“The dark ages aren’t as dark as the world thinks…”
Introduction In a sense of historical importance, the Western point of view on the so called Middle Ages is rather negligent, if not even inexistent. Indeed, the period is also called the “Dark Ages.” As this name suggest, this era is often overlooked when it comes to reviewing important developments. To a great extent, this viewpoint is logical. However, these were not times of complete “darkness.” In fact, the number of historical breakthroughs accomplished during that time made the world as advanced and developed as it is right now. These were the discoveries that served as the basis to a huge number of other discoveries. It’s necessary to recognize that they are important and that they did make a difference. From the fields of medicine to engineering to astronomy and even algebra, medieval Muslim scientists never failed to excel and showcase a great ability to break all barriers and move forward with their ideas.
Ali Yousry: I am 20 years old and my major is mechanical engineering. I want to study aerospace when I am done with mechanical engineering so that I can work in something related to Astrodynamics. My intended career (my dream) is to work in NASA, RFSA, JAXA or ESA. It does not really matter where to work as much as it matters to work on innovation of space aircrafts or calculations of space trips, which scientists and engineers seem to be doing in movies. Iyed Hamadi: I’m a 20 year old freshman intending to major in Business Administration and to minor in Economics. I’m from Tunis, Tunisia where I lived and studied for my entire life. I spent a year as an exchange student in the U.S. in high school and right now I’m a MEPI Tomorrow’s Leaders Scholar in the American University in Cairo. I want to pursue my graduate studies in the U.S. by studying Economics and Business at the same time. I also want to become an international businessman and spend my life working in different countries all over the world. Mohab Eldyasty: Hi there! my name is Mohab Eldyasty. I love football. In fact I’m CHELSEA fanatic. I spent a year and half in medical school then shifted my direction for the future to engineering especially construction and I hope to declare that soon.
Our main target in these topics is to demonstrate the gigantic role that the Muslim and Arab scientists had played in the development of science and engineering disciplines through history. Lots of Arabs and Muslims do not know anything about that, so it is really important to clarify to the young people how our ancestors changed the world as we know it today. Arab and Muslims contributed to the advancement of humanity and leaded a move towards illumination. Because of Arabs and Muslims science and engineering contributions we are now able to travel in planes and cars, surgeons are now able to work more effectively and most importantly cartographers are able to know how earth looked like long ago. Muslim scientists contributed to some great inventions and breakthroughs, and we certainly need to have some education about that. Because the youths have almost no time to study history simultaneously with their study major, this work is intended to give them even a hint about the history they should know about.
So before you start exploring the medieval Islamic science, we suggest you take this short quiz to test your knowledge and see if you know the information coming ahead.
1- Who is the Muslim cartographer who created one of the first world maps in history? 2– Who is the Muslim mathematician that established the laws of Trigonometry? 3– Who is the Muslim scientist that had an influence on the creation of the Camera? 4– Who created the numbers we use today (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)? 5– Which Muslim scientist is considered as a pioneer in Neurosurgery? 6– Who is the Muslim doctor that takes credit as the first to define the characteristics of smallpox? 7– Who is the Muslim scientist who defined the mechanics of flight?
If you know the answers to these questions, you should be proud. If you don’t, no worries. All the answers you are looking for are just ahead of you. Continue reading and discover the greatness of Muslim scientists throughout history.
Background: Al Idrisi’s life will always be identified as the life of a medieval Arab scholar due to all the academic prowess he showcased throughout his life. He was truly educated and had traveled to numerous countries. It all began as Abu ‘Abd Allah Abdullah Muhammed ibn Muhammed ibn Ash Sharif al Idrisi (Al Idrisi’s full name) was born around 1100 in Sabtah (now Ceuta which a Spanish territory in Morocco). He is said to have traced his descent through an extended family tree back to Mohammed, the Muslim Prophet. From Sabtah, a young and inspired Al Idrisi spent a lot of his time traveling around the region and getting familiar with the characteristics of both North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Later, Al Idrisi studied and lived for a while in Cordoba. He then went to live for some time in Algeria and Morocco. As his research got stronger, he went on to expand his horizons by living in Portugal, northern Spain, France, and England.
When King Roger II decided to make a world map and a book describing the geography of the world, he decided to refer back to Al Idrisi due to his reputation including immeasurable experience and impressive accomplishments. When King Roger II heard about Al Idrisi, he was amazed to the point that he invited him to Sicily. The king offered Al Idrisi his support to create his famous map and the accompanying book. His invitation can be translated to the following: “You are a member of the caliph family. For that reason, when you happen to be among Muslims, their kings will seek to kill you, whereas when you are with me you are assured of the safety of your person.” Al Idrisi accepted the offer as he was very excited about the idea of expanding his work to a more serious step. In fact, Al Idrisi realized that King Roger is the perfect benefactor and supporter for his work. Some of his Arab and Muslim acquaintances criticized Al Idrisi’s decision to work for a Christian king. However, he was positive that the results for his research should benefit the entire world regardless of their faith or race. He went to Sicily around 1145. The project consisted of collecting all the available information on the exact location of towns, cities and villages (including latitude and longitude), and especially the distances between populated places to make the map an accurate guide of travel and navigation. To assist Al Idrisi in his endeavor, King Roger II offered him all the tools and resources he needed. Furthermore, with the help of Al Idrisi, the Norman king was able to send people on expeditions to collect first-hand information. When these groups return, they report all of their manuscripts to Al Idrisi to assist him with his work.
Silver Planisphere
Al Idrisi Statue in Ceuta
The three most significant accomplishments of Al Idrisi were the following:
A silver planisphere (an instrument to assist in learning how to recognize stars and constellations) on which a map of the world was represented.
An actual map of the world dividing the globe into seven climatic zones.
A book featuring detailed explanations of the planisphere.
By Iyed Hamadi
Al Idrisi with King Roger II
Background: Not much is known about al -Battani's life other than the fact that he was born in Harran near Urfa, in Upper Mesopotamia (now in Turkey) and his father was a well-known creator of scientific instruments. His full name Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Sinan al-Raqqi al-Ḥarrani asSabi al-Battani indicates that he was Muslim. Numerous western historians affirm that he is of noble origin, some sort of Arab prince. However traditional Arabic biographers don’t mention this story. He lived and worked in ar-Raqqah, a city in north central Syria.
The biggest change accomplished in al-Battani’s investigations, was probably related to his efforts with the ratios concerning sides and angles of right triangles which is known right now as the discipline of trigonometry. Al-Battani’s creative use of the sin/tang/cot functions, and his discovery and usage of the secant and cosecant functions were, indeed, a huge expansion compared to the techniques employed by Ptolemy (c.127CE), one of the most accomplished Greek astronomers. He elaborated meticulous accurate tables for cotangents for angles from 0-900. He found the cotangents in his tables as represented by the following functions: Cot x = Cos x/ Sin x In his book, Mathematics History, Florian Cajori stated that: “Al-Battani did not follow the Greek in many of their Geometry solutions; he instead solved problems by another way: For instance m = Sin x/ Cos x. But, Thus, the value x for the angle could be obtained.” A Western Source discussing the life and work of Al Battani states: “Al-Battani used al-Marwazi’s idea of tangents to develop equations for calculating tangents and cotangents, compiling tables of them. He also discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants, which he referred to as a ‘table of shadows’ (in reference to the shadow of a gnomon), for each degree from 1° to 90°.” Al-Battani is mostly famous for writing several manuscripts surrounding his astronomical work, but not all of them were as established and appreciated when it comes to its legacy as his “Magnum Opus” known as Kitab az-Zij, or the Book of Astronomical Tables. The observations discussed in the Kitab az-Zij were made between the year 880CE and 900CE. Publishing many of his observations and conclusions in his book, al-Battani kept developing the value of the work by a constant support through tables. On the other hand, an entire chapter in the book is entitled: ‘On Ascensions of the Signs of the Zodiac.’ I In all, Kitab az-Zij consists of 57 chapters, starting by a description of the celestial sphere which al-Battani separated into degrees. Right after, there is an introduction to the requisite mathematical instruments like arithmetical operations on sexagesimal fractions as also trigonometric functions. In different ways, the Kitab az-Zij was a marvelous accomplishment, not only for al-Battani specifically, but even for the history of astronomy, mathematics and even instrumentation. Cataloging, within the pages of the book, the position of around 489 stars among other important findings, the refined value for the length of the solar year and of the seasons, the precession of the equinoxes as well as the accurately observed value for the inclination of the ecliptic. Nevertheless, it was and it will always be the non-Arab, nonMuslim, Western world which, despite building on his pioneering research for centuries later for its rebirth from the Dark Ages, remains generally and most probably a great legacy and revolutionary contributions that al-Battani and other pioneering Muslim scientists, offered the our world. Iyed Hamadi
Background: Al-Hasan Ibn Al Haytham was born at Basra in southern Iraq, where he supposedly received all his education. He acquired respectable fame for his knowledge of physics early in his life which led to an invitation in Egypt by the Fatimid ruler al-Hakim in order to attempt a regulation in the flow of the Nile river. However, after failing in this endeavor, he was disgraced and established himself as a copyist of mathematical manuscripts; there still exists to this day in Istanbul a manuscript of the Banu Musa's version of Apollonius's Conics copied by him in 1024. He continued to practice the scribal art in Cairo for the remainder of his life. Ibn al-Haytham is truly considered to be one of the first theoretical physicists in history as well as an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence which is basically the concept the scientific method 200 years before Renaissance scientists.
The primary interest of Ibn Al Haytham was the explanation of phenomena by both mathematical and physical hypotheses. His interest in astronomy was motivated by the relationship between the Aristotelian physical and mechanistic model of the celestial spheres as well as the Ptolemaic mathematical model. “On the Structure of the World” describes the Aristotelian sub-lunar world of four elements and the Ptolemaic celestial spheres in very meticulous details despite of their complexity as if they were material. He includes a discussion of the perception of lunar and solar eclipses according to the assumption that the moon and sun are solid physical bodies. The problem that al-Hasan takes up again in “On the Light of the Moon”, is related to the refutation of the prevailing ancient theory that the moon reflects the sun's light like a mirror. On the other hand, he affirms that the moon is a self-illuminating body because each point on its surface broadcasts light rays in all directions, in which each point on the surface of a mirror reflects a light ray from a single source in one specific direction. However, he later on relies on this to unravel more mysteries. He believed that the eye receives two primary things when it comes to vision light and color. Thus, he deduced that only the physical effect of the sun's light rays on the moon makes its light visible. Al-Hasan's greatest scientific accomplishments were actually in the field of optics. In the discussion of the nature of vision at the beginning of Optics, he argues that light affects the eye in a physical way through the pain experienced by looking into the Sun and the after image that happens by gazing at fire and then looking into an unilluminated place. Through that, he argues that the assumption of emission of visual rays from the eye adopted by the majority of mathematical opticians, though convenient for their mathematic conclusions, must be untrue. Light rays in fact travel from the object insight to the eye and are always accompanied by color. Al-Hasan, who has been named, while exaggerating, the founder of modern physics, seems without any doubt to have been the most accomplished and game changing Muslim student of physical theory, with the possible exception of the not so known Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi.
Iyed Hamadi
Background: Muhammed Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi was a Persian mathematician, astrologer, geographer, astronomer, and a scholar in the house of wisdom in Baghdad. Born in Persia around 780, Al -Khwarizmi is considered “one of fathers of the Algebra�. He worked under the leadership of Khalif Al-Mamun, who was the son of khalif Harun Al -Rashid. He died in 850 to be remembered as one of the greatest scientific minds of the Islamic
Muhammed Al-Khwarizmi as a great scientist made many important contributions to science fields. Contributions that world depends fundamentally upon since then. But his major contribution was to mathematics. Being called the “father of Algebra”, AL-Khwarizmi helped solve many problems through his books for example his incredible book called the compendious book on calculation by completion and balancing, which was written in 830. This book was translated to Latin, which is kept in Cambridge. Also, its Arabic version is kept in Oxford. This book helped solving polynomial problems up to second degree and elaborated on the methods of reducing and balancing the equations. Basically, AL-Khwarizmi in order to solve linear or quadratic equation used to reduce it first to one of his six standard forms (Wikipedia, 2016). Another book, which is one of his greatest works, “Al-kitab Almukhtasr fi hisab Algabr w Al-moqabala”. It was later in the 12 century also translated to Latin. “The book is devoted to finding solutions to practical problems which Muslims encountered in daily life concerning matters of inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits and commerce”(Shawki Quoted in Dr.,1990). It was written in 820. (Dr., 1990). Moreover, his excellence was not only exclusive to mathematics, he ultimately did excel in Geography too. Wrote the “Book of Earth” in 830, Al-Khwarizmi used Ptolemy’s geographies to present the coordinates of the localities but with some improvements. He also constructed in making a map to the whole world by orders from Al-Ma’Mun. and participated in a project to measure the circumference of the earth (Britannica, 2016). Also, he contributed to the field of Astronomy as he wrote "astronomical tables of Sindh and Hind" which contains descriptions by tables to the movements of sun, moon, and, at the time, five known planets. The original book, written in 820, was lost but there were four copies translated in Latin survived which are kept in Charters, Madrid, Paris, and Oxford. (Wikipedia, 2016) Al-Khwarizmi also wrote some works on the Jewish calendar called “Extraction of the Jewish Era” which describes the Metonic cycle. (Wikipedia, 2016) Finally, one can clearly see that Muhammed Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi was with no doubt one of the most scientific thinkers in the Islamic world considering all his achievements and contributions to geography, astronomy, and most importantly to mathematics that he was called the father of algebra. Mohab El Dyasty
Background: Abo Bukr Mohammed Ibn Zakaria Al-Razi was born in Ray, Iran now, in 854. He was a Persian scientist who stepped into many fields of science. Al-Razi originally was an alchemist then he turned to medicine where he excelled to become one of the most known names in not only the Islamic medical history but the whole world. In his youth, Al-Razi moved to Baghdad where he learned and practiced medicine. Then after he was assigned the directory of hospitals. In his last years after having Glaucoma, Al-Razi moved back to Rey where he spent his last years. He was titled as Sheikh, a prestigious title given to someone who teaches students. He died finally between 925 and 932.(Wikipedia, 2016). He also enjoyed of music throughout his life as a lute player and a singer as well. (Your Dictionary, 2016)
Al-Razi’s Achievements were distributed between Alchemy, music, Philosophy and Medicine but most importantly and significantly in medicine. He wrote many books and articles on various medical concerns at the time. He wrote over 230 articles and books in these fields (Your Dictionary, 2016). Medically, he made great works; he was the first to distinguish between measles and smallpox. He concluded his findings and studies in his book” al-Judari w al-Hasbah”. He wrote many great books in medicine such as mental health, man la yahduruhu al-tabib, and diseases of children. But his most important book was Al-Hawi AlKabir, which was rarely translated because of its large volume. This book was collected after Al-Razi’s death based on his notes, works, and own practical experience. (Wikipedia, 2016)Al-Razi entered the alchemy fielding trying to find a method through which he can turn copper or lead into gold. He wrote many books on the subject but his most two important books were “AL-Asrar” and “Sirr Al-Asrar”(Wikipedia, 2016). Although he could not find a way to turn copper or lead into gold, Al-Razi made many great discoveries in chemistry like distillation and extraction to purify some chemicals. Also, he was a respected philosopher. He was concerned with the metaphysics and their theories like “five eternals”. Mainly, he viewed himself as the Arabian version of Plato. His most important book in philosophy is “doubts about glean” but he also wrote many other books and articles on philosophy such as, The Small Book on Theism, Response to Abu Qasem Braw. The Greater Book on Theism, Modern Philosophy, Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah, and Dar Enteghaade Motazlian.(Wikipedia. 2016) In conclusion, there is no doubt that Abo Bukr Mohammed Ibn Zakaria Al-Razi was one of the greatest scientists and surgeons of Islamic history. His books and studies were widespread all over Europe’s universities through 16th century. In order to honor such a great Islamic figure, there were institution and university named after him. Also, Iran donated a memorial for him in June 2009, which is placed in Vienna international center titled “Scholars Pavilion”. Mohab El Dyasty
Background: Abu AL-Qasim Khalaf Ibn ALAbbas AL-Zahrawi is considered one of the greatest surgeons in the Islamic history and even of the world. Born in 936, Abu AlQasim Al-Zahrawi, known also as Albucasis in the west, was born in Alzahra city near Cordoba, Spain under Islamic rule. He was the first physician to write about or mention ectopic surgery and also hemophilia. His contribution to the medical field made some call him the� Father of Surgery�. He lived in Andalusia under the government of AlHakkam the second. He died in 1013. (Wikipedia, 2016)
Al-Zahrawi composed his ultimate contribution to the medical field by putting all what he has learned through fifty years of reading searching and practicing surgery into a book called “Kitab AL-Tasrif”. His book, a thirty volume book, contained information about dentistry, childbirth, surgeries instruments, and pharmacy. His book also included pages on the patient-doctor relation and the secrecy of such a relation and that every patient should be treated fairly regardless of his social status. Finished completely in 1000, His book is composed of thirty articles. (Wikipedia, 2016) Each article is concerned with many medical topics whether surgery, pharmacy, dentistry, or medical ethics. His most important and influential article is the thirtieth article which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187). Most of Europe’s surgeons referred to Al-Zahrawi’s works and copied from him. His book also contained hundreds of cases and descriptions of tools he used. (Shaikh) The twenty eighth article was devoted to pharmacy. AlZahrawi’s “Liber Servitors” focused on describing how to prepare some medicines through distillation and sublimation. Also, he described other preparations of samples for compounds that are involved in making drugs. (Wikipedia, 2016)
Also in order to give an ultimate benefit of his knowledge, Al-Zawahri wrote a guide titled “On Surgery and Instruments” which describes which surgical instrument should be used in which operation and why. Also, he gives tips based on his fifty years of expertise in the field. Al-Zawahri always stressed on the impotency of reading the earlier published texts. Whenever he introduced a topic or describe an operation, Al-Zawahri made sure to warn the reader of the needed skills and knowledge to do the operation. (Wikipedia, 2016) Finally, Abu AL-Qasim Khalaf Ibn AL-Abbas AL-Zahrawi was not only one of the greatest surgeons ever, but also was one of the pioneers in that field providing detailed information about every surgery and instrument. Also, he was a pioneer in childbirth surgeries, and first to describe a surgical procedure for ligating the temporal artery for migraine, six hundred years before Pare does. (Wikipedia, 2016). Also, his instruments were collected and exhibited in Madrid’s Archaeological museum in 1992. Moreover, as an acknowledgement of his contributions, there is a street named after him in Cordoba to honor him titled “AlBucasis”.(Shaikh)
Mohab El Dyasty
All these scientists never gave and neither should you. What’s important in life is to find what is the fuel that drives you to continue
Background: Three brothers—Muḥammad, Aḥmad, and alḤasan, mostly known under one name. Their father, Musa ibn Shakir, used to be a robber in his early life to later become a proficient astrologer. He died while his children were still young. They were recognized for their mental ability to the point where they were enrolled them in the House of Wisdom (the first scientific institution in the Abbasid Empire and quite similar to the modern academy). Soon the Banu Musa excelled in mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics and became the most active members of the House of Wisdom. The Banu Musa were especially interested in geometry. They also led the astronomical observations in Baghdad and organized a school of translators who rendered many Greek scientific manuscripts into Arabic. These translations were very useful in the development of science.
The Banū Mūsā Arab inventors are three brothers who lived in Baghdad in the ninth century. They wrote a book about the automatic machine systems which is called Book
of Ingenious Devices. Two of the most significant devices invented by the Banū Mūsā brothers are the one-way and the two-way valves.
The check valve (one-way valve), or as specialists call it, is simply a valve used to allow a fluid to go in only one direction; for example, prevents the back-flow of water in a boiler’s feed pumps. Its applications also spread to domestic use as in the case of domestic heating systems when the valve prevents the vertical convection currents. A form of a natural check valve are the heart’s valve. The two-way valve which also goes back to the Banū Mūsā brothers and the shuttle valve is an example of a two-way valves and a three-way valves. Two-way valves are used in complex variable flow as in the case of pumps and the variable-frequency drive. The two-way valves also play a role in basic on/ off applications. The choice of the valve’s type depends on many factors, such as the amount of flow, the degree of control required and the potential difference over the valve. The Banū Mūsā brothers have influenced alJazarī in the invention of his fountains. The first fountain is the Peacock Fountain which was a sort of an automata hand washing device. The second fountain was a musical automata of four automatic musicians in a boat and that was invented using the Banū Mūsā brothers’ hydraulic switching mechanisms. Ali Yousry
Background: Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 A.D.), also known as Abbas Abu al-Qasim ibn Firnas ibn Wirdas al-Takurini was an Andalusian polymath, an inventor, physician, engineer. Often said to be of Berber descent, he was born in Izn-Rand Onda, Al-Andalus (today's Spain), lived in the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba, and is reputed to have attempted flight. The crater Ibn Firnas on the Moon is named in his honor, as well as the Ibn Firnas Airport in Baghdad and one of the bridges over the Guadalquivir river in Cordoba.
Abu l-Qāsim Abbās ibn Firnās, or as we know Abbās ibn Firnās, is one of the most influential Muslim Scientists of all time. He is the one who aviation and mechanical engineers count him as the forerunner of aviation in the history of mankind. In the ninth century, Abbās ibn Firnās used to live in Córdoba and he has managed to establish the mankind’s first most successful flight a man has made using wings and feathers. Some historians believe that he influenced Eilmer of Malmesbury attempt in which he used the same technique in England after almost two centuries. The greatness of this man ideas and courage gave the physics and the engineering disciplines a new perspective which we call today “Aerodynamics”;. Thanks to Abbas ibn Firnas we are now capable of travelling from a continent to the other in terms of few hours. Aerodynamics discipline of engineering was established because of him; scientists and engineers discovered that the problem lies within the tail which he did not add to himself during the flight attempt. So even if his flying attempt was not completely successful, he managed to influence others to create new ideas which day after day. Ali Yousry
Background: Al-Jazari (1136–1206) was a Muslim polymath, a mechanical engineer and mathematician. He is very famous writing “The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices” in 1206, in which he described 100 mechanical devices, some 80 of which are trick vessels of various kinds, along with all the necessary information and steps on how to build and create them. Unfortunately, very few information is known about al-Jazari's early life.
al-Jazarī was a mechanical engineer whose inventions are critical and crucial in our daily lives and the industrial fields. He did not only describe an adjusted crankshaft but also he was the first to introduce the camshaft. He invented many other things, but the camshaft and the modified crankshaft are the most important inventions to humanity. The camshaft which al-Jazarī introduced in 1206 plays an important role in automobiles for example. It is the control system responsible for opening and closing the cams between the engine’s strokes. Without the camshaft there would have been no cars or planes, there would be no modern ships driven by steam or diesel engines in seas and oceans. Imagine a world where trading would take months instead of weeks or even few days. Imagine how much time would it take a patient who is in an emergency case who needs to get moved from Egypt to France in no more than a couple of days. The modified crankshaft of al-Jazarī altered the motion transformation methods. At the time where al-Jazarī lived, to transform the rotating motion into a linear motion was something significant and his ideas were used later on till today internal combustion engines used in automobile’s again, and steam engines which are known to be an external combustion engine. Both the camshaft and the crankshaft are the basics upon which mechanical engineering has developed through the years. Almost all machinery are operated using control systems that contains camshafts. Moreover, all moving machines like the automobile and all its different kinds are operated using crankshafts. Ali Yousry
We carried out survey and 16 people aged 19 – 53 have participated. Participants are undergraduate mechanical engineers, mechanical engineering professors and mechanical engineers. The question is where do you think the basic idea of the camshaft came from or where the first camshaft was invented? For example: Europe, China, America, etc. The purpose of the survey is to show that we literally do not know anything about our scientists and our engineers. Moreover, to show that we have some stereotypes about inventions; the western civilizations have invented the technology itself and we have just copied what they achieved and established. The results accentuated the prediction and the results would have been more shocking if we had a bigger tested sample. Eight answered Europe (Germany an England are the basic answers), one answered USA, two answered China and two answered Persia. The answers including “Islamic empire or Arab countries”; are only three; so three out of 16 (19%) is shocking. What is even more shocking is that two of the three who answered Arab countries did not know the right answer, but tried their luck and chose randomly; in other words, lucky shot. As a matter of calculation, one out of 16 (6.25%) is the proportion of people who got the right answer. Within a larger sample, for sure it would be more accurate and predictably those who will answer correctly without lucky shots will not exceed 5 percent by all means. Thus, what we may conclude is that we need to know more about our medieval ages or what we are supposed now to call “golden ages”
Actually, the number of Muslim scientists with a huge contribution to science exceed by far the few mentioned before. So if you would like to know more about them, we highly encourage you to research the ones in the following list as they are the most accomplished ones: Jabir Ibn Haiyan (Geber)
Chemistry (Father of Chemistry)
Al-Asmai
Zoology, Botany, Animal Husbandry.
Amr ibn Bahr Al-Jahiz
Zoology, Arabic Grammar, Rhetoric, Lexicography
Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (Alkindus)
Philosophy, Physics, Optics, Medicine, Mathematics, Metallurgy.
Thabit Ibn Qurrah (Thebit)
Astronomy, Mechanics, Geometry, Anatomy.
Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari
Medicine, Mathematics, Caligraphy, Literature.
Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus)
Astronomy, Civil Engineering.
Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius)
Sociology, Logic, Philosophy, Political Science, Music.
Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masu'di
Geography, History.
Al-Sufi (Azophi)
Astronomy
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis)
Surgery, Medicine. (Father of Modern Surgery)
Muhammad Al-Buzjani
Mathematics, Astronomy, Geometry, Trigonometry.
Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen)
Physics, Optics, Mathematics.
Al-Mawardi (Alboacen)
Political Science, Sociology, Jurisprudence, Ethics.
Abu Raihan Al-Biruni
Astronomy, Mathematics. (Determined Earth's Circumference)
Al-Zarqali (Arzachel)
Astronomy (Invented Astrolabe).
Omar Al-Khayyam
Mathematics, Poetry.
Al-Ghazali (Algazel)
Sociology, Theology, Philosophy.
Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya (Ibn Ba- Philosophy, Medicine, Mathematics, Asjjah) tronomy, Poetry, Music. Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar)
Surgery, Medicine.
Al-Idrisi (Dreses)
Geography (World Map, First Globe).
Ibn Tufayl, Abdubacer
Philosophy, Medicine, Poetry.
Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
Philosophy, Law, Medicine, Astronomy, Theology.
Al-Bitruji (Alpetragius)
Astronomy
Ibn Al-Baitar
Pharmacy, Botany
Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi
Astronomy, Non-Euclidean Geometry.
Jalal Al-Din Rumi
Sociology
Ibn Al-Nafis Damishqui
Anatomy
Al-Fida (Abdulfeda)
Astronomy, Geography, Histrory.
Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (Ibn Battuta)
World Traveler. 75,000 mile voyage from Morocco to China and back.
Ibn Khaldun
Sociology, Philosophy of History, Political Science.
Ulugh Beg
Astronomy
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