Anatomy of conflict by Media Council of Kenya

THE ANATOMY OF CONFLICT A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Media Council of Kenya Britam Centre, Ground Floor , Mara/Ragati Road Junction, Upper Hill P. O. Box 43132 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 2737058/ 2716265/2716266/0727 735252 Email: info@mediacouncil.or.ke Website: www.mediacouncil.or.ke @MediaCouncilK

MediaCouncilofKenya

The Anatomy of Conflict A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: Towards Conflict Sensitive Reporting

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

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Britak Centre, Ground Floor, Mara/Ragati Road Junction, Upper Hill. P.O. Box 43132 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya TEL : +254 20 2737058. Cell : 0727735252 Email: info@mediacouncil.or.ke Website: www.mediacouncil.or.ke

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First Published in July 2016 Copyright: Media Council of Kenya All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research, private study, criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically or mechanically, including photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers. ISBN 978-9966-073-11-2

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Table of Contents Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................. vi About this handbook............................................................................................................... vii Foreword............................................................................................................................... viii Part One.................................................................................................................................... 1 The Essentials............................................................................................................................ 1 Why conflict analysis and mapping for journalists........................................................................................... 1 What is at stake?.............................................................................................................................................. 2 Why professional and ethical media coverage of conflict matters.................................................................... 3 What are the inadequacies and inconsistencies in media reporting of conflicts?.............................................. 4 Why conflict analysis matrix is important for journalists.................................................................................. 6 A resource for journalists.................................................................................................................................. 7 Core assumptions underpinning this toolbox................................................................................................... 9 Part Two................................................................................................................................. 11 Introduction to Conflict Analysis; Journalists Perspective........................................................... 11 What conflict analysis is and is not................................................................................................................. 11 Shaping Journalists understanding of conflict situations............................................................................... 12 Conflict analysis and its aim towards conflict sensitive reporting................................................................... 13 Understanding conflict dimensions for wholesome reporting........................................................................ 14 Framework for conflict analysis; towards wholesome reporting.................................................................... 14 Type, level and intensity of conflict................................................................................................................ 15 Power analysis as part of conflict analysis...................................................................................................... 16 Methods of conflict analysis........................................................................................................................... 16 Phases of conflict in the Conflict Circle:........................................................................................................... 17 Conflict dynamics........................................................................................................................................... 18

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Analyzing the Actors...................................................................................................................................... 19 Key issues to consider when undertaking conflict analysis............................................................................. 19 Part Three............................................................................................................................... 21 Introduction to Conflict Analysis Tools for journalists................................................................. 21 Conflict Mapping............................................................................................................................................ 22 Conflict Onion................................................................................................................................................. 23 ABC Triangle................................................................................................................................................... 25 The Conflict Triangle....................................................................................................................................... 27 Conflict Tree.................................................................................................................................................... 27 The Iceberg Model.......................................................................................................................................... 28 Part Four................................................................................................................................. 31 Reporting on political and electoral conflicts............................................................................. 31 Understanding and reporting election violence............................................................................................. 42 Part Five................................................................................................................................. 37 Analysis of journalists stories on conflict................................................................................... 37 Level of understanding of conflict.................................................................................................................. 37 The dilemma of news sources during conflict situations................................................................................. 38 Featuring various actors and balancing perspectives in conflict..................................................................... 39 Why do some conflicts get more media attention than others?...................................................................... 40 Challenges of reporting conflicts in Kenya...................................................................................................... 41 Part Six................................................................................................................................... 43 Gender and Conflict Analysis: Inclusion and Unbiased Reporting................................................. 43 Gender Inclusive media reporting of conflict situations.................................................................................. 43 Lenses on gender situations during armed conflict........................................................................................ 44

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Seven............................................................................................................................... 47 Media, Conflict Analysis and Early Warning.................................................................................................... 47 Early warning in the context of media reporting............................................................................................ 47 Media role relating to early warning.............................................................................................................. 48 Part Eight................................................................................................................................ 51 Practical solutions to challenges faced by journalists when reporting conflict............................................... 51 Part Nine................................................................................................................................ 55 Components of stories with good background of conflict analysis.................................................................. 55

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Acknowledgements

he Media Council of Kenya wishes to thank all those who participated in ensuring the success of data collection, analysis, report writing and preview/editing of this report. This includes the various respondents who were willing to spare their time to participate in the study. We recognize the support of the Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chief Executive Officer Dr. Haron Mwangi and the Programs Manager, Victor Bwire towards the publication of this report. The analysis and writing of this report was done by the Research and Media Monitoring Officer Amos Kibet to whom much gratitude is owed. We appreciate the efforts taken by Kevin Mabonga (Assistant Communications officer) and James Ratemo (Communications Officer) in editing this report. We also appreciate the International Peace Support Training Centre for the training they offered to our officers on conflict analysis that enabled the writing of this guide. We sincerely thank GIZ CPS program for their continued support, and for ensuring the success of this project.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

About this handbook

ournalists have a wealth of information concerning the occurrences from the areas where they report. The nature of their job makes them among the most informed and appropriate target group for any conflict analysis exercise. Actually, the role of journalists is greater than just reporting the facts, it goes further to interrogate issues for the benefit of the target audience. The audience too should be able to understand why things happen the way they do, and not just what happened. This is why there is need to provide background information and context on conflicts in an accurate and credible frame. Reporting conflict is a big responsibility that requires journalists to be informed and understand what they are reporting about. They play a positive role when they portray conflicts in a constructive manner, provide the whole picture, address the root causes, use de-sensationalized language, report on all sides, and highlight peace stories. Constructive conflict coverage that addresses causes of conflict and follows up the post-violence stage has the potential to create opportunities for the public to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict. Conflict sensitive journalism stresses on the importance of news selection, what is being reported on, how, and its consequences on the public. Deep-rooted and intractable conflicts tend to be very complex. Good journalism requires that you do a conflict analysis to understand who all the parties are and what role they are playing in the situation. Disputants often frame the conflict in relatively simple (and often self-serving) terms. Very often the sides see the underlying causes as very different. Sometimes they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t even know what they are, as the conflict has gone on so long and become so embedded in the culture, that raw emotions: fear, humiliation, and anger overlie earlier substantive concerns. Good journalists will explore both the superficial, but also the underlying causes of the conflict from all points of view. With conflict analysis, journalists can understand what diplomats and negotiators are trying to do, and can report it more reliably. With conflict analysis, journalists can identify more sources to go to for information.

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Foreword

onflict analysis is the foundation of any conflict management process, from prevention, mediation to reconciliation. In the world of development organization-both local and international-a nuanced understanding of the context and dynamics of a conflict can determine the effectiveness with which you intervene in a conflict, prevent further harm from,help determine priorities for program development and lead to understanding better the consequences of any actions or policies. Conflict Analysis must be based on a wide range of views about the sources of conflict. Conflicts are about perceptions and the meanings that people attribute to events, policies and institutions. A conflict analysis helps stakeholders to reconsider their perspectives, which are often heavily influenced by emotions, misunderstandings, assumptions, suspicions and mistrust. In conflict situations, emotion can easily overwhelm logic and reason. It is therefore important to distinguish opinion from fact. A conflict is often more complex than it seems. How do the participants frame the conflict? To what extent are their views alike, and how do they differ? How do others frame the conflict? What seem to be the immediate or proximate factors behind the conflict? Are there deeper livelihoods, institutional, political or other structural factors behind the conflict? Trying to manage a conflict as a single, isolated event may be of little use if it is intertwined with wider problems or issues. Journalists should understand that Conflict is not violence, neither is it war. But conflict could lead to war when opposing parties react to conflict violently. Violence does not only mean war, as it is not only direct or physical. Violence could also be structural and cultural. War is a violent conflict. Thus, reporting on conflict does not necessarily mean reporting on wars. Having knowledge about conflicts expands the comprehensions and perspectives of journalists regarding the conflicts and prevents them from focusing only on violence when conflict occurs. By knowing that conflict is a process that has different stages, journalists can be aware that violence is only one of these stages. This said, it is important to distinguish conflict, war and violence. This necessitates understanding the nature and dynamics of conflict which happens through conflict analysis.

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Part One The Essentials Why conflict analysis and mapping for journalists? Journalists need to have extensive and comprehensive understanding of conflict situations before they elaborately report on it. Various audiences and stakeholders in conflict situations depend on the media for information especially during conflict situation where dialogue is non-existent. Journalists ought to exercise professional, objective and conflict sensitive reporting and analysis that will facilitate dialogue, peace building and reconciliation. According to a publication by the 1United Nations Peace building Support Office, conflict analysis can be defined as an assessment of the context, causes, consequences, actors and dynamics of conflict as well as the sources and actors supporting peace and resilience. The aim of conflict analysis among journalists is to gain a comprehensive and shared understanding of potential, latent or ongoing violent conflicts. With the growth of journalism over the years, scholars have been exploring new ways of reporting conflict. These principles and approaches have different labels including; conflict sensitive journalism and conflict de-escalating reporting or peace journalism. Conflict analysis aims to assist journalists achieve the aforementioned conflict reporting skills based on professional and ethical principles that form the

core tenets of conflict sensitive reporting and peace journalism. According to 2Du Toit (2010), conflict is a dynamic situation and changes depending on the level it is at each stage and this is precipitated by factors including entry of new actors. Conflict analysis usually involves an assessment of key conflict factors which include the sources of tension and root causes of conflict, including linkages and synergies. Conflict analysis also considers the actors including; interests, potential spoilers, capacities for violence and peace, incentives required to promote peace. 3Lastly, it looks at the dynamics; triggers for violence and likely future scenarios in terms of conflict resolution and peaceful co-existence. Understanding conflict is very important because conflict is always about change. 4Among other things, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s about people trying to meet unfulfilled needs, enhance their influence, defend their identities, gain increased access to resources and reduce inequalities and injustice. It can also be about people resisting change and fighting to maintain privilege. Conflict is an important driver of change and change is at the heart of almost all media focused reporting. The premise of conflict analysis for journalists is that the more we understand about conflict, its causes, dynamics and prospects for resolution the better our reporting will be. Conflict is almost always more complex than it seems and we can make good use of thinking tools from the field of peace and conflict

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

studies to enhance our understanding of what is happening and why. These tools can help us get beyond the rhetoric of groups involved in disputes and confrontations and help us explore the underlying causes of a conflict. They can also help us identify solutions that have the potential to satisfy all of the stakeholders involved. Elections on fledgling democracies like Kenya are often marred with heated competition that is sometimes manifested through conflict. This sometimes turns violent as witnessed in 2007/2008 or non-violent as witnessed in 2013. 5The 2013 election was described as one of “tense calm” or “unstable peace.” These contrasting and even contradictory views raise questions about the legitimacy of the success narrative with regards to peaceful elections. Kenya is never safe from conflict until some issues are resolved and even so, conflict can never be fully eradicated. Only violent conflict is preventable. The patterns from previous elections in Kenya provide the basis of a comfortable conclusion that violent conflict could erupt before every election. This can happen as long as the longstanding grievances that fueled violence in such elections remain unresolved.

the public depend on the media on accurate, reliable and objective information which require that reporters have extra lenses to discern factors beyond the conflict. While the constraints of time and space are limiting factors in newsroom production, journalists can learn to package their stories without eliminating the essential elements they learn and understand through conflict analysis. While journalists try to remain aloof and distant from the conflict, they inevitably and progressively become involuntary actors as part of the conflict. This happens the moment they start reporting it. As purveyors of conflict information, all the parties to it seek media attention through interaction with journalists. Journalists have often been caught up in the mesh of conflict web which sometimes fogs their understanding and clouds their judgment and reporting of conflict situations.

It is not in the interest of journalists to determine small or big conflict situations to report on but they should understand that how they behave, who they choose as news sources, the questions they ask, what they write and broadcast will influence conflict dynamics. The choices journalists make when they are reporting about conflicts affect not only our understanding of the What is at Stake? conflict but also what we perceive to be the solution. Howard Ross’s handbook 6argues that having the This, in turn, affects the conflict and its outcome. This skills to analyze conflict will enable reporters to be is more so because conflicting parties seek to be heard more professional and informed about the conflict. and seen via media platforms during conflict situations. Professional journalists do not seek to alter, lessen or disrupt the course of conflict. They only seek to present accurate and impartial news. It is clear that

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The connection between media reporting and conflict Management

misperceptions and presenting realities which would otherwise be ignored by conflicting parties. Quality reporting of conflict helps avoid stereotypes and While the connection between media reporting and narrow perspectives on the causes and process of conflict eruption is mostly vague, the media’s influence conflict. We need to appreciate that quality reporting on the course of conflict is insignificantly minimal, cannot happen without clear understanding of conflict inconspicuously minute and oddly intangible most through conflict analysis. of the time. It is a fact however that good reporting by media can shape conflicts in a significant way. The Media can explore and provide information This stands as the fulcrum of professional and ethical about opportunities for resolution and also assist the reporting of conflicts by journalist. parties into dialogue through accurate reporting of issues. This can only happen if journalists have a good To provide a comprehensive picture of what is taking understanding of conflict situation. place in a conflict, journalists need to show how the parties’ attitudes, their behaviors and the social 7Journalists have a potential to contribute to conflict context (contradictions) are impacting on each other. escalation, interfere with peace process, derail While this skill is not imparted in our media training negotiations, misinform the public through inaccurate, institutions, many journalists have reported without insensitive and sensational reporting. Conflict analysis proper understanding of conflict situations within does not aim to shape or limit how journalist report their areas. Too often reporting focuses on behaviors on conflict situations. Objectively, it helps to create without addressing the other important issues a broader, deeper and objective understanding of related to the conflict. This can be achieved through the conflict situation in a way that enhances quality conflict analysis. Analyzing conflicts includes not only reporting. Essentially, conflict analysis makes a collecting information and evidence about the conflict, journalist’s subjective perceptions transparent. but also interpreting and evaluating the information What lenses can we view conflict with as collected. The end user of the information (audience) is the major beneficiary of a diligent, thorough, well- journalists? thought and reported process of conflict analysis. 8 Furlong (2012) argues that conflict can be viewed Why Professional and Ethical media coverage of through cultural lens, communications lens, personality lens, structural lens, type of conflict lens, conflict dynamics of conflict lens, and many more. However, Accurate, objective and reliable reporting of conflict for journalists, they should strive to look at conflict by journalists is very important. It can assist in using all the above perspectives with the aim of an lessening the tension by bringing out facts, correcting A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

objective, accurate and reliable reporting. Considering the arguments of Furlong, conflict analysis aims to equip journalists with a three Dimension perspective and approach to reporting on conflict. With such, they avoid repeating shallow, thoughtless rhetoric about the conflict to achieve sensationalism and targets for their media houses. Journalists who are conflict sensitive recognize that their role is to serve audiences, not to provide a megaphone for any actor in a propaganda war. 9 Ajournalist who has a thorough understanding of the conflict will ask questions that encourage parties to explain their needs, values, and interests and to express their emotions and fears. Through their questioning and interrogation mechanism, they will also challenge actors by reporting the facts when situations are exxegarated. Journalist equipped with conflict sensitive reporting skills and deep background of conflict situations understand that parties firing verbal salvos and threats at each other may make for dramatic content, but it does not help our audiences. “The power of media in warfare is formidable. It can be a mediator or an interpreter or even a facilitator of conflict. If only by editing away facts that do not fit the demands of air time or print space” Elizabeth Rehan, Ellen Sirleaf, Women, War and Peace

What are the inadequacies and inconsistencies in media reporting of conflicts? Rumors, misperceptions, fears and suspicions very often provoke or prolong a violent conflict. Journalists working in a highly polarized and partisan contexts are sometimes pressured to take sides in the conflict, further aggravating divisions. The major problem is that reporting conflict even in the Kenyan context (based on our media monitoring reports, 2015) is often partisan, inaccurate, and sensational and majorly lacks the objectivity that is needed to pass across messages that will promote dialogue, peace and reconciliation. Majority of journalists do not have adequate knowledge on conflict analysis that helps them isolate the various issues and actors in conflict situations (Based on workshop survey during the conflict analysis with sampled journalists, (MCK, 2015/2016). In essence therefore, understanding of the origins, nature, dynamics and possibilities for resolution of conflict is what journalists’ lack. Interactions, media monitoring and discussions with journalists in various regions in Kenya made evident the following inadequacies and inconsistencies: • Stories of conflict are framed within binary categories of good vs. evil, or one ethnic race against another, thus leading to an over-simplification of conflict process. • Journalists who cover the involvement of their ethnic conflicts are sometimes unable to do

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

objective and reliable reporting where their ethnic communities are involved

• Journalists mostly just follow events. They don’t explain what led to those events. They thus reported on conflict superficially and mechanically.

• Journalists sometimes attribute the triggers of conflict as the main causes. • The media ignores the small conflicts while dramatizing and sensationalizing the larger, historic • “Helicopter Journalists” (Journalists who are flown conflicts. to a specific area to cover conflict situations) often do not understand conflict they cover because • Journalists very often personify a conflict, so that they do not have background information on such an act of evil or good is attributed to one person or conflicts. group. This overlooks the dynamics and substantive issues in a conflict. • Journalists concentrate on bad news of conflict and are silent on peace process. Some positive stories • Journalists tend to focus almost exclusively on the are killed due to mindless gatekeeping processes by behavior of groups involved in conflict without editors. explaining the reasons behind people’s actions. • Journalists are often sensational and emotional in their tone or reporting. • The media tends to focus on powerful, conspicuous actors like politicians, warlords and other opinion leaders. • Journalists often reinforce stereotypes which sometimes damage perspectives of conflict.

• Journalists have been dragged into conflict factions based on their geographic areas of reporting. Journalists from two sides of conflict report differently on same conflict situation but with differing perspectives influenced by which side they reporting from. • Distance and vastness of some areas, counties were a great hindrance to professional, ethical and objective reporting of conflict situations in Kenya.

• When telling every story, Journalists not only choose who and what to include inside the frame • Reporters and correspondents indicated that editors but who and what to leave out. Sometimes, sometimes mutilate their stories which they have important details are left when journalists do their carefully and professionally done to fit in space and conflict stories time constraints. • Journalists use limited viewpoints and often repeat (The Bias of the mainstream media is towards old grievances by the old elites when reporting on sensationalism, conflict and laziness, Jon Stewart) conflict.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Why conflict Analysis Matrix is important for Journalists

vii. Examine stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; options and their implications with regards to its watchdog role

The aim of conflict analysis for journalists is to understand the causes, dynamics and the actors/forces who are promoting continued violent conflict. The more we know about conflict, its causes, dynamics and the ways in which it can be managed the better equipped we can be to report on events with the understanding and sensitivity that enables us to make a constructive contribution through good journalism. Objectivity in reporting conflicts is often killed because journalists cannot discern between truth and false information especially when they are given by news sources.

viii. Analyze attempts to negotiate or bridge gaps and objectively report on such with greater ability to do analysis of such efforts based on clear understanding of conflict. ix. Determine an effective style and medium for reporting on various forms of conflict

There are various issues that journalist should understand with regards to coverage of conflict. Whether journalists seek to influence a conflict or not our coverage will always have the potential to impact on whether a conflict develops positively or The aim of 10Conflict analysis for journalists is to achieve not. 11The ability of journalists to make constructive reporting that: contribution depends on the degree to which we i. Upholds the principles of conflict sensitive are seen as credible by all of the parties involved. Journalists should not promote particular solutions to reporting conflict but we can help people to make decisions by ii. Identify perspectives of all important conflict examining the strengths and weaknesses of available parties before doing their stories. options. This is where conflict analysis helps in opening iii. Goes beyond obvious conflict symptoms to the up perspectives, options and areas where parties to a conflict may not be able to see. issues that warrant public attention. iv. Explore the sources and effects of the conflict Ethically and professionally, journalists cannot censor news to avoid upsetting or angering people but we towards wholesome reporting. can offset some of the hazards of exaggerated rumors v. Explain the historical and social context that help which promote fear and violence. However, Journalists project the context of the conflict. can become more effective reporters of conflict and violence if we take the time to read and learn about vi. Examine the escalation or de-escalation of the these complex phenomena. What is needed with conflict for public awareness and interventions urgency in the newsroom is journalism which explores each sideâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s particular difficulties, such as politics or A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

powerful interests can help educate the other side to avoid demands for simplistic and immediate solutions. Characteristics of conflict that necessitates conflict analysis Comprehension of the phenomenon, appreciation of its causes and consideration of its complexity is necessary to analyze, comment or even report on it in a manner that yield positive dividends by raising demands for peace-building. The common characteristics of conflict situations that necessitate conflict analysis for journalists include: 12

ü Multiple Actors: Who are the major actors and what is their role in relations to conflict

A resource for Journalists This book will help journalists by introducing various conflict analysis tools which they can use by themselves or participate in using when involved in conflict analysis with other stakeholders and partners. Ethnic conflicts in Kenya occur frequently, although most are minor skirmishes compared to what’s happening in other Africa countries. Kenya has over 42 ethnic groups. It has had protracted political and ethnic clashes. Some of the causes of ethnic conflict in Kenya include: 13Colonial Policies, Political Instigation, Land issues, Access to water and pasture resources, Loss of traditional grazing land, Cattle rustling, terrorism, perceived Harassment and theft and extortion among other causes.

ü Prolonged Duration: Long conflicts are often convoluted and needs critical understanding

According to a national conflict mapping and analysis report by the various actors and organizations, the 14 ü Complex Issues: Conflicts are sometimes based Kenyan context is coloured by different types of on multiplicity of issues in maze-like fashion conflicts ranging from structural violence, political, economic, identity-based, cross-border, gender-based, ü Perceptions: The perception of parties and human-wildlife, urban, to environmental conflicts. audiences to the conflict are often shaped by There are also challenges of pastoralist conflicts, the media. A thorough understanding of this is intrastate and with neighboring countries. absolutely essential. ü Social-Psychological Factors: The social and psychological factors are characteristics of the conflict should be understood better. ü Geopolitics: Conflict is not often restricted by geographical boundaries and it is important to understand the dynamics of the same.

A well-executed conflict analysis among journalists increases the chances of gaining deeper insight into the underlying factors, which created the actual situation in the conflict area. Shallow understanding by journalists leads to shallow reporting on matters of conflict which in turn impacts on the target audience. Many times journalists are posted as reporters and correspondents to news areas for short term or long

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

terms assignments. Very often they are bombarded by conflict situations which they are required to report with professional and ethical considerations. This book lays down the simple tools and principles of conflict analysis which can help them to flag out key issues regarding the actors, dynamics, causes and ii. consequences of conflict as they report. The kind of poor journalism may amount to no more than isolated incidences of misjudgment in newsrooms when covering conflict situations. Journalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mistakes, however, are made in public and are likely to have an impact on conflict resolutions. Too many errors, even if unrelated, can have a cumulative effect. Journalists can rapidly turn, even if unwittingly, into conflict propaganda. One way of insuring against this is getting facts right and identifying what is wrong and preventing mistakes being made and recognizing professional and ethical journalism relating to conflict sensitive journalism and encouraging its practice. Seven Tough questions that Journalists Need to ask before covering conflict situations i. Do I really understand what is happening? Conflicts are often deep-rooted, intractable and dynamic in nature and quite complex for simple coverage. This is compounded by the fact that coverage of conflict had tremendous implications in terms of conflict transformation. This necessitates journalists to undertake a thorough conflict analysis to understand the actors, structures and dynamics of conflict. Considering the fact that what news sources say

during interviews represents their positions and not their interests. Journalists are often posted from one place to another, this necessitates that they understand conflict analysis within their new areas of posting. What are the underlying causes of the conflict? Parties to a conflict sometimes frame the conflict in very simple terms that reflect positions and not interests. This may be shaped by the fact that they see the underlying causes in different perspectives. Some conflicts have a long history and may have spiraled into revenge missions and often embedded in the culture of conflict parties. In most cases such types of conflict are characterized by raw emotions, fear, humiliation and anger which very often override the substantive concerns of the parties. Good journalism aims to explore both the superficial and substantive issues in its reporting.

iii. What are the possible impacts of conflicts on different parties to a conflict Journalists should be able to build and report on various scenarios of the possible effects of the conflict. Sometimes the parties do not understand the full costs of the conflict and the potential benefits of a settlement and resolution of such conflicts. If journalists are able to represent an assessment of potential effects on various parties then reporting can help in conflict transformation.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

iv. Where are you getting your facts?

wants to use the rind to cook a pudding. What each sister wants is her position, why she wants it is her interest. In this case, the simple solution is to give the cook the rind after the juice has been squeezed for the thirsty sister - thus meeting the interests of both.

Factual disputes are rampant in complex, intractable conflicts. Sometimes this occurs because facts are hard to obtain or understand; sometimes each side claims different “facts”. Journalists should take care to do balanced and careful fact-finding before believing any facts vii. Will my stories contribute to conflict about what is or has been going on. escalation? v. What are the full effects of the conflict on different constituency groups? Conflict participants, particularly those most directly involved in the struggle, often don’t really understand the full cost of the conflict and the potential benefits of settlement or resolution. Doing an assessment of the human, as well as monetary costs, of the conflict on the primary parties, the by-standers (people caught in the middle) and on allies and neighbors of the disputants often reveal an overlooked picture of the conflict situation vi. Are parties to the conflict presenting their positions or interests? Journalists should be able to discern the difference between interest and positions. The 15classic story to illustrate this describes two sisters fighting over the only orange in the family larder. Each sister must have the entire orange for herself, any less is impossible. A wise parent asks each of the girls (in private) why she wants the orange. One explains she wants to drink the juice; the other

Media coverage often contributes to escalating a conflict. Sometimes this is desirable; constructive escalation is sometimes the best way for lowerpower groups to gain power to effectively advocate for their needs. In other cases, escalation gets out of control, and leads to increasing polarization, violence, and costs to all sides. Core assumptions underpinning this tool box The first assumption is that, while fairness, accuracy and responsibility are all generally associated with good, professional news coverage, this handbook suggests that these characteristics alone may not be enough. Understanding of the causes of conflict, the dynamics of conflict escalation and how conflicts can be addressed by parties involved is also important towards conflict sensitive reporting. The more journalists understand about conflict, the better equipped they will be to effectively report on conflict events in conflict sensitive manner. The second assumption is that, inaccurate reports, biased coverage (intentional or not), sensationalism and in some instances outright propaganda is often

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

as a result of many factors. Such factors include misunderstanding, misinterpreting or misrepresenting conflict situations and can exacerbate conflict and result in loss of life and destruction of property.

the conflict. The assumption of the tool is that conflict sensitive reporting can effectively be undertaken if journalists are able to undertake conflict analysis and mapping before reporting.

The third assumption is that journalists will be very wary of assuming that they understand why parties in conflict want what they want and do what they do without giving the parties themselves a chance to explain. Keeping an open mind is important for journalists. They also must be aware that solutions that seem self-evident to them may in no way address the concerns of other parties.

The fifth assumption is that editorial decisions do not affect the manner in which stories on conflict are represented in the media. While issues of space, time and commercial priorities are existent realities in the newsroom, such is assumed not to affect the comprehensive presentation of stories related to conflict. It also assumes that editors will equally need knowledge on conflict analysis. This will assist them in guiding and shaping how reporters and correspondence report on conflict situations.

The fourth assumption is that journalists can explore the use of conflict analysis tool that are often used by peace & conflict experts. This is designed to enhance their understanding of conflict situations in a way that will enrich their reporting. The tools will hopefully make journalists go beyond simple, basic and often sensational confrontations and dramatic rhetoric of groups involved in disputes. Alternatively, journalists will use their lenses to focus on underlying issues of

Understandably, journalists deal with extraordinary levels of pressure in their daily lives, racing from deadline to deadline and ever-mindful of the competition for a â&#x20AC;&#x153;scoopâ&#x20AC;?. As a result, they have little time and opportunity to examine their role as journalists and what it means to themselves and those around them.

Having the necessary skills to analyse conflict will enable a reporter to be a more effective professional journalist and an individual who has greater awareness. Journalism practiced with an understanding and awareness of conflicts is called conflict sensitive journalism. International Media support A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Two Introduction to Conflict Analysis; Journalists Perspective What is Conflict Analysis Conflict analysis should be distinguished from context analysis which seeks to understand the broader situation, including all economic, social, and political factors. According to Conflict Analysis Framework, Field Guidelines and procedures (2012), the conflict exists within the context and is influenced by it, but the conflict has its own important dynamics. A context analysis seeks a broad understanding of the entire political, economic and social (historical, environmental etc.) scene. A conflict analysis is more narrowly focused on the specific elements of that broader picture that may trigger or propel conflict Conflict analysis should also be distinguished from 17 conflict assessment which is a process of analyzing the current situation in order to understand the causes and dynamics of the conflict, and to determine possible areas for intervention. The conflict assessment aims to identify programmatic needs, opportunities, as well as determine appropriate strategies. A conflict assessment is an exploration of the realities of the conflict and an analysis of its underlying causes. In essence, conflict assessments aim to identify needs and opportunities for programmes or projects as well as determine appropriate strategies.

(1997), conflict is interpreted in the context of a serious nature of challenges to the existing norms, relationships, and rules of decision making. On the other hand, the term ‘dispute’ applies to management issues and the control of discontent relating to the implementation of specific policies Conflicts are dynamic and fluid situations. Each conflict as reported by journalists will require in-depth analysis of the issues at the heart of the conflict, although these will vary with each context and over time. Rarely do we find journalists who are narrowly specialized in conflict reporting in the newsroom. The need for knowledge on conflict analysis stems from the understanding that at one point or another, journalists are engaged in reporting of conflict. Such conflicts can range from political exclusion and questions of governance to economic issues such as lack of inclusive development or the equitable sharing of benefits from a country’s natural wealth. 19In one context, a specific issue such as access to land might need to be analyzed; in another, political structures, electoral systems and/or recruitment of personnel into public administration might be paramount issues. What will journalists seek to understand through conflict analysis? Conflict analysis enables journalists to understand the following about the conflict: 20

Conflicts and disputes should also be differentiated in • The type of the conflict; the context of conflict analysis. 18According to Burton • The reasons for the conflict; A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

• The causes and consequences of the conflict;

Shaping Journalists understanding of conflict • The components and the different actors involved situations and Journalists who seek to understand conflicts need to • The levels at which the conflict takes place. The analysis provides information to journalists on how the conflict is seen (whether it is manifest or latent), its dynamics, the relationships and hierarchy of positions between the conflicting parties, and their interests, needs and motivations. In effects conflict analysis allows journalists to examine the dynamics, actors, positions, interest, causes, relationships, types, levels and motivation of conflict for better framing and packaging of news stories.

consider various factors in their coverage: They need to go beyond simply describing the conflict event ie how the parties behaved toward each other. According to Lynch & McGoldrick, (2005), journalists need to question prior relationships between the parties. They also need to look at the broader context in which the conflict happened and how this has shaped their relationships. 22Conflict sensitive reporting

recognizes that events are important, but also that the social processes leading to these events must be explained. This explanation must be made manifest 21 According to Anstey (2008), conflict exists in a if people are to understand why and how a conflict is relationship when parties believe their aspirations unfolding. This can only happen if journalists are able cannot be achieved at the same time. They also perceive to undertake conflict analysis. a divergence in their values, needs or interests (latent). They therefore purpose to mobilise the power that is (Journalists cannot effectively exercise conflict available to them in an effort to eliminate, neutralize, sensitive reporting unless they have a thorough or change each other. There sole desire being to protect understanding of the conflict which can be realized or further their interests in the interaction (manifest through conflict analysis) conflict). From this definition, several things are The World Bank and other development partners have evident in relations to the nature of conflict: used conflict analysis to create or increase knowledge Conflict takes place within relationships. Relationships of the conflict factors. Such analysis has also been are quite complex as well and cannot be understood by used to either contribute to country programming casting a short glance only. The beliefs and perceptions or to inform a specific instrument such as a country of people in conflict are important in shaping conflict strategy or a poverty reduction strategy. 23Additionally, situations, Conflict is always about parties’ needs, they have used conflict analysis to integrate a conflict values and interests and that conflict is often manifest perspective into a wider assessment framework. Such when parties begin to mobilise the power that they has also included country social analysis or a poverty and social assessment. Media practitioners can borrow have to shape the way conflict happens. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

heavily from such conflict analysis tools and processes. ü Conflict Vocabulary Should Not Be Used Imprecisely With such capabilities, the media will better stand at a vantage point with the vast knowledge of the ü Being Judgmental is being Detrimental happenings and occurrences within their areas of ü Opinions Are Not Facts reporting. Conflict analysis is not a one-time exercise, with rigid tools, or a one-size-fits-all process. 24It is an on-going process, and should be permanently adapted to the ever changing circumstances that are being analysed. Conflict analysis applies to all levels of conflict, from interpersonal through to international, and all stages of conflict, escalation and decline. Conflict Analysis and its aim towards conflict sensitive reporting Conflict analysis aims to equip journalists with capacity to ensure conflict sensitive reporting. The provocative wording; use of adjectives; narrow view of conflict and partial reporting; become commonplace without journalists understanding of conflict .This additionally happens without being conscious that they are contributing to the perpetuation of such conflict. Some of the tips towards conflict sensitive reporting can only be achieved with a thorough understanding of conflict situations. ü Report Conflict as Multi-Dimensional phenomenon

Journalists need to ask more questions towards understanding the conflict. More answers lead to more information on multi-dimensional aspects of a conflict. Information that is fed to journalists by parties at conflict suits their interests and not the interest of an independent media. Deeper probing with as many people related to conflict directly or indirectly leads to information that is important and essential to untie the knots that keep settlement of conflict a distant possibility. It is also important for the projection and reflection of diverse perspectives through the media. Therefore, a conflict sensitive journalist applies conflict analysis and searches for new voices and new ideas about the conflict. Journalists’ reports on who is trying to resolve the conflict, looks closely at all sides, and reports on how other conflicts were resolved. A conflict sensitive journalist takes no sides, but is engaged in the search for solutions. Conflict sensitive journalists choose their words carefully and try to be as objective as possible. This happens if they know what words are appropriate to use in specific context and what is not. This can only be done through conflict analysis.

ü Recognize Divisive Propaganda. ü Cover Both Sides of Conflict ü Subjective Interpretations Compromise Objectivity A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Understanding conflict Dimensions for wholesome reporting

violence. A good example of proximate causes can be the recent oil exploits which could prove profitable to the community which takes advantage of land-leasing Understanding conflict dimension requires that arrangements. Thus there is a lot at stake for both journalists look critically at various aspects of conflict. Turkana and Pokot. 25 Conflict causes can be defined as those factors which contribute to people’s grievances; and can be further It is important for journalists to acknowledge that conflicts are multi -dimensional and multi-causal described as: • Structural causes are the pervasive factors that have become built into the policies, structures and fabric of a society and may create the preconditions for violent conflict

phenomena that there is no single cause of conflict. It is also essential to establish linkages and synergies between causes and factors for accurate and in-depth reporting by journalists.

• Proximate causes are the factors contributing to a climate conducive to violent conflict or its further escalation, sometimes apparently symptomatic of a deeper problem

For example, in Kenya people belonging to particular ethnic groups have felt marginalized by a government dominated by people from another group. This sense of deprivation has caused resentment toward those from the ruling tribe and this has contributed toward heightened conflict during periods of instability, such as the aftermath of the 2007 elections in Kenya .To provide a comprehensive picture of what is taking place in a conflict, journalists need to show how all of these issues the parties’ attitudes, their behaviors and the social context (contradictions) are impacting on each other. Too often reporting focuses on behaviors without addressing the other two factors. This can be adequately addressed through a well-structured conflict analysis model by journalist

• Triggers are the single key acts, events, or their anticipation that will set off or escalate violent conflict. Causes of conflict are divided into three different categories: proximate, intermediate and root causes. Structural causes are also known as root causes of conflict and refers to those long standing factors that may have been latent for a long period but are critical to address systemic violence. The pastoral warfare and cattle rustling served mainly as a tool for resource and land expansion by these Turkana and Pokot tribes and consists of the structural causes. Intermediate and proximate causes and are more recent and visible causes. Intermediate causes generally act as accelerators of violent conflict while proximate causes are those issues that can trigger or further escalate

Framework for conflict analysis; towards wholesome reporting There are several aspects that journalists can use as a framework of analyzing conflict when doing their stories. They are: social and ethnic relations; governance

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

and political institutions; human rights and security; Type, level and intensity of conflict economic structure and performance; environment 26 Conflicts vary in level, intensity and nature of hostility and natural resources; and external factors. between parties. Whatever the issues, weapons, According to a report by Nairobi peace Initiative A parties and geographic scale, the intensity of hostility validated report of the National Conflict Mapping and between the parties is a useful way to assess a conflict. Analysis with Recommendations for Actors, analyzing This level of hostility can be measured through the and mapping of conflict consist of a critical examination attitudes and behaviors the parties exhibit towards of various aspects that shape or lead to conflict. A each other. Understanding the definition of conflict holistic espousal of conflict by journalists requires that which is present when two or more parties perceive they undertake a critical examination of the following that their interests are incompatible, express hostile aspects as part of understanding and reporting conflict attitudes, or take pursue their interests through actions that damage the other parties. These parties may be in a sensitive way. The variables are: individuals, small or large groups, and countries. i. Political dimensions Interests can diverge in many ways: ii. Security dimensions iii. Legal dimensions iv. Economic dimensions

• Over resources: Such resources include but not limited to territory, money, energy sources, food and how they should be distributed.

v. Socio-cultural dimensions

• Over power: meaning how control and participation in political decision-making are allocated. The media can help people to identify and understand the dimensions and root causes of a conflict, journalists • Over identity, concerning the cultural, social can raise awareness about what needs to happen and political communities to which people feel in order for a conflict to be effectively resolved. By tied. anticipating how a conflict might develop, journalists can ask questions that raise awareness about the • Over status, whether people believe they are potentially harmful effects of allowing a conflict to treated with respect and dignity and whether escalate. By identifying the ways in which parties are their traditions and social position are respected. approaching conflicts journalists can pose questions • Over values, particularly those embodied in that highlight the strengths and weaknesses of systems of government, religion, or ideology. competitive and collaborative approaches that parties are adopting in pursuing the conflict. vi. Environmental dimensions

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The gradations suggest that conflicts and peace rarely, if ever, arise suddenly, shift quickly from one status to another, or end suddenly. Various dynamics demand that journalist continuously monitor and report on conflict situations. Numerous factors can cause a shift from one conflict gradation to another include: • The intensity and number of grievances. • Parties’ awareness of their differences; perceptions and attitudes towards each other.

Power analysis as part of conflict analysis Power analysis is a process that identifies structures and power relationships between actors. It describes discrimination and other human rights abuses, is an important part of any strategic conflict analysis. In establishing power relations with reference to the conflict, journalist should: 27

• Link actors and their interests in order to define ongoing and/or potential conflicts in which actors • The intensity of emotion and psychological have incompatible interests. investment in the parties’ positions and views of • Link actors and interests so as clearly to define the world. the common ground where actors may have • The amount of direct interaction and compatible interests. communication the parties have with one • Look at actors’ positions and assess their another. incompatible interests in terms of greed and • The level of political mobilization and organization grievances. behind the parties’ positions. • Cohesion between the respective parties’ leaders • Look at actors’ expectations and assess possible expectation gaps. and constituencies. • The amount of hostile behavior. • The extent that parties use or threaten to use arms. • The number of parties supportive of each side.

• Look at fear and insecurity as driving forces of various actors. Methods of conflict analysis

Journalists can carry out conflict analysis through a The notion that the ‘beginning’ and ‘end’ of a conflict variety of ways: can be identified is inappropriate in contemporary conflicts. Conflict is a dynamic social process in • The direct and immediate recording of events or observation. Since their work involve mostly field which the original structural tensions are themselves work, they are better placed to assess the situation profoundly reshaped by the massive disruptions through observation and registration of effects of conflict. Therefore ‘root causes’ may become decreasingly relevant in protracted conflicts that have • Measuring social relationships and the degree of led to the transformation of the state and society. relatedness among people : A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

• The analysis of all available information provided includes gross violations of human rights and/or through various mediums for data storage or the threats of violence. This situation entails the risk of study of documents; armed conflict. • Interviews and meetings with conflict parties, Violent Conflict: Incompatibilities or differences and other interested parties; between groups of people that result in organized • Carry out random surveys and general and specific violence. This can range from violent confrontations inquiries. and manifestations in society, such as violent riots and massive crackdowns on protestors, to wars, genocide Phases of Conflict in the Conflict Circle: and massacres. Conflict is conceived of as a circle consisting of different Post-Conflict: The situation following open phases that can reoccur unless the circle is broken. confrontation. Post-conflict need not be the end of the Journalists need to understand the phases of conflict. conflict, as it can also entail the beginning of a new 28 The phases are: submerged tension, rising tension, conflict if developments do not move in a favorable violent conflict and post-conflict. The goal of activities direction. promoting peace and security is to escape the vicious circle. With a clear understanding of conflict situations, the media can play the following roles in various Submerged Tension: Submerged tension refers stages of conflict: to underlying conflict motives, which can be caused by structural instability in a country or region. These • Submerged & Rising tension: The media often appear as greed or grievances from various can play a critical ruling in this stage, the media population groups and elites in the society. In the long publicizes the competing interests of conflicting run, these grievances can increase the risk of political parties, which may lead to a conflict situation, instability and armed conflict. Submerged tension is with a view to striking common grounds for a very common phase during electioneering periods and negotiated settlement of differences and thus it is important that journalists understand the causes raise demands for peace. Conflict analysis in this of the submerged tension. stage helps journalists understand the critical and competing interests by the conflicting parties. Rising Tension: Rising tension refers to a situation in which grievances increasingly are accompanied • Violent Conflict: The media with a knowledge of by violent demonstrations and open protests. Often conflict analysis empowerment can brings to fore an open political power struggle is underway, and its human, economic, social and political impacts political violence has increased. The situation often and thus be able to reinforce the path towards the de-escalation of conflict. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

â&#x20AC;˘ Post-conflict: The function of the media at this stage of conflict is to keep an eye on the enforcement of peace agreements that have been put in place by competing parties and ensures that they are being implemented judiciously.

are rife. A good example of a trigger is the Tunisian street vendor who in December 2010 set himself on fire after being harassed by the police, and whose death triggered a wave of mass protests in the entire Arab region. Other known triggers may include: election disputes, arrest or assassination of political leaders, Conflict dynamics drought, a military coup, flood, a strike that turns If journalists are to report more accurately and violent and other social media broadcasts. effectively on issues of conflict, they have to examine all palpable evidences regarding the conflict dynamics. The analysis of conflict dynamics is a critical step in the conflict analysis process that explores the interaction between the conflict situation, the stakeholders, and the identified causes of conflict. Analyzing conflict dynamics involves examining the different elements that relate to the conflict. 29Some of the factors that are considered include: connectors and dividers, triggers, accelerators, conflict drivers, conflict trends and possible scenarios.

Conflict drivers Conflict drivers are normally issues and processes that fuel violence and lengthen the conflict process. Conflict drivers are normally dynamic and they evolve over time and sustain violence. Controversial debates abound as to the nature of conflict triggers and drivers and as to whether it is greed (the fierce competition over resources) or rather grievance (the uneven enjoyment of universal rights) that really drives conflict. Examples of conflict drivers in Kenya and many parts of the world include: corruption, poor accountability system, ethnic, regional and gender-based discrimination, presence of natural resources and their uneven distribution.

The idea that conflicts have beginnings and endings is highly irrelevant in contemporary conflict situations. 30 Conflict is a dynamic social process where the original structural tensions are shaped by the massive Conflict trends disruption of the conflict. Very often the root causes Conflict trends are common patterns that feature may become irrelevant in prolonged and protracted conflict and political violence in one country. These conflict of the contemporary society. patterns can be periodical events or precedents that Conflict triggers recur in a cyclical way over a certain span of time. For instance, the regional rather than national dimension Triggers are isolated events or occurrences that are of conflicts is a recurring pattern of violence in Sudan. capable of starting or escalating conflict and violence In Kenya, a cattle rustling has been a major trend that situations. When there exists prolonged instability and has been facilitated by commercial interests. Trends high tensions then the condition favorable for triggers are a critical element to consider when developing potential scenarios. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Analysing the Actors i. Interests: what interests do they have in relation to the conflict and how do these interests influence the conflict? ii. Relations: what are the relationships between the various actors? iii. Capacities: what capacities do they have to influence conflict either positively or negatively? iv. Peace Agendas: do they have an interest in peace? What kind of peace do they want? v. Incentives: what kind of incentives could be offered for them to choose peace? Or disincentives to engage with violence? Key issues to consider when undertaking conflict analysis Issue One: Consider the underlying structures and causes that created the grounds for the conflict Every conflict has many causes. Some causes seem more obvious, conspicuous and prominent as compared to others. Journalists should start by defining the key sources of tension and root causes of conflict. Some of the crucial structural factors that journalists should be look at include; the economic development and equity of distribution of the area under conflict, the existing political system and structures, democratic structural causes, respect for human rights, natural resources, the environment, and other sources of violent conflict or positive structural influence.

Additionally, journalists should look at the ability in terms of strengths and weaknesses of existing formal and informal institutions to address grievances that can potential lead to conflict. They should also examine avenues of opportunistic behavior by conflict actors and other actions that can further the interests of confrontational actors. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze the underlying structures and root causes as thoroughly and historically far back as possible. Issue Two: Consider the most recent causes of conflict and why the conflict continues unabated When analyzing the causes of conflict, journalists should consider the difference between the deep underlying causes that created the grounds for potential conflict, but also the more recent causes. Among these “proximate causes” it is important to describe the conflict dynamics and, for example the way the war economy functions. If conflicts take long, they are in fact creating their own causes. This level of analysis will not identify why the conflict started but why it is continuing. It also describes some of the causes that directly relate to the underlying causes. This is especially important for conflicts that have persisted for decades without solutions. 31

Issue Three: Consider who the actors and stakeholders in the conflict. Describe how and why they are the conflict’s stakeholders Journalists need to fully understand which actors there are in the conflict and what their role is. Try to describe all conflict-related actors at all levels (including Governments, armed groups but also civil society

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

actors, donors, international actors and communities, individuals, men and women. The focus here is those actors causing and fueling the conflict. When analysing the actors, focus on their incompatible interests in terms of greed and grievances and how these factors affect and are affected by ongoing and potential violent conflicts. Fear is a strong driving force of actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviour in situations of insecurity. Examine various actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; expectations and possible gaps between these expectations and how they are met. Analyse the power base and resources of key actors and also include the power analysis that identifies structures and power relationships between actors.

because it shapes their behavioral reactions. Before doing a conflict story, try and understand the underlying attitudes, motivations and perceptions which are largely shaped by the context in which people are living in. It is also compounded by the experiences that they have had before. While doing analysis of attitudes, journalists should strive to understand the source of perceptions that fuel violent behavior in the conflict. Include perceptions among civilians that are older, rooted in the culture as well as the attitudes and perceptions of violent actors. It is important to also consider the changes in attitudes that are a result of the conflict.

Consider the impact and source of the attitude of conflicting parties to the conflict It is important for journalists to consider the attitudes and perceptions of parties involved in the conflict

Professional journalists do not set out to reduce conflict. They seek to present accurate and impartial news. But it is often through good reporting that conflict is reduced. -Ross Howard

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Three

Introduction to Conflict Analysis Tools for Journalists

context? Is there a history of conflict?

Causes: What are the structural causes of conflict? Conflict analysis strives to examine the long term What can be considered proximate causes of conflict? structural causes of conflict and how such development What triggers could contribute to the outbreak, might result into violence. While some analysis looks escalation or prolonging of conflict? What factors can at the short term, potential triggers of conflict, other contribute to peace? look at the structural, deeper causes of conflict and Actors: Who are the main actors? What are their the dynamics around the early warning system. 32In interests, goals, positions, capacities and relationships? understanding conflict, it is imperative to examine the What capacities for peace can be identified? What sources of discontent and animosity, to identify the actors can be identified as spoilers and why? phases of evolving relationships between adversaries, and to illuminate the escalation of their struggles and Dynamics: What are the current conflict trends? What the eventual recession of violent cycles to the peaceful are the windows of opportunity? What scenarios can resolution of differences. be developed from the analysis of the conflict profile, There are key questions within each area of analysis tool that is important: 33

causes and actors?

There is no single conflict analysis tool that is appropriate for all circumstances. Conflict analysis does Profile: What is the political, economic and socionot have to be structured process and various methods cultural context? What are the emergent issues? What are adopted and used for particular conditions and conflict affected areas can be situated within the specific aims of the analysis. Conflict analysis method Conflict mapping

ABC Triangle

Brief description of the method Conflict mapping as a conflict analysis model shows the relationships between conflict parties. It provides the opportunity to identify real and potential allies and opponents in a conflict situation. This tool provides and defines the three basic components in conflicts: attitudes, behavior and contradiction. Understanding the three components provides clarity in terms of conflict understanding.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Onion of positions, interests and needs This is a visual method using the metaphor of the onion for identifying the positions of conflict parties Tree of Conflict This is a visual method that likens a conflict to a tree. The trunk of a tree represents the main problem, the roots – its main or deeply laid causes, and the leaves – its consequences Pyramid of Conflict Using the image of a pyramid, this method is used to identify people or groups who have an interest in the conflict and its eventual perpetuation The profile of conflict situations emerges from investigating the context and dynamics of adversarial relationships. In addition, a conflict ‘tree’ can be used to shed light on the root causes, manifested tensions, and their effects.34 Mapping methods provide a system for illustrating the scope of a conflict by assessing the goals of the parties, the type of their relationship, and the issues in contention. Identifying the parties to the conflict is an essential step prior to understanding their positions, interests, and capacities as well as the level of external support. The evolution of relationships between parties and their social context can be examined in terms of short-term and long-term dynamics.

go unnoticed. The conflict mapping focuses on actors and their interrelationships. It is a good tool to start analyzing a conflict. As conflict emerges and develops gradually, it produces a complicated mesh of confusion and uncertainty. Very often the growth of conflict changes a number of dynamics because interactions between the conflicting parties changes and this sometimes radically and abruptly. Most often-and this is a factor that is evident in majority of conflicts- the levels of unpredictability, uncertainty and emotion rise. Most often when this happens, unwise and costly decisions are rashly made from a lack of understanding of what is occurring. Conflict mapping for journalists aims to understand the following elements of a conflict:

Conflict Mapping Conflict mapping is the systematic 35process in which a conflict is critically analysed to help both the interveners and actors of the conflict in comprehending its root causes and nurturing its possible reduction, management or solution. Mapping a conflict gives us a kind of ‘bird’s eye view’ of the problem. It is a way of graphically representing the issue, showing everyone’s perspectives on it, and getting sufficient distance to see issues and ideas which may otherwise

• The subjects (who takes part in the conflict?) • The interests and goals (what do the subjects want and how do they intend to achieve it?) • Power (what resources do the subjects have for obtaining their interests?) • Awareness (who is recognised as an interlocutor for the resolution?

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

• The frames of reference (what are the • Neighbours: Is there a history of conflict in a neighboring village, region, ethnic community or presuppositions, paradigms or prejudices the country? agents harbour unconsciously?) • The emotions (what role do the emotions play in this conflict?)

• Disputes: Are there disputes between people or groups, perhaps over water, land, grazing access • The relation (how is the relation between the or aid? subjects structured?) • Hostility: Have communities or groups been • The coalitions (what coalitions can be generated openly or overtly hostile? in this conflict?) • Change: Have there been dramatic social Very often, relationships between conflict actors can changes in the past 5–10 years? change over time; new parties can join the conflict, or the nature of the conflict can change due to different Conflict Onion interactions between stakeholders. It is important that Conflict Onion is often used to express the interrelated journalists are able to repeat the exercise to discern dynamics of positions, interest and needs among changes in relationships before they report especially conflicting parties. Groups approaching conflict from a when the conflict span a long period of time and keeps competitive standpoint will tend to express demands erupting from time to time. about what they want and how their opponents How can journalists determine and identify if they need should behave. 36What is generally presented among to do a conflict mapping, the following indicators/ conflicting parties are only positions (the visible outside layer of the onion) which conceal underlying questions are very necessary for the same: interests (the deeper layers) which are representative • History: Is there a history of conflict in the area of the group’s real needs (the layers at the core of the you are working in? onion)

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The complexity of conflict is that often the parties indicate what they say they want (positions) and not what they really want (interests).Often, the positions mirror the interest of the parties. Consequently, it is common for groups to become completely locked into their positions and to refuse to move beyond these, even when their actual needs and interests could be addressed in other ways. This can eliminate the possibility of groups finding creative solutions to conflicts. If we are to accurately represent what a conflict is really about then we need to get beyond the stated positions and to learn about the different groups’ interests and needs.

The Onion model can also bring insight into prolonged conflicts; even raising new hopes for them, as these kinds of conflicts are often seen to result from hiding or distorting actual needs, making the conflict intractable. These needs can be identified by further peeling off the layers of conflict.

shared by all the parties to a conflict.

• What underlying needs and interests have led parties to adopt particular positions?

Uncovering real interest of the parties as part of conflict analysis

Most often the parties to a conflict conceal their interest and what they really want addressed. Positions that are stated before the public are far removed from conflicting parties’ actual interest, demands and needs. Journalists can undertake very vital steps in-depth 37 Focusing on inflexible, immediate and often deeply understanding of the conflict analysis with regards to held positions reduces creativity and restricts the finding the real interest. As such, they should ask the exploration of possible solutions to conflict. Journalists following questions: must be aware that interests are frequently many and varied. Some are contradicting or competing, while • Why have the parties adopted the positions they have? others are likely to be overlapping, compatible and

If journalists want to paint an accurate picture of what the conflict is really about then they need to get beyond the rhetoric, beyond the different groups’ demands and closer to their real interests and underlying needs.38 This will not be easy, because it means doing more than simply accepting people’s demands at face value. It means asking the probing questions that can get beyond the rhetoric. It also means going beyond a single source. By speaking to a range of people at different levels within a group you may get a clearer picture of what the conflict is really about.

• How would the parties prioritize these issues and why? • What are the concerns that the parties hold in common? • How could their concerns be addressed in a way that would satisfy everyone involved? Baumann and Siebert suggest that journalists needn’t reiterate parties’ hardened positions but rather can explore interests underlying these positions identifying common ground between parties.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The ABC Triangle

or the elements it is made up of, is just as important as understanding who the actors are or what caused The ABC triangle is a handy tool in understanding it. 40The model proposes that conflicts consist of three the various components and dynamics of conflicts. basic components: (1) attitudes, (2) behaviour and (3) Using this model allows one to differentiate between contradictions. These can be identified in every single different ingredients involved in a conflict, providing conflict, although to different extents. The components us with an understanding of its most significant are placed in the three corners of a triangle to illustrate aspects. Understanding the components of a conflict, the mutual relationship between them

Behaviours

what. Journalists have to consider the objective and subjective dimensions of how the causes of conflict Attitudes consist of the partyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thoughts, feelings and are reported. The story and the perceptions of what desires. Often times, our attitudes and our assumptions has occurred change as time passes and as the parties about the conflict lie beneath the surface and are become increasingly distant from each other during not always overt. Feelings refer to those emotions a conflict that is escalating. A continuous assessment the conflict parties have for each other, and also the of long terms conflict should be done by journalists ways the conflict parties consider and deal with their before reporting. Attitude refers to feelings of hatred, own feelings. Attitudes also cover our presumptions distrust, and apathy, the transforming potential of and subjective ideas about the underlying issues these attitudes is to develop feelings of empathy. in the conflict, about what has happened, who did i. Attitudes

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

ii. Behaviour

iii. Contradictions

This consists of the visible aspect of a conflict and is what sensational journalist dwells mostly on when reporting on conflict situations. Human reactions to events are rather complex, so what is referred to as behaviour really consists of many elements. 41Different people react differently to different events. Nevertheless, the actions that combine to make the behavior as it is understood in this model can usually be divided into three categories: what the actors said; what the actors did and the existence of physical violence. 42Often times, what is not said or not done (non-action) can be considered part of behaviour. Avoiding action can have an equally important effect on the development of a conflict as action would, probably simply with different consequences. Physical violence is treated as distinct from other actions because the use of violence changes the character of the conflict drastically.

The root cause of conflicts is based on the issue of contradictions. The model proposes that conflicts are usually about three basic types of issues: distribution, position and order. The contradiction with regards to distribution arises because there is competition for resources that have to be divided among different actors. Contradiction emerges as a result of competition over a position. A position is understood as a resource that cannot be shared. This is because only one person at a time can hold a given position. Contradiction with regards to order emerges over the rules that should be followed by a given society or within an organisation, with at least one party claiming that the current rules are not adequate or fair and wanting to change the prevailing system. Order conflicts can be more intense than the two other forms of contradiction already mentioned, since the core values of those involved are challenged, and core values are very difficult to negotiate. The premise of ABC triangle is that since a conflict can start in any corner, it can also be stopped in any corner.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Structures refer to the political, economic, societal mechanisms, processes and institutions and history This Conflict Triangle analyses certain basic elements that influence the distribution and satisfaction of basic often present in conflict. One way of conceptualizing needs and interests of people. Conflict is a dynamic the relationship between these elements is a triangle process in which structure, attitudes and behaviours with Attitudes, 43Behaviours and structures at the are constantly changing and influencing one another. tops of the triangle. Each element influences and is influenced by the other elements. Conflict Tree The Conflict Triangle

Attitudes include the partiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions and misperceptions of each other and of themselves. These can be positive or negative, but conflicting parties often tend to develop demeaning stereotypes of the other.

The conflict tree deals with the difference between structural and dynamic factors, visualizing how conflict issues link these two aspects.

When using this form of analysis, you may find that a recurring issue can be identified as both a cause and an Behaviours can include cooperation or coercion, effect of a particular conflict. An example of this is the gestures signifying conciliation or hostility. Coercive scarcity of natural resources, which can be a source of behaviour might include threats, pressure of different conflict, but also an effect of prolonged violence. 44The types and violence. Co-operative behaviour could conflict tree can also illustrate the cycle of violence, and include: recognition of rights, setting up of joint the ways that communities can become trapped by the (economic) projects, trust building measures, causes and effects in a perpetual cycle of conflict. negotiations in good faith, etc.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The problem tree methodology enables us to visualise links among different conflict factors (root, intermediate and immediate causes).

former are those issues that appear closer to the ground surface and the latter would appear deeper underground. 45Moreover, you should not assume that the relationship between root causes, the prioritized The tree visualises the interaction between structural, conflict and the effects will necessarily be linear; root manifest and dynamic factors. The roots symbolise causes may be linked to each other, while effects if structural “static” factors. The trunk represents the unaddressed can feed back into the process and become manifest issues, linking structural factors with the causes for new conflict. Moreover, the perceived causes dynamic factors. The leaves moving in the wind and effects of a conflict can differ according to social represent the dynamic factors. groups and status (i.e., gender, age, wealth, ethnicity, Dynamic Factors: Dynamic factors include the form etc.). These complicated relationships and differing of communication, escalation level, relationship viewpoints should be kept in mind and if possible, aspects etc. Working with dynamic factors involves a marked on the tree. short time horizon; reactions to interventions are quick The Iceberg Model and at times unpredictable. Examples are diplomatic interventions, or multi track conflict transformation Positions dealing directly with the form of interaction between the conflict parties. Quick money is often more Interests important than big money when addressing dynamics Needs factors. Manifest issues: Issues are what the conflict parties want to talk about, the “topic” of the conflict. Structural Factors: Root causes are the basic “reason” of the conflict. They are difficult to influence on a short time basis, if they are avoided, however, the conflict may pop up again later. This is the typical area for development cooperation, longer-term involvement and the prevention of structural violence (Human Needs Theory).

Like in the case of an iceberg, there are those things that are obvious on the surface while there are those that are underneath. Compared to conflict, some things are obvious to the disputants that reflect the dynamic between them, the issues in dispute, and other aspects of the existing dissension. These are above the water level line.

Below the water line is much more. There are hopes, One would likely identify both “proximate” and expectations, emotions, needs, values, beliefs, and “structural” causes of the conflict, whereby the A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

other deeply held views and feelings. Our individual and collective histories that we bring to the issues in dispute are in the mass below the surface, too. While, for all intents and purposes, this underlying mass appears to be unnoticed or remains unspoken, it has an enormous impact on the interaction. Indeed, it is an integral part of the conflict and who we are within it, within ourselves, and within the relationship One of the classical ideas in conflict resolution is to distinguish between the positions (i.e. concrete demands) held by the parties to the conflict and their underlying interests and needs. 46Interests are often easier to reconcile than concrete positions, since there are usually several positions that might satisfy them.

For example, two neighbours quarrel over a tree. Each neighbour takes the position that the tree is on her land (positions: “The tree is on my land.”“No, the tree is on my land.”) No compromise is possible, since the tree cannot be sawn in half. It turns out, however, that the interest of one neighbour is in using the fruit of the tree (Interest: “I want the fruit of the tree.”), and the interest of the other is in having the shade (Interest: “I want to sit in the shade.”). The positions may be irreconcilable at first, but the interests might be. New positions can be found to satisfy the interests of both parties.

The most important thing in journalism is hearing what isn’t being said. The art of reading between the lines is a lifelong quest of the wise.” Shannon L. Alder

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Shells of cars burnt down at the height of a confrontation. Conflict analysis is the foundation of any conflict management process, from prevention, mediation to reconciliation.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Four Reporting on political and electoral conflicts

been seriously marred by violence.

Election process in Kenya has often been marred by political, ethnic and other forms of conflict before and after elections for the pasts three decades. Kenya experiences multiple, overlapping conflicts, which sometimes coincide with electoral cycles that act as triggers for politically motivated violence .The media has often reported on such issues because of public interest and also heightened tension during such periods. Political related conflicts are not always a result of political process. Conflict during political and electoral processes are often a result of other underlying causes which journalists sometimes fail to capture and report. As witnessed in Kenya, some of such conflict has risen because of historical and ethnic bitterness that is just triggered by political processes around the elections. Political and electoral violence has been used in the Kenyan context with the motive to force compliance, to subjugate, to persuade, to intimidate or to expunge a particular group, ethnic community of political faction. Electoral violent conflict is a sub-set of violent political conflict.

Conflict dynamics that are often manifest during election periods and having the potential to create violent conflict includes: 48

• Corruption and impunity: corruption has severely compromised the security sector, while impunity and lack of justice legitimize violence and lead to revenge attacks. • Land and development projects: inequity in land ownership and access cause widespread grievances, as do development projects that are not delivered in a conflict-sensitive manner. • Social fragmentation, politicized ethnicity and partisan politics: political entrepreneurs use ethnic affiliation and manipulate ethnic grievances as the basis for political mobilization to gain power and control over resources.

• Discrimination and marginalisation: certain groups and areas have faced long-term discrimination and marginalisation, which has been exploited by violent extremists. Political and electoral violence in Kenya has developed as a result of a combination of factors, including Reporting electoral conflicts and violence can be a 47 politicization of ethnicity, corruption, nonadherence daunting task for the media. This is because such to the rule of law, a centralized and highly personalized conflicts are sometimes made manifest through form of governance, inequitable development and both covert and overt means. In some cases threats a “winner-takes-all” form of politics perceived as to commit violence can be made through personal benefiting one ethnic constituency to the detriment of contact, rendering them invisible to the media. all others. Only the 2002 and 2013 elections have not A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Routinely, media reporting has always used three • The tactics of violence whether it involves events to present the electioneering process: violence beatings, kidnappings, killings or the images of voters going to the polls, ballots being • The venues of violence for example if in polling dropped into ballot boxes, and officials and clerks places, street rallies, government offices counting and announcing results. • The timing of violence whether they happen Understanding and reporting election violence before, during, or after the voting period Election violence is defined as acts that are used to • Actors or perpetrators of violence whether they harm, intimidate, exploit, disrupt, determine, hasten, are party officials, governments delay, or reverse electoral processes or outcomes, and • The participants in violence for instance if they acts that occur between the registration of a voter and are paid thugs, mobs, police, military, campaign the inauguration of a political regime. Media reporting workers, party loyalists. of election violence surely reach more voters than just those who witness the violence in person. • The victims of violence whether they are election officials, voters, candidates. Journalists can overcome many of these challenges when they are able to analyze a conflict during A conflict analysis of political and electoral violence has elections and look through what is being presented by three main elements: the politicians and other ethnic fragments. A conflict analysis is required to try to find objective reasons • Nature of political and electrical Conflict for a political conflict, which also become common Political conflicts are rooted in multi-dimensional grounds between conflicting parties to move towards causes and factors and their complex interaction facilitating peaceful electoral processes. and overlap of various structural and proximate causes. There can never be one single factor When analyzing violent conflicts during elections, that leads to a violent conflict especially during journalist should have a look at various factors and elections and political processes. Often journalist actors. They should consider the following: report triggers as causes especially during political • The history of violence in specific places in what and electoral violence. would be termed as hot-spots • Actors in the Conflict • The nature of seats contested and candidates involved. Some candidates generate heated The ability to identify all explicit and implicit debates and have a potential to flare up tensions. actors to a conflict is also important for a conflict 49

reporter. Actors to a conflict can be individuals, A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

groups and institutions engaged in, as well as c) Consensus: This issue of consensus in allocating being affected by conflict. The identification of political officers to the political class sometimes actors of a conflict can help in understand various does not go down well with political opponents. perspectives and issues related to the conflict. The Thus could result to conflict. first is the stated positions and their comparative d) Imposition of candidates: This is the situation positions. The second is the interrelationship whereby parties in deference to due Process pick between various actors. Conflict analysis at this a non-popular candidate as against the popular stage helps in understanding the resources the one. conflict actors have at present in order to realize their agenda. e) Corruption of the electoral process: This involves all the malpractices that are often • Effects of the conflict in elections process witnessed during an electoral process. Journalists should present a critical analysis and f) Favouritism: This can be done by the party presentation of the possible implication of the acting on the influence of the state or the skewing conflict based on their understanding of the of the electoral process to favour the preferred conflict. Journalists should not forget that there state candidate. are many sides to any conflict and matters get more complex as events move on, they should The media or the Journalist must recognize that present such issues for public scrutiny and he responsibility imposed on them by the society understanding. In the process, try not to settle for is a sacred one and they must be guided by the the simple “good guys versus bad guys” or “them dictates of truth, honest, sincerity, integrity, and us accountability and transparency. It is harmful for Various causes and reasons for electoral conflicts that journalists should watch out for: a) Elections Rigging: This is when the electoral process is skewed to the advantage of an opponent.

the media to assume the role of collaborators and conspirators with politicians, the electoral body, ethnic or religion group to misinform or misguide the general public in election issues. This if done, will surely promote violence rather than help in managing conflict that will arise from election.

b) Election gangs and supporters: This happens Conditions 50for election related violence when political gangs and good of opposing • Persistent and sustained sense of election fraud. political factions face each other. This often turns into violent conflict. • The outcome is not so contested, but there is a A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

bitter and non-accepting loser. A subset of this is A journalist’s role in strengthening democracy when the government loses (and is surprised and and peace is even more important in sensitive shocked by the result). circumstances. A journalist must sharpen his powers of observation and analysis in order to understand the • The cause of violence is an external or domestic complexity of the socio-political environment and the source not immediately participating in the issues at stake in an election. election process (another state, “terrorists,” economic “profiteers” of violence). Who were the figures in the conflict or crisis, what were their motivations, and what were the underlying • The violence is connected to contested legitimacy issues? What were the causes or factors of resolution, of the state itself or the failure/weakness of the and who were the people behind it? If an accord has nation-building process been signed, a journalist should know its general • Violence that is supported or provoked by structure and major points. When ethnic or communal the government to implement controversial divisions play a significant role in a crisis or conflict, a restrictions, consolidate political power or weaken journalist should have a deep understanding of each community’s sociological realities. certain communities. • Violence that is pursued by non-state actors (including opposition parties) to economically profit from conflict, consolidate political power or weaken certain communities. Understanding and reporting political/electoral conflicts

A journalist should also understand the ways in which each community has been affected by the events. This research is essential because it makes a journalist aware of the actions and discourse that may signal a return of tensions, and thereby enables him to report on looming danger. He can then get leading figures or civil society organizations to remind parties and candidates of their commitments and of the accords they may have signed.

To effectively understand conflicts during election periods, journalists must resist the pressures of their own opinions, which they should express in the privacy When covering conflict stricken areas, journalists of the voting station, like any other citizen. The public should ensure the following: expects journalists to remain above the political fray. They are expected to treat all politicians impartially, • Visit the conflict areas especially the centers where voting will happen days before the actual voting regardless of the sympathies or antipathies they may and assess the situation considering the general feel toward them. This objectivity is paramount in mood and attitude of the electorate towards the analysis conflicts during elections times. elections process. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

• Framing the election disputes as a personality conflict between candidates is often very risky; journalists should focus on the candidates’ positions on issues of importance schools, health • care, roads. • Identify potential issues that may trigger the conflict especially those related to elections malpractices of inadequacies like possible favouritism in ballot box distribution and voter requirements.

statements. Or, broadcast these comments, and then offer analysis and criticism of what is being said. During elections and after contested political processes, it is appropriate for journalists to avoid stories that give opinions/sound bites only from leaders. Always center stories on everyday people, their concerns and perceptions about the candidates and process.

• Do not consider the election like a horse race. Polls • Avoid airing inflammatory, divisive, or violent and surveys are fine, but they are only a part of statements by candidates. However, edit these the story. It is important to concentrate on issues comments to eliminate these inflammatory of importance as identified by the public.

A reputation for accurate, balanced reporting is a journalist’s biggest assets. We must not shy away from painful reality, but we should also seek to minimise any harm to the public through our actions. The people who make the news are vulnerable to the impact of our stories. In extreme cases, their lives or their reputations could depend on our reporting. -Reuters

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Scenarios like this are common during a conflict. By knowing that conflict is a process that has different stages, journalists can be aware that violence is only one of these stages.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Five Analysis of journalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stories on conflict Level of understanding of conflict To understand the understanding of journalists on issues related to conflict analysis, journalists from conflict hot-spots in Kenya were sampled and after training on conflict analysis, they were asked to fill a questionnaire. The questionnaire aimed to test their understanding of conflict situations in their areas of reporting and the challenges that they face. A total of 48 journalists filled the questionnaire. Journalists were asked to indicate their level of understanding of different conflicts situation within their jurisdiction of reporting. Journalists are often

posted from and transferred from one area to another and are expected to report objectively and reliably on what they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fully understand. Conflict analysis empowers journalists to understand conflict and report on it with a conflict sensitive approach. Journalism sensitive to conflict empowers reporters to report conflicts professionally without feeding the flames. To report reliable and unbiased information to the public in a time of violent conflict requires additional journalism skills and a deeper understanding of what causes conflict, how it develops and ends. Reporters must know where to look for solutions and crucially, they must be aware of mediaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role and the responsibility that follows with this in times of conflict.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The dilemma of news sources during conflict situations

Journalists reporting on conflict situations face a lot of complex scenarios when dealing with news sources. Such include; unwilling news sources, sources who give their positive side of the story which might be different from the reality, sources that are hostile towards journalists and specific media houses, sources who give surface and insufficient information regarding the conflict and sources. The role of journalists regardless of different conflict situations is to impart the truth and help build new knowledge and experiences through the dissemination of information.

provide them with the facts about events. Thus, to a certain extent, it is the news sources and not journalists who are responsible for the accuracy of the facts.

Media organizations and the journalists are often blamed whenever there is a misreporting of facts regarding to conflict. The accusations thrown at the journalists in several instances are partly valid because of the fact that the ability to identify who to quote, and under what circumstances, has become an essential part of the journalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; roles and responsibilities. The responsibilities of journalists become more critical Especially in conflict situation where lines of truth when they need to assemble news in a hurry, under is blurred and a lot of propaganda occurs, journalists rigid deadlines and within dangerous environment, are required to add authority and believability to such as in time of conflict and war. their news, journalists need to rely on news sources to

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Featuring various actors and balancing perspectives in conflict

Journalists have the primary responsibility of understanding the various actors to a conflict in terms of who are primary and who are secondary. The media are themselves actors or agents in the conflict and their behavior will have an effect on the way the conflict develops. To use more abstract terms the media constitute a space in which the conflicts of a society can be articulated and are inevitably themselves actors in that conflict.

allies or sympathizers with primary parties but are not direct adversaries. Disputants also can be divided up according to their stance towards the other side. We divide interest groups into moderates, hardliners, external supporters, conflict profiteers, and spoilers.

Journalists should also understand that there are third parties. Some of the third parties may be acting in active intermediary roles, such as mediators, arbitrators, or dialogue facilitators, while others may be by-standers. Primary parties are those who oppose one another, As conflicts become increasingly polarized, however, are using fighting behavior, and have a direct stake the by-standers tend to be pulled in, being forced to in the outcome of the conflict. Secondary parties join one side or the other, and polarizing the conflict have an indirect stake in the outcome. They are often even further.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Why do some conflicts get more media attention than others?

Media attention is often limited to the dramatic and catastrophic scale of conflict and often ignores what would be considered small conflict. The degree of impact and the implications of the conflict are very critical when the media determines what to broadcast. Most importantly, the conflict has to be of national and political interest for it to receive adequate media attention. The media needs to pay special attention

when covering emotionally charged issues, as failure to do so threatens to heighten tensions. Frequently, pressure groups receive more coverage than the institutions they attack--usually the business community or a governmental unit especially if the target of that criticism is â&#x20AC;&#x153;fatalisticâ&#x20AC;? in its behavior. The media can reduce suspicion by digging into hot issues and revealing them so there are no secrets to fear

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Challenges of reporting conflicts in Kenya

Understanding the type of conflict is important • The context of the conflict or the areas of social life in which the conflict takes place (for example, to journalists’ reporting political, economic, cultural, etc.); Journalists often make foregone conclusions on the type of conflict which they sometimes base on • The motivations or needs behind the conflict; the triggers and not on real causes. 51Often such • The consequences of the conflict; conclusions are based on the assumptions that ethnic • The duration of the conflict; conflicts (between two ethnic groups) are considered • The intensity of the conflict; as religious, political or intra-society form of conflicts. • The absence or presence of violence in the conflict The controversial question that journalists face include whether in their reporting, 52conflicts should be Explicit violence can easily be described and reported by described as ethnic rather than as religious or political; journalists but implicit violence that exists in societies, naming it ethnic could have negative associations. The is rarely reported and written on. The coverage of these criteria used for classification vary. Among others, they kinds of violence is also important, because these kinds of violence have the potential to turn into explicit include: violence unless effort is made to curtail them in earlier • The conflict parties; stages. Two types of such violence are: A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

This is what remained of a house after a confict. Conflicts analysis is important to understand all the parties and the role they played.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Six Gender and Conflict Analysis: Inclusion and Unbiased Reporting

certainly number significantly among those afflicted by physical harm and loss of property. Gender relations shape the specific form this harm takes: women are Gender issues are sometimes ignored by journalists far more likely than men, for instance, to be subject when determining conflict dynamics. 53Very often, to sexual violence. Yet, the tendency to see women gender relations intersect with many other lines of primarily as victims of violence particularly sexual social cleavage, such as class, race, ethnicity, age and violence has obscured the many other roles women geographical location, to determine the major actors play in provoking and pursuing conflict or building in a conflict and the relative capabilities of different peace. actors to intensify or resolve conflict. Good conflict analysis is sensitive to relations of power, including gender. 54The principle of including gender as an element of good conflict analysis therefore should be self-evident and standard operating practice. In reality, however, this does not happen systematically. Images of men and women in conflict reporting often reinforce a variety of gender stereotypes. 55Women are often nameless victims who appear passive. In contrast, images of men display active figures, engaged in all sorts of activities from armed combat to political debates. When women and men are portrayed through gender stereotyped lenses, this impacts the behaviours, actions and attitudes of society. When women are portrayed only as victims in conflict reporting, we are led to believe that women are passive by nature, while men depicted as fighters, politicians and experts, are active and authoritative Women can wear many hats with regards to conflict situations. Sometimes they play the role of combatants, or they may provide services to combatants. They

When engaging major actors in a conflict in negotiation and resolution efforts, it is essential to involve women because their different experiences give them different perspectives on the social and economic ills to be addressed in any peace accord and in post-conflict governance arrangements. Gender Inclusive media reporting of conflict situations Women often play key roles in relation to peace and conflict but many of their contributions go unnoticed, or are undervalued and unsupported. This is often also reflected in media reporting. This is because they take place outside the official sphere. This fact is often reinforced when journalists choose to focus on male actors at the expense of female actors in conflict reporting. A gender-sensitive conflict analysis can shed light on these efforts and may help identify obstacles to participation in official peace and security decisionmaking.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Despite the fact that conflicts affect whole populations, women are almost invisible in the media reports. If they are present at all, they are often seen crying in the background and are talked about rather than listened to in news programs and documentaries.

Lenses on gender situations during armed conflict

Media conflict coverage suffers from more than gender imbalance. People representing the civil society and people working for peace on grassroots level are marginalized too. Traditional conflict reporting also has a strong focus on occasional violent events. It rarely explains the ongoing processes, backgrounds or contexts in which the events occur. How does this influence our understanding of the conflict? And what are the consequences of such reporting?

By ignoring or marginalizing issues of gender in conflict analysis, the same is missed out during conflict reporting. It is evident that the blackout and insensitivity that the media accord to gender issues when reporting on conflict can reinforce stereotypes of women and men.

Conflict tends to result in gender inequality and encourages gender-specific disadvantages, particularly for women that are not always recognized Based on the various content analysis reports by the and adequately addressed by mainstream media. media council, it is evident that men are often asked The impact of armed conflict on gender relations is to explain and interpret the conflict in many different significant and should not be ignored by the media. roles; as combatants, warlords, experts and politicians. From previous studies by the Media Council on Gender Women, on the other hand, are rarely asked about relations in the newsroom, I was evident that women their opinions regarding the conflict in general, and are among the first to bear the brunt of armed conflicts if they are, it is usually from a womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s or the victimâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s but they also have a vital role to play in reconstruction perspective. processes.

Whilst womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution to conflict transformation and reconciliation on the ground is slowly beginning to be recognized, women still remain largely excluded There is a gender dimension to virtually every event, from high level negotiations and the decision making process, institution and/or individual experience processes leading to peace. The media can contribute covered by the media, including disasters and conflicts. to building bridges of understanding and provide for All genders including women, who are either poor a more informed and critical audience that will not so or illiterate women, have knowledge and opinions easily fall prey to prejudice. on practically everything. The failure of journalists i. Journalists should undertake thorough analysis to include women as sources and resources can of conflict to enable them focus and aim to only impoverish media coverage and diminish our capture stories that reveal the strength, courage understanding of conflict situations, as well as many and resilience of many women during conflict other similar situations. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

situations. They can project the different experiences of women, the ways in which they live through conflict in various roles and capacities.

forms of sexual violence as a means of prosecuting war has been observed in many conflicts. iv. It is also important to highlight that women are not always “good”. Women participate in the war and make decisions during war. In order to ensure a just and correct representation of conflict, media also needs to depict women who deviate from the norm when it comes to conflict.

ii. Journalists should avoid making assumption and should understand that Gender relations, however profoundly unequal and unjust, are rarely the root cause of violent social conflict. Gender-based injustices against women or men, on the other hand, can sometimes be a catalyst for conflict. v. Prioritize women as news sources as well. Men However, the systematic abuse of women by men are often asked to explain and interpret the of a rival class, race or ethnic group can trigger conflict in many different roles; as combatants, violent defensive reactions. warlords, experts and politicians. Women, on the iii. When undertaking conflict analysis, journalists other hand, are rarely asked about their opinions should understand that gender-based injustices regarding the conflict in general, and if they feature as one of the significant manifestations are, it is usually from a woman’s or the victim’s of conflict. The systematic use of rape and other perspective.

Few journalists have any training in the theory of conflict. Having the skills to analyze conflict will enable a reporter to be a more effective professional journalist. -Ross Howard A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Policemen patrol a border following inter-ethnic conflict. Good journalists will explore both the superficial and the underlying causes of the conflict from all points of view.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Seven Media, Conflict Analysis and Early Warning Early warning in the context of media reporting

The media, by communicating the information to the people and the concerned authorities sufficiently in advance, can enable them to take the necessary steps to prevent and minimize the loss of life and property

Early warning is an important concept which the media can effectively borrow from development world in Understanding information flows in fragile or conflictorder to exercise and assist in conflict mitigation. Media affected states is vital to conflict prevention and is the best early warning system which helps in acute early warning. 57How people receive and transmit crisis. 56According to United Nations Environmental information about their countries, their communities program, early warning is the provision of timely and and their place within them is central to their perception effective information, through identified institutions, of peace and security, as well as their relationship to that allows individuals exposed to hazard to take their state, nation, neighbours and community. It action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for may drive a vicious circle of fear and prejudice and, effective response. It is a tool for mobilizing the masses in its most extreme forms, may propel people to and enables the voices of the needy to be heard. Early violence. It can also shape public understanding of the warning is a particular aspect of conflict prevention dynamics of violence, harness or encourage peaceful that the media should consider keenly. ways of addressing them and build communication, Early warning is an essential first step for conflict accountability and trust between the state and society. prevention. In order to respond in time, authorities Improvements in anticipation, analysis and planning need detailed information in advance of an emerging are all critical for successful engagement in national threat to the peace conflicts. Too often, journalists are surprised or Journalists should aptly be able to deal effectively with reports on conflict prevention through professional and ethical reporting. As such, the media should consider early warning as an appropriate instrument of conflict preventive that should help determine the whether and when violent conflicts can be expected to occur, with the intention of reporting accurately, objectively and fairly for the benefit of various actors.

unprepared for the resulting chaos and violence that transpires when other societies disintegrate, and they typically respond with a series of reactive and nonintegrated actions. Complex situations can be further exacerbated due to a delayed and ineffectual response that is not alerted through the media. Early warning has four key elements according to the United Nationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 58

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Risk Knowledge: Risk assessment provides essential well integrated with risk assessment studies and information to set priorities for mitigation and communication and action plans, early warning prevention strategies and designing early warning systems can lead to substantive benefits. systems. Journalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; acquaintance with issues of early warning, Monitoring and Predicting: Systems with conflict analysis, and their purpose and added value monitoring and predicting capabilities provide timely to news reporting is because of a lack of institutional estimates of the potential risk faced by communities, knowledge and related guidance. The other key economies and the environment. factor is the absence of formal instructions to address these issues more proactively and consistently when Disseminating Information: Communication reporting on conflict related stories. systems are needed for delivering warning messages to the potentially affected locations to alert local and Media role relating to early warning regional governmental agencies. The messages need The echo chamber function of media can be an to be reliable, synthetic and simple to be understood important and efficient source of early warning on by authorities and the public. sources of conflict within society to which the state Response: Coordination, good governance and and civil society can respond, provided that the biases appropriate action plans are key points in effective early or incentives of media coverage are well understood. In warning. Likewise, public awareness and education are situations of violent conflict or high tensions it can also critical aspects of disaster mitigation provide warning to people likely to be directly affected by these manifestations. The concept of early warning is closely related to one of preventive diplomacy that involves efforts to either Media practitioners should understand that the prevent or contain violent conflicts. It is premised upon purpose of early warning is to assist in addressing the fact that addressing problems the moment they the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;root causesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of conflict and must allow for the emerge is generally better than responding after they development of proper understanding of situations, have grown to a less manageable scale. their development, conditions for resolution and guidance to better settlement. 59It entails ways of The essence of early warning systems is that it helps forestalling or alleviating the worst effects of conflict, to reduce the economic losses that a community including early intervention to transform or resolve can incur and also mitigate the number of deaths, conflicts. injuries of casualties from a conflict, disaster through the systematic provision of information that allows The media hear of the event, try to obtain more apt, pragmatic response to hazardous situations. If information, use their own files to add background to A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

their stories, dispatch reporters and report anything iii. The media can also provide situational updates they are told. Often they devote all their air time or with regards to the conflict and media deflate much of the space available to that single story. rumors and propaganda that have the potential to escalate the conflict during early stages. i. The media should be on high alert especially when violent conflict does break out. The media iv. Publishing or broadcasting balanced, wellcan play a role in containing it by facilitating rapid informed and responsible stories about the response and appeals for calm by citizens more nature and sources of conflict, as well as activities especially during elections and ethnic tensions. supporting peace, can help to counter the incendiary influence of rumor or sensationalism. ii. The media should also enhance a people-centered early warning which has the characteristics of v. Mainstream media platforms could help reduce being clearly understood by the people, easily civilian conflict casualties by serving as early and readily accessible to people, timely; and tied warning systems, helping citizens stay connected to response actions to be taken by the people in to humanitarian organizations, and keeping advance of, during, and after the conflict. citizens secure in the aftermath of crimes.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;it can also be difficult to distinguish sectarian from religious or separatist conflict. In cases where the line between nationalism, religion and culture is unclear, we should try to explain the historical and demographic background instead of glossing over the problem with oversimplified tags. -Reuters A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

The remains of a hotel set ablaze during a conflict. Journalists should be sensitive when reporting conflict to avoid making a bad situation worse

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Eight Practical solutions to challenges faced by journalists when reporting conflict Journalists mostly just follow events

hegemonic systems capitalism and communism were in ideological confrontation. It has further been fortified by the media through its reporting of terrorist acts. Journalists report in binary categories of good vs. evil because they fail to ask relevant and important questions from their news sources.

Journalists don’t explain what led to those conflict events. This might be based on the fact that they thus report on conflict superficially and mechanically. Given the prevalent paradigms of conflict reporting and Editors should recognize the importance of how the the focus on negating the ‘Other’, the media tends to media as a whole frame and portray an issue and how framing influences both your reporting and how ignore those stories that offer a different reality. the public understands the conflict. A good conflict Journalists need to know the importance of how the analysis enhances framing of stories and avoids the media as a whole frame and portray an issue and good versus evil kind of framing. how framing influences both your reporting and how the public understands the conflict. Be aware of your In a conflict, describing the problem in a different way responsibility as a journalist and recognize the power can reduce tension and launch negotiations. In good that your reports may have to influence individuals and journalism, editors and reporters are always looking governments. See yourself as a conduit that provides for a different angle, an alternative view, a new insight information to the public and recognize that you have which will still attract an audience to the same story. a great deal of responsibility in what information is Good journalism can help reframe conflicts for the two presented to the public and in how the public receives sides. it. Challenges of gatekeeping Framing of conflict stories

Field reporters and correspondents complain that the Stories of conflict are framed within binary categories editing process ridded their stories of vital components of good vs. evil, or one ethnic race against another, of conflict sensitive reporting. This was attributed to thus leading to an over simplification of issues. Such editor’s failure to understand the background and framing is inappropriate and fails to delve deeper into importance of some of the information provided fundamental questions that can help in understanding in their unedited stories. Often facts, backgrounds and resolution of conflict. This style of reporting came and different perspectives tend to go missing from into favor during the Cold War era when two giant the final, published reports by field reporters and correspondents. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Due to lack of time, space and resources, media concentrates on who started the conflict and does not seek out to explain the causes, dynamics and circumstances under which the conflict occurred. The problem is that without the context no reporting of a violent event is correct or complete. To understand violence, we need the whole picture. Focus on physical damage Another area of the main imbalances in traditional conflict coverage is the focus on visible damage and destruction, while the damage to mental health, structure and culture remains invisible. However, this is news too. Focus on physical damage by the media often creates an imbalanced perspective and skews reality to decision makers. Such a focus is often guided by desire for profit margins resulting from sensationalism. The lead story for most news programs is typically the most recent and extreme violent conflict with several casualties. Conflict attracts viewers, listeners, and readers to the media; the greater the conflict the greater the audience, and large audiences are imperative to the financial success of media outlets. Therefore, it is often in the media’s interest to not only report conflict, but to play it up, making it seem more intense and grisly than it really is while focusing largely on the physical damage. Journalists should try to find ways of reporting on the invisible effects, e.g. the long-term consequences of psychological damage and trauma, perhaps increasing the likelihood that those affected will be violent in future, either against other people or, as a group, against other groups or other countries.

Independence and objectivity of journalists Journalists who cover the involvement of their ethnic conflicts are sometimes unable to do objective and reliable reporting where their ethnic communities are involved. A number of journalists assigned to cover areas of origin are common in the media environment in Kenya. Objectivity can only be realized when doing conflict analysis by asking hard questions. Such include: • Have you obtained your information in a reliable and ethical way? • Have you done everything you can to be accurate and to corroborate your facts? • Are your decisions free from unfair influence or bias? •

Have you provided balance and context, in particular the right of reply and fair comment to anyone criticized in your article?

• Is there no other way to get the information, especially in the case of an unnamed source? • Are your sources reliable and have you spoken to all sides of the story? • Is the information reasonable and does it make sense? • Most of all, can you stand by your story? Triggers and causes Journalists sometimes attribute the triggers of conflict as the main causes. Triggers are the factors that affect the timing of the onset of armed conflict; referring to these can help explain not why a conflict started at all,

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

but why it started then. Triggers are often reported by journalists because they are the most immediate and dramatic elements of the conflict. While shallow understanding results in failure to portray the causes of the conflict, such results in poor public information dissemination to the public. Helicopter Journalists and conflict perspective

rumors. To avoid stereotypes, journalists have to ask difficult questions. A journalist is serving the publics’ right to know, so has a responsibility to probe. But that does not mean being rude or discourteous. BBC editorial guidelines advices journalists to be searching, sharp, skeptical, informed and to the point but not discourteously or emotionally attached to one side of an argument.

These are journalists who are flown to a specific area Factual disputes are rampant in complex, intractable to cover conflict situations. Very often they do not conflicts. Sometimes this occurs because facts are hard understand conflict they cover because they do not to obtain or understand; sometimes it occurs because have background information on such conflicts. each side claims different “facts” are true and the opposing sides’ facts are false. Journalists should take Who are the news makers? care to do balanced and careful fact-finding before Journalists tend to focus on powerful, conspicuous believing any facts about what is or has been going on. actors like politicians. Many of the atrocities are planned at the top level of government or the military. Repeating old grievances It is ironic then that these are the very people both Journalists use limited viewpoints and often repeat old national and international media turn to as a source grievances by the old elites when reporting on conflict. of information. Journalists often overlook people at All sources journalists use have their own agenda and the community level. A community worker, a farmer, it’s important for journalists to remember that, and to a school teacher, a mother may bring very different clarify the difference between facts and claims. Some perspectives to a story and when placed alongside of the sources when interviewed repeat and fail to elite sources, those perspectives would bring greater reveal only their positions and not their interests and balance in stories. as such, journalists end up reporting on the superficial and surface elements of conflict. Stereotyping conflict situations Journalists often reinforce stereotypes which sometimes damage perspectives of conflict. Seek out constructive ways to move the story forward by providing accurate information, reducing misperceptions and stereotypes, and countering

Personification of conflict Journalists very often personify a conflict, so that an act of evil or good is attributed to one person or group. This overlooks the dynamics and substantive issues in a conflict. Journalists tend to focus almost exclusively

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

on the behavior of groups involved in conflict without explaining the reasons behind people’s actions. Dig deep to find out what the values and assumptions are that motivate each side. Use professional conflict analysis tools to get a full understanding of the needs and values of those involved in every story.

Gender perspectives

Journalists have been caught up in the dualistic perspective reporting which creates a sense of “us” versus “them”. They have thus taken sides based on their areas of reporting. This tends to lead to the understanding of “us” as the good guys and “them” as the bad ones. By picturing the other side as barbaric beyond the pale of civilized behaviour, traditional conflict reporting usually works to dehumanize and demonize “them”. When focusing exclusively on the suffering, fears and grievances of only one party, media suggests that coercing or punishing the other party might be the best solution.

Journalists complained that some were vast, remote and inaccessible during outbreak of conflict situations. It is clear that some counties like Turkana, West Pokot among others counties were a great hindrance to professional, ethical and objective reporting of conflict situations in Kenya. Journalists could verify information urgently to ensure accuracy and fairness, they relied on

Journalists have ignored gender perspectives when reporting on conflict situations. Media should document the experiences of women in armed conflict, as well as support and publicize women’s peace initiatives. The role of women as peace builders, Journalists being partisan and the unique contributions that women bring to the peace-table, should be highlighted, and not sidelined Journalists have been dragged into conflict factions by the mass media. Another problem with the underbased on their geographic areas of reporting. Journalists representation of women in the media is that issues from two sides of conflict report differently on same important to women are neglected. conflict situation but with differing perspectives influenced by which side they reporting from. Distance and vastness of some areas,

While technology in and out of the newsroom has reduced the tyranny of distance, the commercial realities of news gathering have also affected the reporting of conflicts. The higher cost of news gathering in remote regions, coupled with the geopolitical and “It’s important to remember that journalists economic priorities of the many governments and are human beings, too—and just like everyone interested stakeholders, mean that conflicts occurring else at work, they can often be overwhelmed, at close proximity to the metropolitan centers receive underprepared, bought with kindness, and subject coverage at the expense of those occurring further to unconscious bias”. Zenobia Ravji, Journalist away in less developed regions of the world. based in Israel

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

Part Nine

v. Journalists should be able to understand that a conflict analysis is not a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;one off exercise. Good practice implies that periodic updates are planned Principles of Conflict Analysis for Journalist for to capture effectively the dynamics of the conflict. More especially for journalists who are i. Journalists should strive to seek information from posted to new areas, conflict analysis is very various actors in the conflict area; conflict analysis important. by journalists must be based on a wide range of views about the sources of conflict. Conflicts are vi. Maintain at all times ethical journalistic principles about perceptions and the meanings that people of professional reporting, foster a dispassionate attribute to events, policies and institutions hence stance toward any issue in a conflict while the need for variety of viewpoints. avoiding the status quo, ask tough questions of everyone despite discomfort, and push for access. ii. Journalists should note that analysing a conflict is Components of stories with good background of conflict analysis

not an emotion-free exercise. As a matter of fact, vii. Gender perspectives and dynamics should be peace-building is a value-based engagement and integrated into a conflict analysis process. Conflict journalists must beware of subjectivity and bias perspectives are influenced by gender dynamics. creeping into your analysis. It is better placed Often times conflict reporting by journalists are to engage all sides and appreciate the situation male dominated. more clearly, if you engage in your analysis with an open mind. viii. Use solid information as the basis of the story rather than an emotional peg. Operate on iii. Journalists should also understand that conflict principle rather than prejudging the outcome, analysis is not only relevant when there is visible and avoid finding the point of coverage that fits violence. There are stages where the conflict has only one sideâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s narrative not fully manifested in the form of violent conflict and this does not mean that the conflict analysis ix. Conflict analysis is not a one-time process, should not be done. journalists should engage in constant conflict analysis each time before they report by conflict iv. Conflict analysis is done in participatory or nonsituations are dynamics. participatory ways hence journalists in their experience in reporting should contribute to x. Reporting from the ground on conflict situations conflict analysis process within their areas of is always preferable in order to give accurate operation. A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

depictions of events, eyewitness accounts, and Elements of journalists’ stories with a conflict gather information that will put authorities in a analysis background position to speak directly to the issues at hand. Stories done by journalists who have a good conflict Demand access. analysis background should have the following xi. A conflict analysis by journalists must be based elements: on a wide range of views about the sources of • A clear, precise and informed background of the conflict. Conflicts are about perceptions and the conflict and reasons for its occurrence. meanings that people attribute to events, policies and institutions. • Specifically identifies the cause of the conflict and clearly separates between causes and triggers and xii. Offer a variety of coverage that can build the goes beyond obvious conflict symptoms. bigger picture. Avoid resorting to mostly human interest stories that rely on emotion to illustrate • Avoids subjective interpretations that weighty issues, or using a zero-sum debt approach can compromise objectivity of readers in that ignores complexities of the situation. understanding the conflict and stakeholders in dealing with the conflict. xiii. Do not insert or package opinion into conflict analysis because this will be consequently • Avoids the reinforcement of stereotypes which transferred to the formal news coverage. Blurring sometimes damage perspectives of conflict. this line can fuel distrust, misunderstanding, and resentment toward the media and between sides • Carries a wide range of viewpoints, perspectives from different news sources involved in the of the conflict. conflict. xiv. Conflict analysis helps journalists to reconsider their perspectives, which are often heavily • Examines the options and strategies of various parties including the possibility for withdrawal, influenced by emotions, misunderstandings, compromise or transcendence? assumptions, suspicions and mistrust as informed by their sources. In conflict situations, emotion can • Contains a gender specific perspective to the easily overwhelm logic and reason. It is therefore conflict with regards to news sourcing and actors. important to distinguish opinion from fact. It also seeks to explain how different genders especially the women and children have been impacted by the conflict.

A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

• Does not focus on dramatizing and • Avoids assessing the merits of a violent action sensationalizing the physical aspects of the or policy of violence in terms of its visible effects conflict while ignoring the emotional and latent only. forms of pain and distractions. • Reports and focuses on both sides of conflict. • Names sources accurately and precisely after By examining and reporting on the two sides’ proper verification. The rule is named sources are misperceptions of each other, the media always better than unnamed sources. encourages disputing sides to revise their views and move closer to reducing conflict. • Examines the escalation or de-escalation of the conflict for public awareness and interventions. • Asks tough questions. Good stories seeks out • Examine stakeholders’ options and their implications in the conflict with regards to media’s watchdog role. • Avoids the personification of a conflict, so that an act of evil or good is not attributed to one person or group.

the real meaning of what leaders say and looks beyond the leaders’ interests and seeks the larger groups’ interest. • Asks the disputing parties for their solutions instead of just repeating their rhetoric of grievances.

“I think journalism anywhere should be based on social justice and impartiality, making contributions to society as well as taking responsibility in society. Whether you are capitalist or socialist or Marxist, journalists should have the same professional integrity. – Tan Hongkai” A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting

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A Conflict Analysis Handbook for Journalists: towards conflict sensitive reporting