Introduction….. David King … page 1-3
La Tene Celtic Artistic Motifs…. Jenn Mclean…page 4-6 The Triskele in Celtic Art….page 4 The Battersea Shield….page 5 A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity…. page 6
Celtic Migrations…. David King….page 8-14 Eastern Europe….page 9-10 Celts in Italy….page 11 The Galatians… page 12-13
Celtic Influence on Roman Society….Kasey Luft…page 15-19 Celts in Gaul…page 16 Celts in Britain….page 17 Celts in Iberia….page 18
Celtic Arthur….Mackenzie Dickeson….page 20-23 The Legend of King Arthur….page 20 Arthur in the Celtic World….page 21 Arthur in Battle….page 22
Celtic Christianity….Nicole Boycott….page 24-28 Churches….page 25 Crosses….page 26 Religious Literature…page 27
A Question of the Celts: The Issues of the ‘Celtic’ Identity By: David King The term ‘Celtic’ means something to most people, but the images conjured up are widely varying. For some, it may mean little more than a basketball or soccer team. To others, it suggests a modern Pan-European identity and cultural heritage of the modern Irish and those who once, and still do, had a Celtic language. Some, like the French, whom most would never consider a Celtic nation, are infused with a romanticized sense of their Celtic or Gallic ancestry. But for most, it suggests ancient heroes charging into battle with more courage than clothing, or kilted Scots riding over the moors, even robed monks creating dazzling works of religious art in chilly monasteries. When looking at it all, the term ‘Celtic’ seems to reflect a continuity with the ancient past that many of us share. But where have these images come from? Why are they so different? What extent do these images actually reflect reality? Who were the Celts, and when did they actually live? No one is particularly sure where the term ‘Celtic’ came from. The earliest reference to the Celts came in the form of an obscure poem by 4th-century CE poet Rufus Festus Avienus, who quotes an ancient 6th-century sailing manual that mentions that beyond the tin-producing Oestrymnides was a land now occupied by the Keltoi (Cunliffe 1997, 3). With bias, inconsistency, and liberal use of second-hand accounts, classical writers such as Polybius, Poseidonius, and Diodorus Siculus described and speculated about the Celtae and Galli (Latin), or the Keltoi and Galatae (Greek) (James 1993, 9-10). In contradiction to modern assumptions, the term ‘Celt’ was never used in reference to the ancient Irish or British by any classical source, and only labeled those who lived on the continent as such. The idea that the peoples of Iron Age Britain and Ireland were ‘Celtic’ was only proposed during the 17th and 18th centuries, as a result of linguistic analysis (James 1993, 9). After extensive survey over many years by many scholars, it was concluded that the languages of the ancient Gauls was related to contemporary Irish, Scots Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton. The term ‘Celtic’ was given, and now was understood that this term referred to a group of related languages (James 1993, 8).
Fig. 1: A simplified diagram of the traditional Celtic language tree, showing the relationships between the different dialects.
During the 17th and 18th century, this was all decided during a time of great nationalism in Europe. For Britain and France, a period of ‘Celtomania’ took hold, where each nation scratched for any evidence of a great and glorious past to set them apart. An image of romantic Celtism arose: free noble barbarians, unwilling for the yoke of Rome to be placed upon them. Great warriors but profound natural philosophers, these Celts were the true ancestors of the British and French, providing examples of their innate greatness. These themes have not entirely disappeared today; the French still look to Vercingetorix as an example of French spirit (Cunliffe 1997, 19). In turn, the linguistic classification was extended to all the people of Britain, Ireland and the continent who were thought to have spoken Celtic tongues in pre-Roman and later times. This very broad definition of the Celts as an ethnic group is still largely accepted and popular today, and influences our portrayal of them in pop culture and literature, further strengthening these images of the romantic Celt.
Fig. 2: A statue of the Gallic resistance leader Vercingtorix th erected by Napoleon III during the 19 century, which dominated the plateau at Alesia. Napoleon, faced with the expansion of Prussian power, organized a series of excavations and commemorations at Alesia, to remember Gallic spirit in the face of certain conquest (Haywood 2001, 132).
Our understanding of the Celts today has changed. Through archaeology, analysis of original sources, and linguistic study, the romantic vision of the noble Celtic savage and his European dominance has begun to fade. It is highly unlikely that all the ancient peoples who have been labeled as ‘Celts’ referred to themselves by that name, or even had any idea of some greater Celtic identity. Beyond related speech, the ancient Celts were probably no more likely to be an ethnic unity than the speakers of the Romance languages, which are derived from Latin and are closely related. The Celts were not a homogenous family of people who consciously held a single, ethnic identity. In turn, ideas of a ‘Celtic Empire’, or even a universal and exclusive material Celtic culture, are impossible and cannot be used in any serious discussion of the Celts. The different Celtic peoples may have had great similarity in social structure, religion, and material culture, but there was great variability within that. For example, political structures of the Celts in the last few centuries BCE varied from small tribal kingdoms in Ireland to small-scale states, such as the Aedui and Arverni (James 1993, 125-127). Druidism, although possibly the most recognizable feature of the Celtic peoples, was not a general phenomena in the Celtic world but only occurred in the North and West of the Celtic world (Cunliffe 1997, 190-197). Even style of warfare varied from region to region. This is not to say there is no larger Celtic identity whatsoever. There is still a common (but not exclusive in any way) material culture, a related religious system, evidence for some homogeneity in cultural practices across the Celtic world (as separated as modern Turkey and Ireland), and a group of peoples speaking a series of closely related languages. The classical authors did recognize many of the Northern European peoples we know as Celts as closely related and connected peoples, enough to ascribe diplomatic and kinship ties between them (Haywood 2001, 54). Therefore, one can say that there is a modern concept of a Celtic identity, just perhaps not recognized by the ancient Celts themselves. In this magazine, we hope to capture and describe a few episodes in the long history of the Celtic peoples, ranging from the earliest Celtic migrations to the Celtic revivals in Ireland in the early medieval period. What is important to remember when reading about and researching the Celts is it is the sheer diversity of these peoples that makes them so fascinating. They are unlike any other culture on Earth, changing and adapting over thousands of years but still retaining some aspect that makes them recognizably Celts.
Fig. 3: A general map of the Celtic world. The Celts spread from Central Europe, around Southern Germany, to all corners of Europe, even up into the Bosphorus. There were also extensive raids deep into Greece, Italy, and Spain, with a raiding party of three tribes even settling in central Anatolia.
References: 1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London 2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London 3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London. Images: Fig. 1: http://whitefiles.org/b2_h/1_celtic_museum/zcm/cm4/4_lngg.htm “Introduction to Indo-European Languages” Fig. 2: http://www.burgundytoday.com/historic-places/archaeological-sites/alesia.htm “Alesia” Fig. 3: http://www.bellaterreno.com/art/celtic/celtic_tribes.aspx “Celtic Tribes”
The Triskele in Celtic Art In the most basic terms, the triskele is the most easily recognizable symbol associated with Celtic culture. The triskele is a symbol which appears in many cultures, notably Greek (from which the word triskele originates) but has long since been integrated into and become synonymous with Celtic culture. Some scholars believe that it was an ancient sun symbol and that the triple prongs represented the solar rays, though its exact significance is unknown. Regardless, it can be extrapolated by its extreme repetition that it was certainly an important symbol. Though the triskele retains its Celtic association it predates the La Tene period by a considerable margin, having been found in carvings at Newgrange, County Meath, Ireland, dated to circa 3200 BCE. That being said, the triskele did not become a regular feature of Celtic art until the early Iron Age – it is one of the most defining features of the period, and for some scholars is considered the point at which a more unified Celtic identity began to emerge. It is discursive to assume that the Celts were a cultural singularity, and it is worth establishing that there were dozens of Celtic groups throughout mainland Europe, as well as groups which may not have selfidentified as Celtic but were later grouped as such due to Celtic influence in their language or material culture. What is perhaps more accurate is to say that for the insular Celts, particularly those of Ireland, the influence of La Tene culture became the catalyst for a recognizable trend and the beginning of a more widely realized ethnic identity. Whatever its origins or exact meanings, the triskele has long since been completely integrated into Celtic artwork and visual identity, and some of its conceptual importance can be found in the repetition of threes, particularly common to Irish mythology. In the famous Irish saga The Tain, which follows the adventures of the hero Cu Chulainn, there are multiple references to things happening in threes – the guards will shout three times as a warning, and Cu Chulainn must approach a druidess three times before she will answer his questions. Whether it is a simple, ancient sun symbol or something far more profound, it is undeniable that the triskele is deeply ingrained not just in Celtic artwork, but in the cultural heart of its people.
The Battersea Shield The Battersea Shield is a perfect example of early La Tene artwork at its finest. It is not a functional piece, but rather an ornate decorative fixture for a wooden shield. Though it does make as much use of the spiral motif as many later pieces do, it is interesting to note that it still retains a triplicity theme in the three decorative roundels. It is possible that because this is such an early piece (350-50BC) that it predates the integration of the triskele into insular Celtic art, but the same essence remains in the deliberate geometric pattern and organic spiral patterns. This piece is actually British in origin – though scholars often credit La Tene as being the period during which the insular migration of the Celts occurred, thus marking the inception of a new kind of Celtic identity which is predominately associated with Ireland and Scotland, it would be a mistake to leave out Britain and Wales from the equation. Ireland and Scotland certainly had a different relationship with the Romans than Britain did and it would be possible to argue that as such their cultural identities were less infringed upon, but Britain has significant Celtic heritage nonetheless. The Battersea Shield is an exceptional piece of La Tene material culture, named for the site of its discovery – Battersea Bridge over the River Thames in London, England. It is not unique in this regard; many pieces of La Tene style pieces were discovered in England, which makes a compelling argument for migration patterns, intercultural trade and artistry techniques, and a common cultural denominator. It is difficult to say with absolute certainty what the geographical range of these finds signifies, as they have been found on the islands of Ireland, Scotland and Britain – it would seem to suggest a single group that migrated from mainland Europe and eventually developed different nuances of culture which were traded back and forth, but ultimately some commonality of origin was retained, at least through artistic motifs.
A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity
La Tene artistic motifs are the foundation for what is considered visually Celtic; yet the Celtic aesthetic is coloured by contact with other cultures as well, such as Greek, Etruscan and Viking. This speaks to a continuum of identity represented in visual context, merging several variable elements with strong recurrent themes to create something which is visually striking and distinctive, but which also tells a story about the people who made it. Celtic art in general and La Tene art in particular makes much use of the triple-whorled triskele symbol; when Ireland became a Christian nation, the famous religious text the Book of Kells featured hundreds of triskele interspersed in the illuminated pages, right alongside the apostles. Or there are the crosses of the Irish Christian saint, Brigid; traditionally they are visually very similar to a triskele, though they generally sport four prongs rather than three – like the triskele, it is considered they are meant to mimic an ancient solar symbol. Though Saint Brigid is very much a Christian figure, these crosses are talismans of pagan origin, an echo of a cultural motif which was not extinguished but rather was transmogrified. It becomes a powerful symbol of identity in Celtic art, one which endures despite the early overpowering influence of Christianity and persists to this day.
Bibliography Sources The Triskele in Celtic Art: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions. Raftery, J. (1939) Early Iron Age Decoration on the Dolmen at Rathkenny, Co. Meath. Journal of the County Louth Archaeological Society, 9 (3). Shee, E. (1981) The Megalithic Art of Western Europe. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Image Credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triskel_type_Amfreville.svg
The Battersea Shield: Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions. Stevick, R. (2009) The Primary Plan of the Battersea Shield. Antiquaries Journal, 89 p.53. The British Museum (2012) The Battersea Shield. [online] Available at: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx [Accessed: November 6, 2012]. Image Credit: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions. Mason, T. (1945) St. Brigid's Crosses. The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 75 (3). Image Credit: http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1887/
The Celtic Migrations By: David King
Introduction
: Fig. 1: This is a general map of the Celtic migrations. The earliest migrations have been traditionally understood as being around 500-400 BCE into Iberia, Gaul and Britain, followed by the earliest movements southward from Germany to Cisalpine Gaul just below the Alps (Haywood 2001 36-37). Just around that time, the Celts began an east and southeast movement as well, occupying Pannonia and the modern day Balkans. Large-scale raids and mercenary action led the Celts deep into Italy and Greece, with three rd tribes settling in Central Anatolia after a failed attack on Delphi during the mid 3 century BCE (Haywood 2001, 36-41). There was further movement eastward, with some tribes possibly moving further into Scythia and the Bosphorus, while some Celts found nd employment by the Ptolemies as mercenaries in Egypt during the 2 century BCE (James 1993, 41).
Although their role has been somewhat diminished by recent genetic testing and developments in archaeology, large-scale migrations are still an extremely important feature of Celtic history. Celtic society was highly competitive, and migration may have been a way of relieving pressures such as overpopulation, land shortage, and inter-tribal conflicts over prestige and hierarchy. The first migrations have been documented to have begun between the 4th and 5th centuries BCE (Haywood 2001, 36). Scholars, through an examination of archaeology and analysis of the extensive documentation by ancient scholars believe that the traditional homelands of the Celts, Central Europe, were becoming heavily overpopulated (Cunliffe 1997, 74). This increase in population in a society where the warrior system was so essential would have led to instability, which may have been lessened by the migrations of certain populations. However, this may not account for all migrations. The warrior elites of the early La Tene Celts maintained their position by acts of martial prowess and by displaying their ability to command large retinues (Cunliffe 1997, 75). Both of these could be achieved through the undertaking of large-scale raids, which, if successful would benefit the leader and his followers with increases in prestige and material goods. In short, a growing population could be dealt with in a few ways. In the simplest of situations, a leader could find a new territory to occupy with his entourage. As a result, distinct enclaves of the elite warrior class would have been carved out far enough from the homeland who would have kept their distinct identity long enough to leave archaeologically-visible remains of their presence. At it’s most complicated form, migration may have been the gathering of larger bands of roaming warriors with no particular territorial affiliation under one leader. The growing population and strict social constraints would have left these young men with little to claim for their own (possibly paralleling the hypothesis for the Viking raiding and migrations in the early medieval period), and it would have taken little for one charismatic leader to take his entourage to the rich south, east or west (James 1993, 52-54). Others would have followed, swelling the movement to a migration and inspiring others to follow suit. A rapidly escalating situation such as this could be the reason for the powerful and surprisingly quick migrations from Central Europe outwards.
Section 1: Spain and Eastern Europe Spain: Fig. 2: This image is a rough map of the possible spread of the Celtic language throughout Iberia. There are no specific dates for the spread of the Celtiberians, and scholars can hypothesize that the Celts entered Iberia around 500-400 BCE, asthe Celtiberians had a distinctly Hallstatt material culture. This has been assumed to mean that the Celtiberians migrated before the La Tene material culture became dominant.
The origins and migration dates of the Celtiberians are mysterious and largely hypothetical. Traditional interpretations of the Celtiberian migrations have followed the largely simplistic invasion model, with scholars developing a ‘Two-Celtic-waves’ theory. This saw a wave of proto-Celts arriving from the Pyrenees around 1000 BCE, with a second, more complex, migration bringing in new peoples in the sixth century (Cunliffe 1997, 139). However, modern scholars believe this to be over-simple. Invasionist theories are rejected in favor of a model based on assimilation of selected cultural aspects by the indigenous Iberian elites. This model is based on the idea that the Iberians and Celts shared some early linguistic and ideological traits common to both during the Bronze Age, making assimilation easier (Cunliffe 1997, 139). These characteristics include Iberian personal and place names that are closely related to the earliest Celtic languages, as well as house architecture that is almost identical to the British Celts (who have been long assumed to have had many early Celtic traits compared to the continental Celts), burial rites, and natural religious rites in springs, oaks, and rivers. All these traits are identical to the early Celts, leading scholars to believe that a proto-Celtic culture developed into what we know as the Celtiberians (Cunliffe 1997, 137-140). This was achieved through migration from the west bringing specific Celtic traits that were assimilated by the Iberian peoples, who already shared many similarities with the Celtic newcomers.
Eastern Europe: Fig 3: This is a large overview of the Celtic spread eastwards, starting with Pannonia around 400 BCE. A large-scale and uniform material culture developed in the east, where it then began to spread down into the Balkans, dominating local Thracian, Illyrian and Dacian tribes, as well as into southern Ukraine the Bosphorus. A distinct Celto-Thracian culture developed. Celtic migration eastwards came to a head with the invasion of Greece by Brennus.
Celtic migration eastwards is a little less hazy. During the first migrations outward from the Celtic homelands around 400 BCE, classical scholars largely agree that some part of this exodus moved eastwards (James 1993, 40-41). Geography seems to dictate that they moved along the Danube corridor into Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. By 335 BCE, Celtic raiders are recorded in the Balkans, and one can assume that Celtic settlers were entrenched in the region (Cunliffe 1997, 79). The fourth century BCE sees the development of Celtic communities across the entire very large and very diverse territories of Moravia, Lower Austria, Hungary, and southwest Slovakia. Populations and fighting bands moved comparatively freely over large territories, intermingling and intermarrying with local peoples, making these Celts fairly different from those we find in Gaul and the Po Valley. However, they were recognized as Celtic and spoke a Celtic language, so one can recognize them as Celts (Cunliffe 1997, 172). The Celtic expansion from the Danube was in full force early in the 3rd century BCE, with major thrusts to the south and east clearing the Thracian kingdoms out of the way and Celtic leaders establishing themselves there, such as the Kingdom of Tylis on the black sea. The Celts had relations with the Macedonians, ranging from diplomatic embassies with Alexander himself in 335 BCE to the slaughter of a Macedonian army and general in 280 BCE (Cunliffe 1997, 81). The Celts moved further east as well, into the Ukraine. Their presence is specifically mentioned in a marble inscription in Olbia, dating to the late third or early second century BCE, where a strong force of raiding Galatians threatened the city and were repulsed (Cunliffe 1997, 175). Additional evidence is found through extensive La Tene metalwork and place names, which are suggestive of settlement on a more permanent basis than that of a roving war band.
Section 2: Celts in Italy
Fig. 4: This map is a general overview of the Celtic presence in Italy. Starting in around 400 BCE, the Celts moved southward across the Alps into the Po Valley, crushing the Etruscans and coming into conflict with the Romans in the early fourth century BCE. The Celts thrust as far down as modern day Ancona, creating permanent settlements and developing a distinct Celtic culture that drew heavily on Latin, Estruscan and Greek influences. Around 400 BCE Celtic tribes, identified by Roman authors as Gauls, crossed the Alpine passes and descended upon the Etruscan cities of the Po Valley and Tuscany (Haywood 2001, 42). Perhaps attracted by the luxuries they saw coming out of the south, Celtic tribes began to settle in the area heavily enough to where the area began to be called Gallia Cisalpina, or ‘Gaul this side of the Alps’ (James 1993, 34). These settlers were not the first Celtic speakers in the area, with the Golaseccan culture (originating around 1000 BCE) speaking a Celtic language called Lepontic, perhaps indicated a high degree of Celtic contact and trade with Northern Italy (Haywood 2001, 42). The migrations coincided when Rome, expanding her power northwards, was taking over the southern Etruscan cities piece by piece. When the Celts demanded land to settle in the Etruscan town of Clusium, Rome flexed her new power and sent ambassadors to act on behalf of the city. Negotiations broke down and in the ensuing battle a Celtic warlord was killed. The Romans refused to pay recompense, and the Celts marched on Rome, destroying a Roman army at Allia and sacking the city of Rome (James 1993, 34-35). This led to an overall movement of Celtic tribes into Northern Italy, with tribes such as the Insubres, Cenomani, Senones and curiously the Eastern Celtic tribe of the Boii (who are found from Bohemia to Italy, perhaps indicating the rise of a uniform and united Celtic tribal group) (Haywood 2001, 42-43). This devastating blow to Roman power and authority may have been the reason for the unrest that gripped Central Italy for the next century, in which Celtic tribes and warbands making common appearances. These raids can be best understood in the context of the Celtic social system, which as mentioned in the introduction, employed raids as a way of maintaining and enhancing prestige (Cunliffe 1997, 76). The tribes in the Po Valley constantly mounted expeditions such as this, but these were more ambitious and permanent than the traditional Celtic raiding pattern. The presence of Celtic mercenary warriors was another matter. Cities as far south as Syracuse, on the southern tip of Sicily, hired large contingents of Celtic mercenaries. Dionysus, a tyrant of Syracuse, established a permanent colony at Ancona in the territories of the Senones to specifically have a deep pool of Celtic warriors (Cunliffe 1997, 77). These mercenaries saw action as far as Sparta and North Africa. However, as Rome began to regain strength and start a new expansionist period, the Celts of the Po Valley found themselves facing a threat to their very existence. Celtic tribes began to unites and create alliances with each other (perhaps indicating a recognition of ethnic and cultural unity), raiding more frequently and more seriously, but Rome was not be deterred (Cunliffe 1997, 75-78). After a series of devastating wars and battles that took almost a hundred years, the Celtic presence in Italy was snuffed out by 191 BCE (Haywood 2001, 43).
Fig. 5: An artists rendering of the Battle of Telamon, where a great Celtic confederacy was crushed in 225 BCE.
Section 3: The Galatians
Fig. 6: This image maps out the movement of the Galatians into Anatolia, after being repulsed by the Greeks in the Celtic raid on Delphi. Some parts of the invading force moved back into the Balkans, even as far as Southern Gaul, while others set up kingdoms along the Black Sea. Three tribes, the Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and the Tectosages, moved into Central Anatolia.
The Celtic settlement of Anatolia was a result of the famous Celtic invasion of Greece, led by Brennus and Achichoris in 279 BCE (Haywood 2001, 38). After sacking Delphi, the invading army was hounded out of Greece and split up, where one element, consisting of the Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and Tectosages and led by Lenorios and Lutorios, was hired by King Nicomedes of Bithynia who wanted them to fight in his was the against the Seleucid Empire (Haywood 2001, 40). What is most interesting about this is that half their total numbers of 20,000 were non-combatants (women, children and aged) (Cunliffe 1997, 83). This suggests that unlike the warriors who chose to follow Brennus on his raid, the groups who stayed with Lenorios and Lutorios were migrant populations in search of new land to settle. These Celts were settled first in the disputed land between Bithynia and the Seleucid Empire, but after being defeated by Antiochus I, Basileus of the Seleucid Empire, these Celts moved into the highland areas in the center of Anatolia (James 1993, 41-42). For the next half-century, these Celts, known as Galatians, were a scourge, unbeatable in battle and plundering almost every city in Western Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). Antiochus II himself was even killed in battle against the Galatians in 261 BCE (James 1993, 40). Until Attalus of Pergamum defeated them in 233 BCE at the Springs of Kaikos, the Galatians were the dominant power in Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). The Seleucid and Ptolemaic rulers used the Galatians extensively as mercenaries, although they seemed to be somewhat unruly and temperamental. These mercenaries were sometimes entire tribes, hired by rulers and settled in certain areas (Cunliffe 1997, 84). However, these tribes could get out of hand, as in cases where Prusias of Bithynia had to slaughter an entire Celtic tribe settled in Phrygia as they kept sacking his cities and destroying his armies (James 1993, 41). The Galatians, while numerous, ruled a substantial pre-existing population, although they seem to have kept themselves apart. They preserved their culture and identity for generations, and a strong literary record of their government gives modern scholars insight into how Celtic tribes governed themselves. Each tribe was divided into four septs, or clans, probably with distinct territories. A chief ruled each sept, and he was assisted by a martial leader, two deputy martial leaders, and a judge. It is not clear whether these were elected magistracies like those found in Gaul, but the twelve septs sent a total of 300 ‘senators’ (possibly the five officials mentioned previously, in addition to twenty others from each sept) to a national assembly held at a central shrine called Drunemeton (James 1993, 40-41). There was no real central government or national
policy, as the tribes were too jealous of their independence and seemed to have often fought among themselves (Cunliffe 1993, 85). If there was any doubt to whether this was a truly Celtic system, this last part is trait found in almost every Celtic group in the world. In the formative century following the first incursion of the Celts into Asia, the Celtic tribes, fed by constant new arrivals from Europe, maintained a distinctive lifestyle in which the raid and mercenary service remained an essential part of the social system. The maintenance of a Celtic social structure, and a further sense of ethnic identity implied by the extensive use of the name ‘Galatian’, is a remarkable reflection of the strength of Celtic culture. Even after Roman conquest and assimilation in the first century BCE, aspect of Galatian culture survived. An impressive example of this is the persistence of their language. When Saint Jerome visited Anatolia in the fourth century AD, he remarked that the language used by the Galatians around Ancyra was similar to that he had heard among the Treveri at Trier (Southern Germany). Perhaps, although this is from the hindsight of modern scholarship, he was recognizing the Celtic ancestry of both peoples.
Fig. 6: A general map of the Galatian territories, as well as documented raids, battles and settlements. The Galatians largely focused their raids into the vulnerable kingdoms of the West and South, until they were defeated by Attalus of Pergamum in 233 BCE.
References: 1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London 2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London 3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London. Images: 1. Figure 1: http://mythicmysteriesmiscellany.devhub.com/blog/498735-celtic-migrations/ 2. Figure 2: http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html 3. Figure 3: http://baks449.blogspot.ca/2009/09/chapter-53-klingenbach-way-way-back.html 4. Figure 4: http://www.llmap.org/maps/by-country/ita.html 5. Figure 5: https://crux.baker.edu/~cleppa01/Gallico%20Cingeto/resources.html 6. Figure 6: http://balkancelts.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/galatia/
The British Celts: Recently, a huge archaeological discovery has been uncovered in Britain. A team of archaeologists uncovered a cobbled road that dates to 100 years before the Romans invaded and civilized Britain (Ellicott, 2011). Tim Malin, the lead archaeologist, was brought in to uncover what was thought to be a Roman Road. When Mr. Malin dug deeper he found that a Roman road was actually built on top of an Iron Age road that dates back 100 years before the Romans invaded Britain. This is the first discovery of a road that has been engineered in several stages and can be conclusively determined to have been built before the Romans arrived. The road that was discovered was only 1000 ft. However, the newly discovered road is thought to have been connected to another road that could have been 40 miles long. This road was created in three different stages; the first stage was to lay down elder wood as a base, the second stage was to lay silt on top of the elder wood, and the last stage was to lay river cobbles on top of the silt, which created the highway. Ellicott raises a point where by the Romans may have been inspired by these Celts, seen as how the Romans actually built on top of the original road. If the Romans were inspired by this maybe they would have learned from the British Celts and used their techniques to improve their own road systems. We can see from another source (Raimund) that Irish roads and British roads may be very similar to one another. This means that the Celts in Ireland were skilled road builders and from that we could also conclude that the Celts in Britain were skilled road builders. The Celts may have been a lot more efficient then people give them credit and there is the possibility that they may have influenced the Romans when building new roads.
The Gaulish Celts: The Romans, when first encountered the Celts were quite impressed by their appearance (Moulton, 1998, p119). However, the Celts had very different fashion style from the Romans, the Celts clothing was a lot more practical. The Romans fashion was based mainly on togas. Fashion started to change within the Roman Empire in the later years. The Romans adopted the Celtic clothing, as it was more practical. The Celtic clothing consisted of fitted pants, gold collars around their necks, and a hooded woolen cap. When the Romans adopted Celtic clothing they adopted the fitted pants, and a cape, women wore a mantle to cover their head (Moulton, 1998, p118). The Romans realized that this is more practical clothing and adopted this fashion into their own wardrobe. The Celts were also quite superior in various trades when compared to the Romans (Griffin, 1996). The Celts produced linen and woolen garments that were of the highest quality and that only the wealthiest Romans could afford. The Celts also produced very fashionable boots that Romans adored. Recovered fragments of textiles produced by the Celts show the skill required to create these high quality products. This skill level can only have been maintained from a wellordered system of craft apprenticeship. The Celts, already known for their skill in making crafts and other products, are credited with another important invention called the ‘four horned saddle’ (Gawronski, 2004). The Celts in Gaul commonly used horses for many different purposes, so it is entirely possible that they could have invented a more advanced saddle for their riders. The saddle contained two horns on the front and the back of the saddle, the back horns provide support the rider needs, while the front two horns stop the rider from somersaulting off (Gawronski, 2004). There is some controversy with this saddle as there is a possibility it was invented somewhere else, but it does seem like the Romans adopted the saddle after the Celts and found that this saddle was superior to their own. When Caesar invaded and captured Gaul into the Roman Empire he saw an opportunity to profit off of the local agricultural skill he had seen. The Celts had great skill in rearing cattle, growing and harvesting crops. Caesar saw this skill and used the Celts to produce food for him for eight years when he was at war in Gaul fighting (Filip, 1977). The Celts were incredibly skilled people who’s influence was much wider then people believe. The Gaulish Celts were incredibly important for the Roman empire for if it wasn’t for their skill the Romans would never have been able to be as successful as they were.
The Iberian Celts: The Celtic migrations have previously been covered in this magazine. We know that there are many different kinds of Celts and that really the only thing relating the Celts is there language. Each Celtic tribe had essentially a different society with different material culture. The Celts that had migrated to Iberia had very different war tactics from say, the Gaulish Celts. Many sources point to the fact that the Romans actually adopted a type of sword from the Iberian Celts and introduced it into the Roman infantry as their main weapon. This weapon may have been referred to as the gladius hispaniensis. There are literary sources that describe the Romans adopting a shorter sword that allows for greater thrusting and stabbing movements (Roth). Due to the ingenuity of the Celts in Iberia the Romans were never able to reproduce this sword exactly like the Celtiberians, they were very well skilled in their metal works and the Romans were never able to match this skill (Roth).
If we are to look at the above figure we can see a theoretical model, created through archaeological evidence, of the evolution of weapons throughout a half-century. Throughout the half-century it is amazing how many different weapons were modified and used. We can see from the model that the Romans adopted weapons used by the Celts in Iberia, or Celtiberia as it says in the figure. It is hard to note which weapon was called the gladius hispaniensis; however, it may just be a term used in the manufacturing process like toledo steel (Quesada Sanz, 1997). From this figure we can conclude that there are similarities between the weapons used by the Celtiberians and the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire adapted the weapon to their precise needs, but they were able to recognize the importance of the characteristics of this sword and adopt it into their arsenal.
Bibliography: Celtic Influence on the Romans Cover Page (left to right): http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/iron-agehttp://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/boudica/map.html http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/images/reconstruction-ploughing-iron-age http://downeastblog.blogspot.ca/2007_09_23_archive.html http://asifbymagiccostumes.com/weaponry/gladius-hispaniensis/ http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html The British Celts: Ellicott, Clare. "So what did the Romans do for us? Archaeologists find cobbled road that was built 100 years BEFORE they invaded." Mail Online [London] 16 Mar. 2011: n. pag. Roman road doubt after discovery cobbled built 100 years before invasion | Mail Online. Web. 24 Oct. 2012. Raimund, Karl. "Chariotry and the Road Systems in the Celtic World." Google Scholar. Google, n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://homepage.tinet.ie/~archaeology/roadtonowhere.pdf>. Ellicot, Claire. Sharpstone Road Construction Stages. 2011. Mail Online, London. Web. 15 Oct 2012.
The Gaulish Celts: Filip, Jan. "Farming and Land Ownership." Celtic Civilization and Its Heritage. Wellingborough [Eng.: Collet's, 1977. 110-13. Print. Gawronski, R. S. "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle." Archeologia 55 (2004): 31-40. CEJSH Publication information. Web. 24 Oct. 2012. Griffin, Nick. "The Celts." National Vanguard Magazine Aug. - Sep. 1996: n. pag. The Celts: Part II. "Celts." Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. 118-119. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. The Iberian Celts: Quesada Sanz, F. "Gladius Hispaniensis : An Archaeological View from Iberia." Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 8 (1997): 251-70. Print. Roth, Catherine. "Sword." The Suda. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. The Suda On Line. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://www.stoa.org/solbin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1 &searchstr=Romans+adopted&field=any&num_per_page=100>. Quesada Sanz, F. Suggested evolution of Celtiberian and Iberian sword types and the origin of the gladius hispaniensis. 1997. Gladius Hispaniensis: An Archaeological View from Iberia. Web. 2 Nov 2012.
King Arthur in Celtic Legend The Legend of King Arthur: Amid the hundreds of legendary heroes throughout history there is one man who stands out. King Arthur is one of the most well known legends of all time with countless plays, novels and films portraying his life. Though he is mentioned in early historical accounts of battles most of the history surrounding the Arthur legend is fabricated. There is little evidence to show that the characters we know and love from these versions ever existed. Merlin, Guinevere, Lancelot and Mordred were all added into the story later. One of the earliest mentions of Arthur is in the
Historia Brittonum, written by Nennius around the ninth century. In this text he is said to have fought in nine battles against the Saxons. However, there are some historians who believe that he was involved in twelve battles as twelve is a mystical number. The image of Arthur as a wild barbarian figure has changed quite a lot with retellings of the story. Many now see him as a wise king sitting on a jewelled throne. His image has become romanticised and the peoples of Europe revere him for the heroic deeds he is said to have done. The legend has developed to include the love story between Arthurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best knight Lancelot and his wife, Guinevere. One of his greatest achievements is thought to be the Round Table, which caused every knight who sat around it to be made equal in status. Many of Arthurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knights are thought to have ventured on chivalrous quests and adventures. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inns Arthur himself is supposed to have set off with his knights bruck_1_262.jpg in search of the Holy Grail which ultimately resulted in his Statue of King Arthur, Fifteenth disappearance. He is said to now sleep on the isle of century Avalon, the mystical land of the great priestesses, where he will remain until there is a crisis that requires he wake. Many people believe that he will rise again giving him the title, The Once and Future King. Though King Arthurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s significance appears to be based in British history it is thought that he was more of a hero to the Celts. This is where he first appeared in sources and previous to this he was a feature of many oral histories. The Celts saw him as a hero before the modern world tangled him up into this polished version that we now see.
Arthur in the Celtic World: The King Arthur that we know today still has the bare bones of his history; he is a warrior hero from an age where we know little. Over time he has grown as an influence of propaganda and wise monarchial rule. But Arthur’s Celtic origins are undeniable. The Arthur of the late sixth century and onwards is most likely a combination of a British chief of the same name and the Celtic god, Artaius. Although many Celts before this time saw him as near godlike. The oldest story featuring Arthur is the Welsh tale of Kilhwch and Olwen. In this tale Kilhwch is sent off on a quest that will likely kill him. His quest leads him to Arthur’s castle where he asks for
Culhwch riding into King Arthur’s court http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Culhwch.jpg
assistance. Arthur sends some knights to help him and Kilhwch marries a fair maiden, accomplishing many impossible tasks in the process. This tale is the first to recognize Arthur’s kingship and his undeniable chivalry. Another tale of Arthur that can be tied directly to Celtic myth is that of Taliesin the Bard. This man, who is a legend himself, wrote of how he accompanied the king on a quest for the Head of Annwfn. This is one of the earlier mentions of a grail-like chalice or magical cauldron. Though apparently the journey ended in disaster as only
seven men from three ships returned from the expedition. Perhaps the reasoning behind the awe of King Arthur was that he was famed as such a great ruler. He was fair and just but he was also courageous in a way that was liable to lead others into danger. His knights loved him so furiously that they would follow him into any situation despite its propensity for death. In fact, more often than not they faced situations such as these to test their allegiance to the king and the kingdom. This kind of loyalty is rare anywhere in history. This worked well for Arthur as he was often in battle.
Arthur in Battle: Arthurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will to defeat his enemies in battle was legendary. He was rumored to have killed hundreds of Saxons with his own hand. He commanded great respect for his victories, though some of them may have been slightly over exaggerated. He had enormous armies at his disposal as other kings would join him in combat. It is the belief of many historians that Arthur was important to the Celts because, he helped them escape the tyranny of a transforming world. The battles that he fought against the Saxons ensured that the Celts would be free to practice their culture safely. Arthur can be traced to either nine or twelve battles depending on the source. One that identifies with the Celts is a Welsh battle by the name of Cat Coit Celidon. It is based on a battle listing poem from the late fifth to early sixth century. The most recognized of the battles is the Battle of Mount Badon; which can be corroborated as an actual event in history whether a King Arthur fought there or not. Historians believe that it occurred somewhere around 500 AD. Arthur and his hundreds of troops fought against the Saxons at Mount Badon and vanquished them easily. Some The Battle of Badon Hill texts see this battle as the reason behind Arthur taking the throne so easily. He was http://koc.wikia.com/wiki/Badon said to have killed 960 Saxons by his own hand. After the remaining Saxons had retreated, Arthur followed them in the hopes that he might attack the reinforcements before they could regroup. He succeeded in his ploy and proceeded onwards to be crowned as the king. Then he found the Picts and the Gauls who had fought with the Saxons and pardoned them for their misdeeds. The Celts see Arthur as a great hero and rightfully so, he saved them all from being overtaken by the Saxon hordes. Though there is much debate over the accuracies of the Arthurian legends it cannot be denied that there was a man somewhere who was named Arthur. It is quite possible that he was a Great War hero and that he was a valiant Christian man. And he very likely was a friend to the Celts and the Britons. We may never know if he existed and we may only speculate on his history; but he will never be forgotten.
Bibliography for Celtic Arthur Barber, R. King Arthur: Hero & Legend. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004. Field, P.J.C. "Arthur's Battles." Arthuriana, 2008: 3-32. Halsall, P. "Nennius: The History of the Britons." Fordham University. April 1996. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/nennius.asp (accessed November 3, 2012). Littleton, C.S., and A. C. Thomas. "The Sarmatian Connection: New Light on the Origin of the Arthurian and Holy Grail Legends." The Journal of American Folklore, 1978: 513-527. Rolleston, T.W. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions, 1993. Russell, J.C. "Arthur and the Romano-Celtic Frontier." Modern Philology, 1951: 145-153. Simpson, J.R. "King Arthur's Enchanted Sleep: Early Nineteenth Century Legends." Folklore, 1986: 206-209. Thompson, A. "History of the Kings of Britain." In History of the Kings of Britan, by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Cambridge: Medieval Latin Studies, 1999. Williams, M. "King Arthur in History & Legend." Folklore, 1962: 73-88.
Celtic Christianity: The Celts are an adaptable people. This is probably the reason behind them being among the oldest surviving culture and people. The adaption of their culture that has had the most lasting impact on Celts today was their conversion to Christianity. The Celts had dispersed to several regions; mostly by the 3rd century they had settled on land that became known as the six Celtic nations (Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and the Isle of Mann). As they were not a unified people they converted over an extended period of time. Once Christianized they were official Roman Catholic but soon they developed their own version of the faith, Celtic Christianity. By the time the Roman Empire hand fallen the Celts had largely converted to Christianity. Ireland had been converted largely in the 3rd century by the famous Saint Patrick. However after the center of Rome had moved to eastern Byzantium, or Constantinople as it was renamed, the Celts were disconnected. This factor caused it to diverge from mainstream Christianity. In a way this divergence longer preserved the older traditions of the faith in addition to Roman Latin. Celtic Christianity differed from the traditional Christianity in several aspects. One of the defining differences is the manner in which the Celts calculated Easter. Sadly though, most of the practices that were distinctive to this version of Christianity were lost. Luckily two books were preserved, the Bobbio and the Stowe Misslas, which contain The Irish Ordinary of a Daily mass which is in a later Romanized form. The Celts are an adaptable people and as such they have made Christianity suit them.
Celtic Churches A Church built in the Celtic world is unique. They are built to please an aesthetic very different to that of where the faith originated. After the shift of power in the Roman Empire and then the disconnect of the Celtic world they began to build a different style of church. During the period that the early Celtic churches were built other people were building very opulent buildings. The Byzantine churches were not always largely decorated from the outside but reflected the belief of the time that the exterior is unimportant compared to the interior, thus the interior was ornate. The Celtic churches however were completely simple. The builders were not as familiar with stone work as they were with wood and this is reflected in the work. The buildings produced were very simple. Many of the earlier religious sites were built on the same spots as druid colleges or sacred pagan places. The early monasteries were individual beehive huts with a round church thatched in reeds, straw or sods. The later monasteries were larger as there was more interaction between the monks. These were made of wattle or planks of wood, stone was not used until later. When they did This is an image of St. Michaels Church in start building in stone they were very simple constructions. Tintern Village Wales. The original church They were rectangular with one open space. Sadly we do not was dedicated to St. Michael in 765 AD have complete surviving churches from this period but we do though the site was believed to have been a have fragments and reconstructions. They preserve the place of worship long before that. The history but have added details such as bell towers. Many of Church photographed above is a these reconstructions were built in the 18 hundreds. This is reconstruction done in 1846 AD when the Celtic church remerged after it had been deemed th unorthodox in the 13 century, when missionaries were sent to these nations and found a different version of their faith. After that the Celts largely converted to Catholicism until their traditions re-emerged and blended with it. The Celtic church is very distinctive and ripe with history. The structures they built to house their faith reflect that in their construction.
Ahenny High crosses The Cross is the iconic symbol of Christianity; it is the universal symbol of the faith. As such different regions have their own way of adapting the symbol to their aesthetic. The Irish High Crosses are well known as the Celtic deviations of this symbol. The Ahenny High Crosses are among the earliest group of ringed High Crosses. These two particular crosses belong to the Ossory group. They are Located in Ahenny, County Tipperary, near the Kilkenny border one of these crosses face North while the other faces South (which direction each cross faces designate what it is called). Fabricated from sandstone these two crosses are very similar in design. They were both erected approximately in the 8th to 9th century. The North Facing cross stands 3.65 meters while the South Facing cross stands 3.35 meters. It is thought that these crosses imitate earlier wooden crosses which were encased with metal binding; this is thought to be true as the stone bosses on the cross imitate the metal. Both of these crosses are skilfully carved with intricate geometric designs that are characteristic of Celtic design. The iconic Celtic Knot design is present throughout the cross. This design feature is present because of the early time frame these crosses with built. Later High Crosses concentrate on biblical scenes while these crosses have no such references on the crosses themselves only these interlacing designs on all surfaces. The bases however do have some figures carved on them but they are difficult to decipher. There have been many interpretations of these figures such as, the northern side north cross base being said to carry scenes of a procession with a chariot. The southern side of the base is identified as funeral procession of Cormac Mac Cuilennain who was the Bishop-King of Munster (south). On the East side of the same cross is a figural scene of Adam naming the animals. However this is just one of the interpretations. The west side depicts the scene of the Mission of the Apostles and the seven Bishops. Crosses such as these are very informative about the culture they originated from. It shows how the Celts adapted the Christian Faith to suit their aesthetic and traditions. They represent the Celtic church.
Celtic Religious Literature: Many of the most precious items to come out of the Middle Ages are religious in nature. Among these items are some truly spectacular bibles. The Celts have adapted illuminations to suit their aesthetic and their symbolism like they have done with many items throughout their constant transformations. Arguably among the most terrific examples of these religious texts is the Lindisfarne Gospels. This is the Cover Page of the Gospel of Luke in the Lindisfarne Gospel. It comes after the portrait of the Apostle and it gives an opening. This masterpiece was created around 700 AD at a Monastery in Lindisfarne, close to Northumberland. While there is no way to come to a definite conclusion it is presumed that this Gospel was created by Eadfrith, who became Bishop of Lindisfarne in 698 and died in 721. For certain it has been deducted that the entirety of this work was created by one individual (aside from the red marking in the margin that are from a later date) and as such its creation was a form of prayer. This beautiful book is an example of melded art, it has elements that show the blending of traditions. Throughout the lettering there is the decorative use of Celtic knots. In addition to that there are also animal motifs that are common among the Celts. An example of an animal detail can be found on this particular page on the right side and bottom borders, in these borders there are birds. The right side border also becomes a feline at the bottom. Design features such as these can be found throughout the book. The other opening pages of the gospels are similarly designed and the carpet pages are also rich in Celtic motifs. The four Carpet pages all have a general cross shape, though all different, and are heavily decorated in geometric patterns often including the iconic Celtic Knot. Such details are not wholly Christian and therefore show that the priest who was responsible for the books creation was influenced by his cultural history. Items such as this one are crucial in understanding the culture that created it. This sacred text paints a picture of a unique blend of cultures that made up the Medieval Celtic world.
Bibliography for Celtic Christianity Literary Sources Celtic Christianity: Rolleston, T. W., 1993. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions Ltd.. Toynbee, A., 1966. Larouse Enclyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History. 2 ed. Paris: Librairie Larousse. Celtic Churches: Russil, J., 2010. St Michael's Church, Tintern. [Online] Available at: http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm Schaff, P., 2009. History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073.. s.l.:Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Celtic Crosses: Cultural Heritage Ireland, n.d. The Ahenny High Crosses, near Carrick-On-Suir, Co. Tipperary. [Online] Available at: http://www.culturalheritageireland.ie/index.php/heritage-sites-and-centres/95-the-ahenny-high-crosses-near-carrickon-suir-co-tipperary [Accessed 2012]. Richardson , H. & Scarry, J., 1990. An Introduction to High Crosses. Dublin: Mercier Press. Schorr, K. D. & Schorr, F. J., 2004. [Online] Available at: http://highcrosses.org/ahenny/index.htm [Accessed 2009]. Celtic Literature: British Library, n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/lindisfarne.html Ward, J., n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/gospels/
Images: Figure # 1 (Section cover page) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg Celtic scenery and cross
Figure #2 (Celtic Churches) http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm St. Michaels Church at Tintern
Figure #3 (Celtic Crosses) http://www.megalithicireland.com/High%20Cross%20Ahenny.htm High Cross at Ahenny
Figure #4 (Celtic Literature) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lindisfarne_Gospels_folio_139r.jpg Source: British Library Online Exhibit Introductory Page from the Lindisfarne Gospel
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Section cover page Index
Introductio n to Celtic Christianity Galician Celtic Stele
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Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovic
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Map of Galia Tribes towns
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Map of the rd Celts in 3 century
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Map of Cesare Prima Galia High Cross at Muiredach
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Parade Helmet
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Ardagh Chalice
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Celtic sword and scabbard circa 60 BCE.
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The famous Celtic shield found at Battersea
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Apparition du Saint Graal Cote Dying man
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Photographed at the Metropolitan museum of art
Source: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
Meister des Book of Lindisfarne
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