: Capacity Building and training courses; supporting surveying, monitoring and research; publication of guidelines in several languages for legislation to UNEP-MAP RAC/SPA 2007

158

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a United Nations specialized agency of which Egypt has been a Member since 1945, established a Committee on Fisheries (COFI) in 1965, a subsidiary body of the FAO Council. COFI is the only global inter-governmental forum where major international fisheries and aquaculture problems and issues are examined and recommendations addressed to governments, regional fishery bodies, NGOs, fish workers, FAO and the international community. FAO also has a dedicated Fisheries and Aquaculture Department dedicated to promoting policies and strategies aiming at sustainable and responsible development of fisheries and aquaculture in inland and marine waters. Identifying reduction of bycatch and Gerosa & Casale 1999

ANNEX 1: International organisations for sea turtle conservation

Page | 67

EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? discards as a key priority, FAO recently updated a 1994 study on a global estimate of the total quantity of marine life caught by fisheries and subsequently discarded. Among other policy issues, the study advocates development of bycatch management plans and promotion of best practices for bycatch reduction and mitigation of incidental catches. The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) specifically addresses conservation of endangered species such as sea turtles, calling for bycatch and impacts of fisheries on biodiversity to be minimized. The 25th session of the COFI in 2003 specifically raised the question of sea turtle conservation and fisheries interaction; deciding expert and technical meetings were needed to improve the information globally available on the issue. These meetings resulted in the development of Technical Guidelines on Reducing Sea Turtle Mortality in Fishing Operations 159 that were endorsed at the 26th session of the COFI in 2004, which called for their immediate implementation by members and regional fishery bodies. Furthermore, FAO has implemented a number of case studies to look at the relative importance of fishery-related sea turtle mortality as compared to the other sources of mortality. Where relevant, technical support has been provided to fisheries management authorities in developing countries to identify appropriate measures to reduce interactions and preliminary results show that appropriate use of knowledge and technology can reconcile conservation and fisheries interests. International Guidelines on Bycatch Management and Reduction of Discards were endorsed by the COFI at its 29th session (February 2011). 160 The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) was established at the FAO Conference in 1949 and currently consists of 24 Member countries including the European Union. Recommendation GFCM/35/2011/4 161 on the incidental by-catch of sea turtles in fisheries in the GFCM Competence Area, includes 15 recommended actions in recognition of the need for Member countries to implement measures to mitigate the adverse effects of fisheries on the species.

•

The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) adopted Resolution 03-11 on sea turtles, which was subsequently replaced by the Recommendation on the By-Catch of Sea Turtles in ICCAT fisheries, 162 which was also endorsed by the GFCM (Recommendation GFCM/35/2011/7D). ICCAT recommends that contracting parties collect and report no later than 2012 information on the interactions with sea turtles in ICCAT fisheries (by gear type, including catch rates that take into consideration gear characteristics, times and locations, target species, and disposition status); that contracting parties enact specific requirements for purse seine and pelagic longline vessels; that the Commission and contracting parties, individually and collectively, engage in capacity building efforts and other cooperative activities to support the effective implementation of this recommendation. ICCAT’S Standing Committee on Research and Statistics is requested to analyse the complied data and provide advice on approaches for mitigating sea turtle bycatch in ICCAT fisheries; based on which the Commission shall consider additional mitigation measures.

159

FAO 2009 FAO 2011 161 GFCM 2011 160

162

ICCAT 2010

ANNEX 1: International organisations for sea turtle conservation

Page | 68

EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 2: International Conventions The following presents a list of Conventions to which Egypt is a signatory that are relevant to sea turtle protection and habitat conservation. At the global level:

At the regional level:

•

• •

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992. Signed by Egypt on 09-06-1992 and ratified on 02-06-1994; as part of Egypt’s effort to address the commitments stemming from the CBD, a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was created in 1998. www.cbd.int Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) 1979. Entered into force in Egypt on 1.11.1983. www.cms.int Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1973. Acceded to on 04/01/1978 and entered into force on 04/04/1978. www.cites.org Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar) (1971) Entered into force on 9 September 1988. http://www.ramsar.org Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (WHC) (1972) Ratified on 07/02/1974 and entered into force on 17 /12/ 1975. http://whc.unesco.org/en

ANNEX 2: International Conventions

•

African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1968. Ratified on 15/09/1968, acceded to on 06/03/1972 and deposited on 12/04/1972. www.africaunion.org Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (1976) includes the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (1995) and the Action Plan for the Conservation of Sea turtles in the Mediterranean which was initially established in 1989 and updated in 1999 and 2007 (UNEP-MAP RAC/SPA 2007). Egypt is a party of the Barcelona Convention since 1976 and has signed (10.06.95) and ratified (11.02.00) the SPA/BD Protocol. www.unepmap.orgwww.racspa.org/marine_turtles

Note: the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (1979) also envisages protection of sea turtles and their habitats. Egypt, unlike other Mediterranean countries, is not a party to the Convention.

Page | 69

EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 3: Data gathering protocol used in November 2012 survey Date found: If dead, possible date of death: Location of the turtle: If possible, GPS coordinates: Reliability of Species Identification (unsure, probable, or positive) : Photo: (yes/no) Species (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas): Sex (male, female, or undetermined) : Age (adult, sub-adult, or juvenile): Minimum Curved Carapace Length : Curved Carapace Width: Total Tail Length : Post Cloacal length: Condition (alive, fresh dead, moderately decomposed, severely decomposed, dried carcass, or skelton and bones only): If dead, is it possible to verify the cause of death? (Yes/No): If yes, cause of death: Presence of Fibropapilloma ( ) Visible scars/injuries ( ) Tar or oil ( ) Debris entanglement ( ) Wounds or mutilation ( ) Epizoa ( ) Other ( ): Cloaca: is there anything protruding? Nostrils: Is there anything (blood or mucus) leaking out of them? The mouth mucus membranes: homogenous? red splotches or yellow-brown raised areas: Oral cavity (Ulcers? Cuts? Plaques? Growths? Hooks? Fishing line? Blood? Spots or lumps?): Are the eyes collapsed? Cloudy or weepy? Any other abnormality: lumps, bumps or exudates in unusual places. Have you taken a sample? If yes. indicated the type Tags(yes/no): Photo: (yes/no) Other remarks:

ANNEX 3: Data gathering protocol used in November 2012 survey

Type (metal, plastic, PIT, etc): Position: Number:

Page | 70

EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 4: 2002-2011 fish production in Egypt (kilotonnes) Year Source

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Capture fisheries Med. Sea

59.62

46.97

47.48

56.72

72.67

83.76

88.88

78.79

77.39

77.80

Red Sea

72.89

70.41

63.91

50.73

46.94

46.99

47.36

49.03

43.97

44.50

5.30

4.86

5.02

5.29

5.21

4.41

4.35

5.52

5.92

5.43

Edku Lake

10.34

10.23

9.06

9.62

8.99

6.65

5.89

6.21

6.49

6.39

Burolls Lake

59.79

55.50

55.00

53.91

52.96

58.29

52.26

53.40

59.52

45.54

Manzala Lake Port Fuad Lagoon Bardawil Lagoon

58.40

65.02

63.77

39.86

41.19

36.78

46.46

48.02

61.08

59.78

0.19

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.32

0.13

0.19

0.14

0.12

3.10

3.30

2.23

3.53

4.14

4.73

5.39

5.41

4.73

4.53

Timsah Lake

5.67

5.88

5.31

6.29

6.16

4.79

4.86

4.56

3.97

3.47

Qarun Lake Rayaan Depression

1.93

2.45

2.68

3.04

1.65

3.07

3.18

3.40

3.90

4.36

1.23

1.31

1.27

1.99

1.69

2.13

2.06

2.62

2.49

3.05

New Valley

0.23

0.31

0.42

0.27

0.48

0.40

0.45

1.06

1.65

Nasser Lake Toshky Depression

23.37

41.32

25.00

30.57

25.82

19.59

29.71

37.66

27.42

26.27

2.50

5.08

7.56

4.05

2.93

2.79

3.18

4.81

2.48

2.74

Nile River & branches

120.85

118.30

104.59

83.54

104.98

97.71

79.69

87.34

84.65

89.71

Total

425.40

431.12

393.49 349.55 375.89 372.49 Aquaculture

373.82

387.40

385.21

375.35

7.13

7.26

Private Farms 323.42 Semiintensive 1.02

387.52

Maryut Lake

State Farms

1.03

7.18

7.59

7.96

8.54

8.55

6.61

10.68

10.09

394.67 492.25

498.89

557.82

586.44

591.28

716.80

721.68

2.47

1.58

1.83

1.86

1.89

3.12

0.70

2.08

2.47

Intensive Cages

28.17

32.06

50.40

19.84

80.14

62.28

69.11

68.05

160.29

216.12

Rice fields

16.33

17.01

17.20

17.60

5.58

5.30

27.90

37.70

29.22

35.11

Total

376.07

444.87

471.54 539.75

595.03

635.52

693.82

705.49

919.59

986.82

Grand Total

801.47

875.99

865.03 889.30

970.92

1008.01

1067.63

1092.89

1304.79 1362.17

Source: GAFRD (2012)

ANNEX 4: 2002-2011 fish production in Egypt (kilotonnes)

Page | 71

EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 5: Bardawil Lake fish production data Table 12. Landings per species per fishing port in 2011 (tonnes) Port Species Sea bream

Tolol

Agzewan

Nasr

Nagala Zaranik

TOTAL

90.1

111.1

12.4

213.6

Sea bass

12.0

14.8

1.6

28.4

Sole

84.0

99.1

11.3

194.4

6.5

Meagre

2.7

3.4

0.4

281.7

307.1

42.8

86.5

20.6

738.6

136.7

158.3

21.7

55.2

2.5

374.4

32.8

37.2

4.5

624.6

69.7

0.5 -

77.8

506.9

2.8 -

1,201.1

Shrimp

545.5

561.9

68.2

1,175.6

Other

218.7

247.7

30.1

18.1

3.6

518.1

TOTAL

1911.0

2165.1

262.7

162.6

27.1

4,528.5

Flathead mullet Thin-lipped grey mullet Golden grey mullet Crabs

Source: GAFRD (2012)

Table 13. 1998-2011 fish production by species in Bardawil Lake (tonnes) Sea bream

Sea bass

Arabic Deneas Karous name Year

Sole Mousa

ThinFlathead lipped Meagre mullet grey mullet Lute

Bouri

Golden grey mullet

Crabs

Shrimp

Other species

Total

Toubara Dehbana Kaborya Gambari

1998

228.4

43.3

134.5

13.8

422.2

337.0

89.7

552.3

270.9

185.4

2,277.4

1999

139.0

42.6

165.0

9.5

509.9

32.0

76.0

658.4

576.5

260.8

2,758.1

2000

252.9

31.0

149.2

13.1

523.8

347.4

81.8

754.2

787.2

204.8

3,145.4

2001

223.1

57.1

141.7

11.2

577.7

330.1

80.6

520.4

595.2

264.3

2,801.3

2002

266.4

24.7

139.8

11.9

651.3

349.9

81.5

608.8

813.7

134.0

3,082.0

2003

279.1

40.1

158.7

8.4

599.8

318.1

81.9

953.5

808.1

77.9

3,325.7

2004

338.7

26.9

126.7

1.3

366.2

258.1

79.0

569.7

345.2

103.9

2,226.9

2005

293.3

35.0

167.9

16.0

404.7

268.9

78.7

1321.9

775.0

17.3

3,534.4

2006

274.0

43.7

292.3

26.9

479.7

268.3

76.1

1184.1

1264.2

232.9

4,142.1

2007

303.1

68.9

281.3

16.2

575.6

301.4

74.2

1342.8

1569.2

196.2

4,728.8

2008

336.2

90.3

342.5

32.5

851.3

347.1

99.5

1610.7

1427.9

25.5

5,392.9

2009

314.6

80.6

231.6

31.8

747.8

307.8

76.1

2053.2

1354.9

211.8

5,410.1

2010

304.1

45.7

123.4

30.0

605.9

443.7

82.6

1456.6

1220.7

420.3

4,732.8

213.6 28.4 Source: GAFRD (2012)

194.4

6.5

738.6

374.4

77.8

1201.1

1175.6

518.1

4,528.5

2011

ANNEX 5: Bardawil Lake fish production data

Page | 72

EGYPTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN? Table 14. 2011 Bardawil Lake monthly fish production by species group (in tonnes)

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Total

422

225

181

100

119

1,202

Mullets nei

159

111

160

132

207

241

121

1,190

Shrimps nei

784

214

1,176

212

Sole, common

194

European seabass

Meagre

182

161

519

1,583

718

490

254

408

568

271

237

4,529

Com. Name Crabs

Month

Gilthead seabream

Others Total

Source: GAFRD (2012). Note: closed season during Jan- Apr.

ANNEX 5: Bardawil Lake fish production data

Page | 73

EGYPT’S BARDAWIL LAKE: SAFE HAVEN OR DEADLY TRAP FOR SEA TURTLES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN?

ANNEX 5: Bardawil Lake fish production data

Page | 74