An Urban Architectural Solution to Embrace Extreme Precipitation 1
2 tent.Con
3 INTRODUCTIONABSTRACTBACKGROUNDTHESISVISION107 12 20 5244403836353426 54 56 EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS: A GLOBAL PHENOMENA EXTREME PRECIPITATION LIVING WITH PLUVIAL FLOODS SPONGE CITY, 2000 SPONGE: A SPONGECONCEPTBUILDING, 1975 THE SPONGE, 2021 S INGAPORECLIMATE AND RAINFALL STORMPATTERNSWATER MANAGEMENT CITY IN NATURE PROBLEM STATEMENT THESIS STATEMENT
4 PRECEDENT STUDY URBAN ANALYSIS DESIGN STRATEGY 66 68666462 76 86 90 1121069594 EVALUATION METHOD PRECEDENT I / Rain Water Catcher by NUDES PRECEDENT II / Sponge Tower by Jun Peng PRECEDENT III / Kampung Admiralty by WOHA PRECEDENT IV / Harbin Qunli Stormwater Park FLOOD PRONE AREAS IN SINGAPORE SITE BIOMIMICRYSELECTIONSTUDY: SEA SPONGES DELAYPROGRAMMATICSTRUCTURALFORMSTRATEGYSTRATEGYSTRATEGYKIT-OF-PARTS
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This thesis will examine the verticalization of sponge cities into sponge buildings as an urban architectural solution in Singapore where land is scarce and natural landscape solutions are almost maximised. It seeks to explore where the optimal intersection between engineering and ecology lies, to design a building that is capable of sustainably harvesting, treating and reusing rainwater whilst orchestrating a rain centred sensory experience for visitors.
Sponge cities are landscaped solutions comprising of lush vegetation that naturally retains and filters rainwater. This solution culminates in picturesque wetlands that serve as an alternative stormwater management solution and relief to lifeless, water polluted cities in China.
Anthropogenic climate change has plagued the world with extreme precipitation which leads to catastrophic flash floods, causing widespread fear and casualties while costing the global economy US$82 billion thus far. This problem is amplified in Singapore, a tropical country with naturally abundant rainfall and expensive grey infrastructure that is steadily getting bettered by the worsening rain.
8 duction.Intro
9 duction.
Introduction
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Extreme weather is a weather event that deviates considerably from usual the weather patterns seen in a particular place and time. 1 Examples of common extreme weather events include extreme heat, extreme precipitation and drought which cumulatively accounts for 76% of extreme weather occurrences recorded by Carbon Brief between 2011-2020. 2 According to the same study, 70% of the studied extreme events were found to have been worsened or made more likely to occur by human influence.
EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS: A GLOBAL PHENOMENA
140 Extreme Heat Fig 1: Frequency of Extreme Weather Events (2011-2020) ExtremeCoralWinterPrecipitationDroughtStormStormWildfireBleaching 0 20 40 60 80 100 1201236368 2931 16 3
1 Anon, What is extreme weather? - extreme weatherGCSE geography revision - BBC Bitesize. BBC News. Available Junenlm.nih.gov/booksAvailableBiotechnology-32022].the-world/affects-extreme-weather-around-mapped-how-climate-change-at:world.extremeHow2[Accessedguides/zpyp7hv/revision/1https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/at:June29,2022].Anon,2021.Mapped:climatechangeaffectsweatheraroundtheCarbonBrief.Availablehttps://www.carbonbrief.org/[AccessedJune29,Anon,Home-booksNCBI.NationalCenterforInformation.at:https://www.ncbi.[Accessed29,2022].
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“Extreme weather refers to weather phenomena that are at the extremes of the historical distribution and are rare for a particular place and/or time...” 3 - National Library of Medicine
The sixth assessment report (AR6) 4 published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2021 cited global warming as a driver for changes in heavy precipitation.
ATTRIBUTIONS OF EXTREME PRECIPITATION
Extreme Precipitation 1002003004005006007008000 0
As the earth warms, water saturation point of the atmosphere increases according to the Clausius-Clapeyron (C-C) relation which states that water vapour content in the atmosphere increases by approximately 7% per 1°C of warming. This thermodynamic effect in turn increases extreme precipitation at a global scale.
On a regional scale, more dynamic processes may come into play. A larger difference between sea and land surface temperature, decrease in atmospheric aerosols and more recently, loss of natural areas to urban development will all lead to the intensification or increased frequency of extreme precipitation. 20 40 60 80 100 Temperature (°C) (torr)PressureVapour Fig. 2: Clausius-Clapeyron (C-C) Relation 4 Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021: Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [MassonDelmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.013.1513–1766,
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Fig. 3: Global Temperature Anomaly (°C)
Rising concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. The five major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases and water vapour5 and they are capable of trapping infrared radiation from the sun. Currently, the earth is warming by 0.15-0.2°C per decade with 2021 being the 6th warmest year since 1880. 6 Global temperature anomaly which treats the 1901-2000 average as a baseline has shown a steep increasing trend from negative to positive anomaly from 1901 to 2019. The warmer temperature increases the rate of water evaporation and water saturation point of the atmosphere. Both result in more intense precipitation as seen in the projection below. 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 10-year 50-year 1911 1916 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016
Fig. 4: Extreme Precipitation Intensity v. Temperature
1.240 1.0
13
Temperature above 1850-1900 average baseline (°C) (%)intensityeventinIncrease
RISING AVERAGE GLOBAL TEMPERATURE
5 Denchak, M., 2022. Greenhouse effect 101. NRDC. Available at: 2022].precipitationindicators-us-and-global-indicators/climate-change-https://www.epa.gov/climate-Precipitation.Indicators:6[Accessedorg/stories/greenhouse-effect-101https://www.nrdc.July1,2022].Anon,ClimateChangeU.S.andGlobalEPA.Availableat:[AccessedJune30,
event
1921 1926 1931 1936 1941
AverageMinimumMaximumevent-0.6-0.4-0.20.20.40.60.81353025201501051901 1906
1971 1976 1981
14 GLOBAL OBSERVED PRECIPITATION TRENDS The AR6 report concluded after numerous assessments that there Sinceis 1901, global precipitation has risen by approximately 2.54mm per decade.6 “robust evidence of the intensification of extreme precipitation at global and continental scales” 100120806040200-20-40-60 1901 1906 1911 1916 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 Fig.6: Global Precipitation Anomaly (mm) Fig. 5: In US, a man struggles to walk under intense downpour
northernincreasingHeavyAustraliaprecipitationinregions ExtremeAfrica increasedprecipitationsince1950s South America Extreme increasedprecipitationsince1950sEuropeExtremeprecipitationincreasedsince1950s Arid regions ExtremeAsia increasedprecipitationsince1950s
The AR6 report defines flooding as “the inundation of normally dry land, and are classified into types depending on space and time scales”. Floods arising from extreme precipitation that exceeds the capacity of natural and engineered drainage systems are pluvial floods. There are two intensities of pluvial floods - surface water floods and flash floods, the latter being of higher, more destructive intensity.7 2. Strain onsystemdraiange Fig.7: Global Arid Regions 7 Anon, 2022. Three common types of flood explained. Zurich.com. Available at: [Accessedthree-common-types-of-floodtopics/flood-and-water-damage/www.zurich.com/en/knowledge/https://July1,2022]. Heavy rainfall Pluvial flooding
PLUVIAL FLOOD ARISING FROM EXTREME PRECIPITATION
15
3.
1.
Typically, high precipitation, humidity and temperatures are characteristic of a tropical climate. Data over past few decades however, have shown significant increase in average annual precipitation over land in arid regions as well by 1-2% per decade. Arid regions typically experience low average annual precipitation and humidity.
16 Surface water flood Flash flood Threat:Height:Force:Pace: Low velocity and ShallowLowgradual (<1m) No Majorthreatimmediatetoliveseconomic
High velocity and damageMajorThreatpeopleAbleHighlysuddendestructivetosubmergeandcarstoliveseconomic In 2021, global flood loss amounted to US$82 billion, accounting for one-third of all losses from natural disasters. Mainly being triggered by extreme precipitation and storm surges, floods place nearly one-third of the world population at risk of devastating flood aftermaths such as landslides, damage to infrastructure, outbreak of water-borne diseases, destruction of agriculture and damage to terrestrial ecosystems.
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18 ground.Back
19 ground. LIVING WITH PLUVIAL FLOODSCHINA: SPONGESPONGE:CITIES A SINGAPORECONCEPT TYPICAL MEASURES KEY SPONGEMETHODOLOGYADVOCACIESBUILDING, 1975 THE SPONGE, 2021 CLIMATE AND RAINFALL CITYMANAGEMENTSTORMPATTERNWATERINNATURE
20 1. Fortify 2. Retreat 3. Adapt TYPICAL MEASURES Living with Pluvial Floods
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Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 8 Earth bund Fig. 9 Flood barrier Fig. 10 Inflatable tubes Fig. 11 Sandbags Fig. 12 Raised building platform level 8 Vojinovic, Z. & Abbott, M.B., 2012. Flood Control and Disaster Management. IWA Publications. Available at: 2022].managementflood-control-and-disaster-www.iwapublishing.com/news/https://[AccessedJuly2,
1. FORTIFY Fortification8 measures involve structural measures to keep water out. Some measures such as sandbags and inflatable tubes could be temporary and removed once the flood subsides. Permanent measures involve building regulations such as raised platform or crest levels to elevate building entrances.
+ 22 2. RETREAT 9
Fig. 13: Flood risk land use planning
Abdrabo, K.I. et al., 1970. The role of urban planning and landscape tools concerning flash flood risk reduction within arid and semiarid regions. SpringerLink. Available at: https:// [Accessed/10.1007/978-981-16-2904-4_11link.springer.com/chapterJuly3,2022].
utilitiesCritical storeySinglehouse1000yearflood floodyear100 Noriskflood Lowriskflood Moderatefloodrisk High flood risk Very floodhighrisk resistantFloodsinglestoreyhouse High residentialrise Open recreationalagriculture,space,9
To retreat is to plan land use on higher grounds, as grounds on lower elevation face greater risk of inundation. This is an urban planning solution which involves land use control and building codes. Land use is categorized according to varying degrees of flood risk in that location, generally with critical infrastructure such as hospitals being located on highest grounds with little to no flood risk. Agriculture, open and recreational spaces which have higher tolerances for flooding will be prioritised in high risk zones. This strategy increases public safety and decreases infrastructure damage by flood.
11 Jones-Bros, R., New Paradigm — Designing with Water. Closing Keynote Speech. Fig. 14 Water Square Benthemplein (ZOHO, Rotterdam) Fig. 15 Rain Garden Fig. 16 Sky Garden (City Vue @ Henderson HDB in Singapore) Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16
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Rotterdam in Netherlands is a prime example of a city built to flood. Dutch planners came up with the concept “Leven met Water” which translates to “Living with Water” to describe a shift in focus to flood resilient projects as opposed to traditional flood resistant projects. In the city district of Zomerhofkwartier (ZOHO) for example, Dutch planners have collaborated with stakeholders and the community to design and implement a plethora of creative nature and engineering-based solutions to store and reuse rainwater reducing the city’s reliance on drainage systems.
3. ADAPT 10 To adapt to pluvial flooding is to design with rain or storm water. As fortifying and retreating from flood grows economically infeasible, storm water management solutions also have the potential to become incorporated into the urban fabric in an aesthetically pleasing manner in the form of flood-able projects.
10 Aiken, C. et al., 2014. DESIGNING WITH WATER CREATIVE SOLUTIONS FROM AROUND THE GLOBE, The Boston Harbor Association.
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“Today, the paradigm is shifting water out, to designing to
- Renée Jones-Bos Former Ambassador of the Netherlands to Russia
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shifting away from keeping to let water in.”
26 Sponge City. CHINA Sponge city are ecological sponges that cleanse and store urban stormwater to create a water-resilient habitat for humans. Prof. Yu Kongjian Turenscape //
Fig. 17: Sanya Mangrove Park
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“Flooding in the era of climate opportunity for landscape opportunity to build up our architects can solve these concrete pipes and cisterns
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climate change presents an landscape architects. We have an our approach. Landscape these problems — not with cisterns — but with nature.”
- Professor Yu Kongjian Founding Director of Turenscape Inventor of Sponge Cities
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Fig. 18 Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park (Before)
Fig. 19 Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park (After)
NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS TO RELIEVE WATER-LOGGED CHINESE CITIES
A Sponge City is a nature-based solution aimed at retaining and cleansing storm water at source to avoid creating a strain on a city’s drainage system in the event of a heavy rainfall. Chinese professor and landscape architect, Yu Kongjian coined the concept to manage urban flooding, water pollution and recycle rainwater through an environmentally friendly approach. He acknowledged the importance of grey infrastructure made up of drains, concrete canals, steel pipes and detention tanks in basic water management. However, when faced with excess water brought about by climate change, grey infrastructure starts to lack resilience, with its expansion costing large amounts of capital, material and energy. Moreover, the expansion of grey infrastructure further widens the divide between man and nature, further driving forth the case of grey infrastructure being unsustainable for an increasingly wet and rapidly urbanising future. Today, Chinese government has adopted the sponge city approach to 16 cities in a mere span of 2 years between 2015 and 2017. 13
Fig. 20 Drain overflowing Fig. 21 Visitors at Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park Fig. 22 Egret Fig. 23 Redhead duck
Sponge City
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12 Campbell, M., 2021. What are sponge cities and could they solve the water crisis in China? euronews. Available at: pp.19–37.experiences.China:Sponge13[Accessedrethink-to-prevent-floodingcities-are-a-revolutionary-green/2021/11/15/china-s-sponge-https://www.euronews.com/July3,2022].Xiang,C.etal.,2018.CityConstructioninPolicyandimplementationWaterPolicy,21(1),
China with a population of 1.4 billion, is facing a strain on its water supply owing to decades of water pollution and urbanisation. They are also plagued by flooding, that has been worsening with climate change increasing the frequency of storms and extreme precipitation. While 80% of water supply is concentrated in the South, Northern China particularly struggles with the water crisis being the centre of the country’s development.
Land reclaimation
A landscape solution would allow for impermeable land to be replaced by wetlands and parks. Reduction of strain on drainage system Nature-based solutions, especially storm water parks are excellent in retaining and cleansing storm water through the use of different plant species and farming methods. Improvement in quality of life Storm water parks offer a sensory experience of nature and unobstructed views of the park’s surroundings.
31 14 Yu, K., 2012. Stormwater Park For a Water Resilient City. Stormwater Park for a water resilient city. Available at: Julypaper/detail/387.htmlhttps://www.turenscape.com/[Accessed3,2022].
31 42 KEY ADVOCACIES 14
Fig. 18: Before Fig. 20 Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Fig. 23 Fig. 19: After
Ecosystem restoration Wet habitats can be restored, attracting species that were once driven away by urbanisation.
02
farmingtraditionalfromwisdom
Ancient farming and water management techniques demonstrate that while highly engineered and technological solutions today can still be bettered by nature eventually, traditional nature-based techniques are simple yet effective even today.
A marriage of ancient wisdom and modern science culminates in the form of ‘ecological engineering’ modules. Fig. 25: Islanding Fig. 24 Fig. 26: Ponding Fig. 27: Terracing Fig. 28: Ponding and dyking Fig. 29 15 Anon, 2020. Sponge Cities: Leveraging Nature as Ecological Infrastructure. Available at: citiessg/events/webinars/view/sponge-https://www.clc.gov.[AccessedJuly4,2022].
32 METHODOLOGY 15 01 Learn
Designengineeringecologicalmodules
33 03 operationalPosttesting
These modules can be implemented at different scales, from one of a community expanding up to the regional scale. Different modules can be adopted based on each project’s specific needs.
04 replicableDesignmodules
The amount of pollutants removed from the treated storm water are amongst the many data collected to assess the effectiveness of the modules.
Fig. 30 Fig. 24 Traditional farming in China Fig. 25 - Fig. 28 Traditional farming practices Fig. 29 Ecological engineering module Fig. 30 Chemical composition of polluted water
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Besides Yu Kongjian’s Sponge Cities, the concept of a sponge is also involved in several other Architectural discourse projects. This section will take a look at two projects which showcases the versatility of sponge as a concept.
Sponge: A CONCEPT
Sponge City or Sponge Building was first presented by Peter Cook of Archigram in 1975 in his architecture gallery ‘Art Net’. The project was an anti-thesis to the predominant view of a building’s superiority over landscape. Cook imagines a radical intervention of building as a landscape and re-establishes the inherent connections between nature and urbanism. Cook shows in his drawings, his theories of what a land-site-building relationship should look like, with high rise community living nestled in lush earthscape which he defines as the ‘sponge condition’. The sponge comprises of skin, orifices, ‘gunge’ openings, areas of elasticity and articulated inner core with elevators. ‘Hard-core elements’ have latch systems for soft sponge elements for both to become incorporated.
16 Spens, M., 2007. From mound to sponge: How Peter Cook explores landscape buildings. Architectural Design, 77(2), pp.12–15.
35 Sponge City (1974) 16
PETER COOK / ARCHIGRAM
Fig. 31: Elevation of the Sponge Building
In his manifesto to solve the world’s environmental and social crisis, Winy Maas introduces The sponge- a new geographical layer on earth that grows to accommodate increasing population and consumption while still retaining nature. The sponge is imagined as a three dimensional substance, with it’s porosity allowing for “access, openness and views”. It also allows for shadow to shield itself from heating up. The sponge can produce “greenery, energy, food, life and biodiversity”, and is in a constant state of growing, evaluating, learning bio-techniques to adapt. The sponge is as thick as its higher than ever population density and is intricately interconnected, no longer constrained by horizontal movement. City infrastructures are all conveniently located at a height, and “multistorey mixed food forests” can handle intensified food production. The sponge is also border-less, capable of growing freely and dismantling itself. Supported by efficient and fast transit, “people can move more freely than over before.”
The Sponge (2021) 17
WINY MAAS / MVRDV
17 Maas, W., 2022. “what if we create a new layer on the earth that incorporates growing human habitation and consumption?” asks Winy Maas. Dezeen. Available at: 2022].dezeen-15/sponge-winy-maas-manifesto-www.dezeen.com/2021/11/02/the-https://[AccessedJuly31,
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37 Fig. 32: The Sponge Growing (Substance: Mushrooms)
Singapore.
occasionallyThunderstorms,severeintheafternoon
Early Mar Inter-monsoon Late mar
and rainfall
RAINFOREST CLIMATE IN
TROPICAL SINGAPORE
18, 19 SW monsoon June - Sept Inter-monsoon Oct - Nov RELATIVE INTENSITYRAINFALLPREVAILINGWINDDIRECTIONS Low High Fig. 33: Monsoon periods
May Thunderstorms in the afternoon Short
18 Anon, Weather and Climate in Singapore. GuideMeSingapore Hawksford. Available at: Julyclimate-of-singapore/www.weather.gov.sg/climate-Singapore.192022].in-singaporesingapore/weather-and-climate-guides/immigration/get-to-know-guidemesingapore.com/business-https://www.[AccessedJuly5,Anon,ClimateofAvailableat:http://[Accessed5,2022].
Moderate
N 40
Climate pattern
rain NE Monsoon Dec
According to the Köppen Climate Classification System, Singapore belongs to a tropical rainforest climate . This means Singapore experiences uniform high temperatures between 25°C - 31 °C, abundant rainfall with an average of 167 days experiencing rain annually, and high humidity all year round. These conditions are owing to our proximity to the equator which is just one degree south of Singapore as well as our maritime exposure, which explains why neighbouring Southeast Asian countries Malaysia and Indonesia experiences similar conditions. Singapore’s climate is also characterised by the Northeast and Southwest monsoons that are separated by two inter-monsoon periods. A monsoon is a seasonal change in the prevailing wind direction which brings wet and dry seasons throughout the tropics. to heavy -thunderstormsdurationintheafternoon
631,230 Olympic pools of rain in a year The 1981-2010 long term average annual rainfall in Singapore is 2165.9 mm.20 For reference, Rotterdam receives 835.0 mm,21 less than half of what Singapore receives. Spatially, Northern and Western regions of Singapore experience higher rainfall, particularly in the afternoon with high solar heat gain.
RAINFALL AND FLOODING IN SINGAPORE
41 20 Ibid. 21 Anon, Data.org. Climate. Available at: [Accessed154%20litres%20in%202020.consumption%20is,from%20%2D%20Household%20water%20capita#:~:text=SINGAPORE%20to-reach-158-litres-per-of-water-rose-again-in-2021-debate-daily-consumption-singapore/politics/budget-https://www.straitstimes.com/StraitsforConsumptiondebate:22year.%7C%2032.9%20inch%20per%20temperature%20is,mm%20average%20annual%20rotterdam-910/#:~:text=The%20the-netherlands/south-holland/en.climate-data.org/europe/https://[AccessedJuly7,2022].Tan,A.,2022.BudgetSingapore’sDailyWaterRosein2021secondstraightyear.TheTimes.Availableat:July7,2022].
Within a year, higher rainfall tends to occur from November to January owing to the wetter phase of the Northeast Monsoon (Fig.34). Across the years from 1980 to 2019, data has shown annual average rainfall to be following a positive trend (Fig. 35) with 2021 being Singapore’s second wettest year since 1980.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
36: Average Number of Rain Days Per Month (mm)
34: Average Monthly Rainfall (mm)
42 100015002000250030003500198019821984198619881990199219941996199820002002200420062008201020122014201620185000(mm/yr)IntensityRainfall
35: Annual Average Rainfall (mm/yr)10015020025030035020121416181086450200 JanJan FebFeb MarMar AprApr MayMay JunJun JulJul AugAug SeptSept OctOct NovNov DecDec(mm)RainfallNumberofdays
23 Yang, W. & Kuang, J.Y., 2020. Water: From scarce resource to national asset 2nd ed., Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore. 24 Chow, W.T., Cheong, B.D. & Ho, B.H., 2016. A multimethod approach towards assessing urban flood patterns and its associated vulnerabilities in Singapore. Advances in Meteorology, pp.1–11.
Fig. 37: Frequency of reported floods on Singapore (1892 - 2015)
43 101816141220189218971902190719121917192219271932193719421947195219571962196719721977198219871992199720022007201286420floodsofNumber
With such large quantities of rain experienced, it is no wonder that Singapore is no stranger to pluvial flooding. The 1972 Water Masterplan was first rolled out to tackle flooding in the Bukit Timah and Opera Estate area.23 The measures seen then were mostly underground detention tanks and covered drains. Since then, the Singapore government has been in a constant battle with pluvial flooding. Figure 37 24 reveals 1980 to be the year Singapore started to face an onslaught of both flash and non-flash flood events with national records being hit in succession. Particularly, the emergence of flash floods- the more destructive of the two, only began within the last 40 years. This staggering data serves as a tell-tale sign of climate change taking its toll in the form of extreme weather becoming an increasingly frequent affair.
44 14m
Fig. Stamford Diversion Canal Construction Stamford Diversion Canal Interior
Fig. 39:
38:
25 Anon, 2021. Keeping orchard road flood free: Stamford Detention Tank & Stamford diversion canal. ExplorerSG. Available at: Cities,ed.,resourceJ.Y.,28year.%7C%2032.9%20inch%20per%20temperature%20is,mm%20average%20annual%20rotterdam-910/#:~:text=The%20the-netherlands/south-holland/en.climate-data.org/europe/Climate.275-yearsimprovement-projects-in-next-spend-s14b-more-on-drainage-government-economy/pub-to-www.businesstimes.com.sg/Times.indrainageto26July20Stamford%20Canal.cost,on%20the%20main%drainage%20projects%20canal/#:~:text=The%20two%20tank-stamford-diversion-free-stamford-detention-keeping-orchard-road-flood-com/explorersingapore/https://explorersg.[Accessed8,2022].Oh,T.,2102.PUBspendS$1.4bmoreonimprovementprojectsnext5years.TheBusinessAvailableat:https://[AccessedJuly8,2022].Anon,Data.org.Availableat:https://[AccessedJuly7,2022].Yang,W.&Kuang,2020.Water:Fromscarcetonationalasset2ndSingapore:CentreforLiveableSingapore.
With 43.9% of her land being built area, 11.1% being nature area and the remaining being military and industrial areas,27 it is challenging for Singapore to implement a natural landscape solution such as the sponge city. Instead, we have 19 water catchment zones housing 17 man-made reservoirs.28 Therefore when challenged by increasingly heavy rain, highly advanced drainage systems have to be relied upon to direct stormwater all over the island into their respective reservoirs. Apart from upgrading drainage standards, Singapore also has in place building guidelines to mitigate the damages of flood on buildings. Measures today are also beginning to look at the greening and naturalisation of grey infrastructure.
45
ManagementStormwater
Following bouts of frequent flash floods along Orchard Road in 2010 and 2011, the Singapore government had ambitious plans to create a 2km diversion canal to divert stormwater to the Singapore River.
Accompanying that will be a detention tank with the capacity of 15 Olympic sized pools to withhold stormwater prior to its release into the diversion canal. Within 7 years, the planning and construction of the Stamford Diversion Canal (SDC) and Stamford Detention Tank (SDT) was completed. It officially opened in November 2018 and cost S$227 million. 25 The Public Utilities Board (PUB), Singapore’s national water agency also released a statement in November 2021 on the expansion of the drainage works budget. S$1.4 billion will be invested in the following 5 years for further improvement works, on top of the S$2 billion already spent in the last decade. 26
SINGAPORE’S SKY HIGH INVESTMENT IN GREY INFRASTRUCTURE
Night soil collection
1972 MasterWaterPlan
Opera DetentionEstateTank
Covered drains
MasterSeweragePlan
Inedequacy
Flooding was widespread as 30% of land fell below 5m. Particular regions of concern were Bukit Timah and Opera Estate. A draingae department was set up.
RoadImprovement LATE 1960s 1972 46
To help cope with rise in population, public housing construction and industrial developement, proper sewage had to be established. By 1971, 53% of the population relied on this main public sewerage system while the rest relied on night soil collectors and other sewage systems.
and shift to nature-based
We realised...1 Land is scarce! 2 Drains and canals are unsightly! Road ImprovementDrainageTaskForce LTA + PUB + NEA Marina Barrage project commenced To serve as a water catchment area for central Singapore, water treatment site, and lifestyle feature. Marina Barrage 20051973 47 nature-based solutions. 29 29 Yang, W. & Kuang, J.Y., 2020. Water: From scarce resource to national asset 2nd ed., Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore.
Projectgoal Kayaking at Lower Seletar Reservoir Current: 43 2030: >100 ABC ProgrammeWaterlaunched Greening and creating double duty usages for drains, canals and reservoirs. DrainRevisedStandards Upgrade of drain capacity by 15-50%. Upgrading works at RocherMoBishan-AngCanalKioPark2006 2011 48 Inedequacy and shift to
Naturalisation of a utilitarian concrete canal to reconnect people with nature and waterbodies. Bioengineered river edges uses wetland plants and bedding material to naturally filter water while maintaining structural integrity of the edge. Cleansing biotopes are also present to filter and retain water to slow down surface runoff.
of
Completion
Bishan-AMK Park
Bishan-AngCanalworksPark 2012 2013 49 nature-based solutions.
15-50%. PUB buildingupdatedcodesforflooding 1. Minimum platform level 2. Minimum land reclaimation
Building guidelines to retain rainwater Opening of StamfordDetentionCanalDiversionandTank - Green roof - Retention pond - Rain garden - Detention tank These measures are in place to slow down surface run off into surrounding drains and canals. Parkroyal Pickering 2014 2018 Inedequacy and shift to 50
Diversion Hollistic approach tomanagementstormwater 290,000 sqm of flood prone land (2019) TODAY Choa Chu Kang Integrated Housing nature-based solutions. 51
SINGAPORE
“ GREEN PLAN 2030 is a sustainability movement which seeks to rally bold and collective action to tackle climate change.
52
AN INTEGRAL PILLAR OF SINGAPORE’S GREEN PLAN 2030
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Currently, Singapore has 11.1% 30 of land occupied by 4 nature reserves and 400 parks.31 By 2030, Singapore hopes to add 200 hectares of nature parks to the list, together with an additional 1 million trees that will absorb 78,000 tones more CO2 32 With greater green coverage, wildlife can have the space to thrive and increase, and everyone can enjoy the benefits of cooler shade and fresher air. By extension, this eco-puncture of Singapore should relieve Singapore’s flooding problem too due to the expansion of nature-based Stormwater management solutions. Yet, what if we took a more targeted approach to extreme precipitation in Singapore just like City In Nature does for greenery?
City in Nature
30 Anon, Data.gov.sg. Available at: https://data.gov.sg/ [Accessed July 8, 2022]. 31 Anon, 2022. Parks and nature reserves. National Parks Board. Available at: 12,areas/overviewwww.greenplan.gov.sg/key-focus-Plan322022].reservesand-nature/parks-and-nature-nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-https://www.[AccessedJuly12,Anon,SingaporeGreen2030.Availableat:https://[AccessedJuly2022].
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Extreme precipitation events brought about by climate change brings a high risk of flooding to Singapore. This has resulted in a strain on the drainage system in Singapore. Drainage efficiency has tapered despite high costs of maintenance and upgrading. The act of keeping water off the ground surface is proving to become
STATEMENTPROBLEMunsustainable.
On the other hand, the emergence of Sponge Cities as an alternative solution to stormwater management encourages the pooling of stormwater through ecological ‘sponges’. It has proven to be effective in retaining and cleansing stormwater, sustainable, of low maintenance and cost.
STATEMENT
55
56
My thesis seeks to develope a prototype for a SPONGE BUILDING , a vertical adaptation of sponge cities situated in landscarce Singapore. These buildings will be implemented and adpated as an islandwide solution which responds to different degrees of flood risk. The Sponge Buildings will uphold a synergistic state between ecology and engineering to efficiently harvest and treat rainwater, and provide a rain centred sensory experience for visitors. The goal of the thesis is to push for Singapore to embrace extreme precipitation.
57
City In Rain
58 Studies.Precedent
59
Studies.Precedent
60 0% NATURE-BASED 100% ENGINEERING-BASED 100% NATURE-BASED 0% ENGINEERING-BASED Rainwater Catcher NUDES Kampung Admiralty WOHA, Ramboll Sponge Tower Jun Peng Harbin StormwaterQunliPark Turenscape
Precedents
Learning from Rain Harvesting
A study on four stormwater management precedents was conducted to analyse the extent of contribution of nature in each project’s endeavour to harvest and cleanse rainwater/ stormwater. In projects that included such nature based solutions, it’s specific intervention(s) were also analysed. Apart from work done by nature, five other categories were included in a rubric to evaluate the overall success of each project. In relation to my thesis vision for a Sponge Building, pros and cons were also listed to learn from each project’s success and shortcomings.
experienceSensory
Evaluation Radar
Rainwaterretention TreatmentWork done by nature Fig. 40: Precedent Graph
to potable water
harvestingRainwaterNetzeroenergy
61
33 Mehta, M., 2020. Nuru karim’s rain water catcher highlights water conservation and climate change. STIRworld. Available at: Julyand-climate-changehighlights-water-conservation-nuru-karims-rain-water-catcher-stirworld.com/see-features-https://www.[Accessed19,2022].
Rain water catcher is a design proposal for a 200ft (60.96m) rain harvesting tower situated in San Jose, on a site abutting the Guadeloupe River. Its form tapers to become an extension of the ground and the facade comprises of a series of cascading pools for rain harvesting. The rain eventually collects into a shallow pool at the interior base of the tower where it is prevented from evaporating. The shallow pool coupled with the tall and grand interior is designed to be an experiential space for people to have a tactile experience with water and have their senses evoked.
Rain Water Catcher
Fully materiality.inrepetitivenesshostileFormmaintenancealludingengineeringhardtohighcost.isslightlyduetotheformand++ -
62 BY NUDES 33
offpoolingcollectionRainwatervisitors.experiencesensoryforandisshowedonthefacade.
Pros Cons High
63
BY JUN
Water collection still involves hard engagement.Littleengineering.ground+++ -
Sponge Tower
64
Pros Cons Clean energy using waterUseintegrity.threatenspressureforDesignhydro-power.accountshighwaterwhichbuildingofwetlandsforcleansing.
The Sponge Tower is designed as a response to flood hazards in New York City brought about by storm surges and extreme precipitation. These towers are situated along a ribbon park surrounding Manhattan and serves as a buffer against floods. Flood water is collected and stored in honeycomb-like cells before getting filtered by wetlands within the cells. These wetlands also serve as key features of sky parks which offers panoramic city views. Water is then further treated to become potable, and distributed for the city’s usage.
34 Jun Peng, 2020. Sponge: Skyscraper designed to contain, store, treat, and distribute water in NYC - evolo: Architecture Magazine. eVolo Architecture Magazine RSS. Available at: [Accessedand-distribute-water-in-nyc/designed-to-contain-store-treat-evolo.us/sponge-skyscraper-https://www.July21,2022].
PENG 34
66
35 Anon, Kampung Admiralty “ Landezine International Landscape Award Lila. Landezine International Landscape Award LILA RSS. Available at: [Accessedaward.com/kampung-admiralty/https://landezine-July21,2022].
Kampung Admiralty
Kampung Admiralty is an integrated community hub for the elderly in Singapore. In this project, the building behaves as a landscape to collect, filter and reuse rainwater. This is done so through a variety of bluegreen infrastructure integrated into the building at its facade, open spaces, common corridors and ground floor. Pros Cons A variety of bluegreen features is implemented to not only filter but also capture rainwater. Good integration of blue-green features into the building form and spaces. The journey of rainwater can be made more explicit and sufficiency.Lowhiddencurrentlymorecelebratedasitremainsingreenery.energyself--++
BY WOHA, RAMBOLL STUDIO DREISEITL 35
Utilisation of an elegant, ageold principle to retain and clean stormwater.
Extensive underground drainage is still required to draw runoff into the wetland. Solution requires a large provision of space. Relationship between people and rainwater can be better celebrated.
+ --
BY TURENSCAPE Harbin Qunli Stormwater Park was once a dilapidated wetland in flood prone Qunli New Town. In 2011, Turenscape transformed it into a stormwater park hosting rich ecosystems and beautiful public spaces. Drawing principles from ancient water management on farms, ponds-and-mounds surround the wetland, behaving as a buffer to filter urban runoff before releasing it into the untouched wetland. Sky walks accompany these ponds on the periphery allowing visitors to thread above the wetlands.
68 Harbin StormwaterQunli Park 36 Yu, K., 2011. Harbin Qunli Stormwater Park. 土人设计 网设施规划旅游地规划、城市与区域生态基础环境设计、城市与区域规划、风景有限公司北京土人城市规划设计股份(城市设计、建筑设计、 ). Available at: 21,detail/435.htmlwww.turenscape.com/en/project/https://[AccessedJuly2022].
36
Pros Cons
70 Analysis.Urban
71Analysis.Urban
72
73 2165.93695.1 Singapore’s long term totalDATA103.5GATHERED ACROSS 58 WEATHER STATIONS ISLANDWIDE 2021 DistributionAnnualAverageTotalRainfall(mm/year)
74
75 PUB’s2m4m6m8m10m flood prone areas WATER LEVEL ABOVE THE TIDELINE Flood Risk Map
76 55 Flood Prone Sites
77
PUB’sMerahChangiflood prone
Tanjong Lavender,KatongLittle India Alexandra Telok Kurau Tanah areas
78
79 ParkParks,NatureWaterbodiesReserves,Interimgreens,connectors Green + Blue Map in SG
KampongGeylang45,77806Katongm²East1623,315m²Java2115,695m²PasirPanjang3111,430m²Moulmein367,222m²Sennett415,743m²SeletarHill465,118m²Sennett512,502m²Frankel2613,591m²Chatsworth1128,263m²CityHall 137,27702
KampongBedok29,968Victoriam²10m²North2016,207m²Java2513,874m²TheWharves358,814m²Nicoll406,198m²Sennett455,118m²RafflesPlace502,559m²Moulmein55398m²AlexandraHill3011,600m²Kembangan1523,315m²Bencoolen
MarineTanglin44,356Lavenderm²07m²Halt1722,121m²Parade2215,183m²BedokSouth3210,577m²Chatsworth376,710m²BukitHoSwee425,459m²GeylangEast475,004m²Sennett521,933m²Kembangan2713,193m²BukitHoSwee1227,921m²Tengah 120,38403
80 Classifying the Sites. 01 Area Establishment 177,08501 m² Tanjong
PasirThe44,300Changim²08m²BoatQuay1817,684m²Wharves2314,842m²Lavender3310,463m²TanjongRhu386,482m²Panjang435,459m²Moulmein484,833m²BedokSouth53853m²Moulmein2811,998m²Marymount1324,111m²Chatsworth 49,87104
Mount37,930Trafalgarm²09m²Pleasant1916,775m²HendersonHill2414,216m²Bendemeer348,923m²Nassim396,482m²JooSeng445,402m²Sennett494,151m²Moulmein54796m²Frankel2911,714m²Bencoolen1423,429m²BukitHoSwee 49,81505
81 2,836mm41 Annual average 02 rainfall assessment 2,803mm01 2,711mm06 2,812mm16 2,112mm21 2,895mm31 1,819mm36 2,632mm2,216mm4651 2,888mm2,828mm2611 2,857mm02 2,766mm07 2,751mm17 2,826mm2,683mm2232 2,766mm372,800mm42 2,086mm47 2,674mm522,742mm27 3,056mm12 2,605mm03 2,775mm08 2,511mm18 2,878mm23 2,824mm332,827mm38 2,810mm43 2,805mm2,670mm4853 2,880mm28 2,810mm13 2,540mm04 3,058mm09 2,820mm19 2,428mm24 2,851mm34 2,786mm39 1,955mm44 2,807mm49 2,676mm54 2,816mm29 2,790mm14 2,813mm05 3,500mm/year [1][2][3][4]ScoreRisk[5]1,500mm/year2,000mm/year2,500mm/year3,000mm/year 2,839mm10 2,823mm20 2,518mm25 3,078mm35 1,523mm40 2,782mm45 2,813mm50 2,862mm55 2,674mm30 2,815mm15
Midsizepark
82 Green network 03 proximity
Proximity Buffer [6] [9] [8] 2,857mm02[4]+[9] 2,605mm03[4]+[9] 2,540mm04[4]+[9] 2,813mm05[4]+[9] 2,711mm06[4]+[9] 2,766mm07[4]+[9] 3,058mm09[5]+[9] 2,888mm11[4]+[9] 3,056mm12[5]+[9] 2,810mm13[4]+[9] 2,815mm15[4]+[9] 2,812mm16[4]+[9] 2,751mm17[4]+[6] 2,511mm18[4]+[9] 2,820mm19[4]+[9] 2,823mm20[4]+[6] 2,683mm22[4]+[9] 2,518mm25[4]+[9] 2,828mm26[4]+[9] 2,816mm29[4]+[9] 2,895mm31[4]+[9] 2,826mm32[4]+[9] 2,824mm33[4]+[9] 2,851mm34[4]+[9] 1,819mm36[1]+[9] 2,766mm37[4]+[9] 2,786mm39[4]+[9] 1,523mm40[1]+[9] 2,800mm42[4]+[6] 1,955mm44[1]+[9] 2,670mm48[4]+[9] 2,674mm52[4]+[9] 2,676mm54[4]+[9] 2,862mm55[4]+[9]
Smallsizepark/Nopark
300m200m100m
83 2,800mm[4]+[6] [3] [2] [5] [1] [4] [7] 2,803mm01[4]+[4] 2,775mm08[4]+[1]2,839mm10[4]+[2] 2,790mm14[4]+[4]212,112mm[3]+[1]2,878mm23[4]+[4] 2,428mm24[4]+[3] 2,742mm27[4]+[1] 2,880mm28[4]+[1] 2,674mm30[4]+[8] 2,827mm383,078mm35[5]+[1][4]+[4]2,836mm41[4]+[2] 2,810mm43[4]+[2] 2,782mm45[4]+[5] 2,216mm46[3]+[3] 2,086mm47[3]+[6] 2,807mm49[4]+[1] 2,813mm50[4]+[8] 2,632mm51[4]+[8] 2,805mm53[4]+[4] Largesizepark
300m200m100m
84 Blue
[4]+[2]+[9]2,810mm43 [1]+[9]+[9]1,955mm44 [4]+[5]+[9]2,782mm45 [3]+[3]+[9]2,216mm46 [3]+[6]+[9]2,086mm47 [4]+[9]+[9]2,670mm48 [4]+[1]+[9]2,807mm49[4]+[8]+[9]2,813mm50 [4]+[9]+[9]2,674mm52 [4]+[9]+[9]2,676mm54 [4]+[9]+[9]2,862mm55 [4]+[9]+[9]2,711mm06 [4]+[4]+[6]2,805mm
Smallsizepark/Nopark
Proximity Buffer [6] [9] [8] [4]+[4]+[9]2,803mm01 [4]+[9]+[9]2,605mm03 [4]+[9]+[9]2,813mm05 [4]+[9]+[9]2,766mm07 [4]+[9]+[9]2,888mm11 [5]+[9]+[9]3,056mm12 [4]+[9]+[6]2,815mm15 [4]+[9]+[9]2,812mm16 [4]+[6]+[6]2,511mm18 [4]+[6]+[9]2,751mm17 [4]+[6]+[9]2,823mm20 [4]+[6]+[9]2,683mm22 [4]+[4]+[9]2,878mm23 [4]+[4]+[9]2,790mm14 [4]+[9]+[9]2,518mm25 [4]+[1]+[9]2,880mm28 [4]+[9]+[9]2,816mm29 [4]+[8]+[9]2,674mm30 [4]+[9]+[9]2,895mm31 [4]+[9]+[9]2,851mm34 [5]+[1]+[9]3,078mm35 [1]+[9]+[9]1,819mm36 [4]+[4]+[9]2,827mm38 [1]+[9]+[9]1,523mm40 [4]+[6]+[9][4]+[2]+[9]2,836mm41422,800mm
04 proximity
Midsizepark network
Largesizepark [2] [5] [1] [4] [7] [4]+[9]+[5]2,857mm02 [4]+[9]+[1]2,540mm04 [4]+[1]+[4]2,775mm08 [5]+[9]+[1]3,058mm09 [4]+[2]+[5]2,839mm10 [4]+[9]+[1]2,810mm13 [4]+[6]+[1]2,820mm19 [3]+[1]+[5]2,112mm21 [4]+[3]+[1]2,428mm24 [4]+[9]+[4]2,828mm26 [4]+[1]+[1]2,742mm27 [4]+[9]+[7]2,826mm32 [4]+[9]+[1]2,824mm33 [4]+[9]+[8]2,766mm37 [4]+[9]+[3]2,786mm39 [4]+[8]+4]2,632mm51 [4]+[4]+[6]2,805mm53
85 [3]
MID RISK 11-15 LOW RISK 3-5 LOW-MID RISK 6-10 Site tiering by risk 05 of pluvial flooding 86 27210824 0433281309191035
HIGH RISK 21-25 RISK 11-15 MID-HIGH RISK 16-20 87 4346415349 01 365126021722 4232472318 4438392014 4045 15 0616311107 52370312 48 34 54052925 5055 30
88 Strategy.Design
89Strategy.Design
Ascon
Biomimicry of Sea Sponges
Natural sea sponges are simple multicellular organisms that acquire their nutrients by digesting bacteria and organic material filtered from sea water. 37 To do so, they have a water-based circulatory system called aquiferous or canal system in place which additionally performs gaseous exchanges for respiration and waste excretion. 38 There are three main variations of aquiferous systems in sea sponges which consists of the same main components arranged differently. These components are the (a) pores for water ingression/egression, (b) current-carrying canals for transportation and (c) filter chambers for nutrient uptake. The aquiferous system of sponges is analogous to one I expect in a Sponge Building which has to similarly provide a large rain catchment surface and undergo filtration to be stored or reused.
Canal System Sycon Canal System Leucon Canal System PoreChannel Chamber Fig. 41: Sea sponge canal systems
Augustof-water-currentsystems-in-sponges-functions-in-sponges-types-of-canal-phylum-porifera-canal-system-com/studymaterial-detail/at:Study&Score.CanalSystemAdmin.:ofsystemssponges,Porifera:3816,a-sea-sponge/acmespongeonline.com/what-is-https://[AccessedAugust2022].Anon,2017.PhylumCanalsystemintypesofcanalinsponges,functionswatercurrentpostedon25-11-2017postedby:PhylumPorifera:CanalinSponges,TypesofSystemsinSponges|Availablehttps://www.studyandscore.[Accessed16,2022].
37 Anon, What is a sea sponge. Acme Sponge Company. Available at:
90
AQUIFEROUS SYSTEMS
91 39
Ibid. The Venus Flower Basket is a type of sea sponge found in the deep waters of the pacific ocean. It has a sycon canal system which has distinct folded walls to increase the surface area for maximum water ingression and filtering. The flow of water starts from the numerous minute openings on the lattice wall of the sponge. Through channels, the water then flows into chambers that are lined with filters called choanocytes. It is here where nutrient uptake occurs. Filtered water finally leaves through the top opening of the sponge. This water filtration process can be seen in parallel with the desired mechanism within the Sponge Building which similarly targets for a large volume of rainwater and groundwater to be captured, filtered and slowly released. Aquiferous system of Venus Flower Basket
VENUS FLOWER BASKET 39 Fig. 42:
STRUCTURAL
92 40 Anon, 2020. Glass skeleton is tough yet flexiblebiological strategy - asknature. AskNature Glass Skeleton Is Tough Yet Flexible Comments. Available at: Augusttough-yet-flexible/org/strategy/glass-skeleton-is-https://asknature.[Accessed17,2022].
Venus flower baskets are also known as ‘glass sponges’ owing to its square lattice body made of silica, the main component of glass. Glass as a material is typically fragile, yet the glass sponge’s cylindrical silica skeleton is one that is strong and flexible. This mechanical performance is owing to the multiple levels of organization in its skeleton. At the lowest level, the skeleton is made up of spicules which are alternating layers of inorganic silica and organic compounds around a central protein. At the highest level of organisation, spicules are arranged into a square lattice rolled into a tube. The flexibility is derived in two ways- firstly from the overlapping of two lattices moving independently. Secondly, within the lattice squares, the existence of vertical, horizontal and diagonal bracing made up of spicules help to resist torsion.
SYSTEM 40 Spicules
Fig. 43: Silica square lattice skeleton on the exterior and section
93
Strategy StrategyDelay
94 It is crucial for the Sponge Building to be able to go beyond collection of rainwater by also delaying its flow rate into the main drainage system. PUB regulations state that stormwater detained in detention tanks shall be emptied into a receiving drain within 4 hours.41 Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that in order to not overwhelm the drainage system that was not designed for the excess rainwater leading to inundation, the excess volume collected by the building should be retained within the building for at least 4 hours or after existing detention tanks sharing the same receiving drain have emptied. Therefore, a Delay Strategy was developed for the speed of water to become the driving force behind the building design. Apart from rain water management, the building experiences will also be centred around this delayed flow of water. This will be expounded on in a later segment.
outcomes Rain
management+
Delay
park experience ‘Spongyness’ 1 StrategyForm 2 StructuralStrategy 3 ProgrammaticKit-of-parts STRATEGIES TO DRASTICALLY DELAY THE TRAVERSING OF WATER THROUGH THE SPONGE BUILDING
Targeted water Rain centred sensory 41 Anon, 2021. OnSite Stormwater Detention Tank Systems. PUB. Available at: [AccessedDocuments/detentionTank.pdfhttps://www.pub.gov.sg/August16,2022].
FACADE SURFACE AREA TO CAPTURE WIND DRIVEN RAIN Gravitational force Rain direction + =Wind direction WDR direction Monsoon season Time of the year
MAXIMISING
1. Form
Extracting the principles behind the aquiferous system of Venus Glass Sponges, in particular the use of folds along its walls to maximise water intake inspired the concept behind the form strategy of the Sponge Building. While the inner folding of the Venus Glass Sponge is not driven by any kind of stimulus rather a general approach taken to increase surface area, I decided for wind driven rain (WDR) to be the driver behind the foldings of the Sponge Building facade. This is apt because I regard the building façade’s ability to collect water as one of the first lines of defences against stormwater management in any flood prone area. WDR is a more accurate depiction of rain as it takes into account wind direction that greatly affects the trajectory of rain. The diagram explains how WDR direction is the resultant vector of gravity and wind vectors. Strategy
95
2. Average wind speed every 30° Eg. Speed 90° = (S1 x H1) + (S2 x H2) + (S3 x H3) + ... where S = Speed of wind, H = Hours of occurence These data sets are representative of the conditions of wind and hence, WDR specific to a site. The development of the plan will be dependent on these data sets, to achieve a form that is specifically adjusted towards the WDR conditions.
14%18%16%12%10%8%6%4%2%SWNW 96
Due to limited data available on the direction and frequency of WDR in Singapore, wind directions were used as a proxy for WDR directions and Singapore’s wind rose was studied. The wind rose provides data on wind speed and frequency every 30°. The strategy is for the facade of the building to be folded in higher concentrations in the directions receiving the greatest frequency and speed of wind and hence WDR. Additionally, building obstruction has to be considered as it affects the amount of rain that reaches the site eventually. The resultant plan would be one that responds to site specific WDR conditions.
Calm (0.0 m/s) Light air (0.3 m/s) Light breeze (1.6 m/s) Gentle breeze (3.4 m/s) Moderate breeze (5.5 m/s) Fresh breeze (8.0 m/s) Strong breeze (10.8 m/s) Near gale (13.9 m/s) Gale (17.2 m/s)
1. Score for wind frequency adjusted for building obstruction Score = (% frequency of wind x 10)- [(% footprint of short buildings x 2) + (% footprint of tall buildings x 4)]
From the wind rose, the following sets of data were derived.
Fig. 44: Singapore’s wind rose
NS EW SENE
DEVELOPING FROM PLAN
2.1. NESENS EW NWSW
To begin, eight nodes are arranged radially and spaced 30° apart representing the eight directions of wind on the wind rose.
97
A wind rose analysis is done to extract data on six nodes with the highest wind frequency. The data is represented as attractor points for the nodes.
3.4.
98
The attractor points will magnetize the nodes closest to them, drawing them to the highest frequency wind directions. Only the six most attracted nodes are retained.
The distance of the nodes form the centre and its size will then be controlled by the intensity of wind in its specific direction. This intensity is corrected for building obstruction.
The gaps between the six nodes are filled to complete the plan. 5.
99
The resultant plan shows how the surface area of facade against the prevailing winds is selectively increased through additional foldings. This mirrors the approach taken by the Venus Glass Sponge. 6.
100
Based on the earlier ranking of the 55 flood prone sites identified by PUB, this site has been classified as high risk with high annual average rainfall and low proximity to water bodies or green spaces. Calculations where made to determine the volume of excess rain falling on this site that leads to inundation. The values are based on the 2021 highest 60 minute rainfall which is closer to the extreme end of rainfall the site is expected to see so that the building can be designed to tackle the worst case scenario.
After steps 1 and 2 are established, the first data set is applied as attractor points with higher scores resulting in stronger attractor points. Eight nodes are thereafter magnetized.
TEST SITE : FARRER FOOTBALL FIELD Tall buildings Short buildings 1:6000
1. Score for wind frequency adjusted for building obstruction
101
102
Then, the second data set is applied by lengthening and scaling the nodes. The higher the average wind speed, the longer the extension and larger the radius of the node.
2. Calculate average wind speed every 30°
1:2500 49200 37000
PUB Maximum runoff rate (Q m) = 0.12133 m³/s (43.679 m³ in 1 hr (V m)) V = Vp – Vm = 44.452 m³ = 44452 l
FACADE SURFACE
Calculating volume of rain I = 63 Weightedmm/hrCoefficient (C) = 0.60 Peak runoff rate (Q) = 0.24481 m³/s (88.131 m³ in 1 hr (V p))
Let Ap = Area of building facade for plants Vs = Volume of soil T = Thickness of soil I = Rain intensity (Max. 60 min rain intensity in 2021 is used) = Volume of rain leading to inundation targetted to be captured by building
103
At = Total facade area
No sponge building Ground collection = [(x/x) x rain volume] m2 Building collection = 0 With sponge building Ground collection = [(x-y/x) x rain volume] m2 Building collection = [(y/x) x rain volume] m2 Area = x m2 Area = x-y m2 Area = y m2
The next consideration for the form design is surface area requirement of the facade. The target set for volume of rainwater to be collected solely by the building (and the rest by the ground as groundwater) will directly inform this requirement. The greater the target, the higher the surface area requirement will be. The plot area of the building is utilised to calculate the ratio of excess rain falling on site that is to be the baseline target.
To start off, the volume of rainwater leading to site inundation is calculated. Based on the ratio of plot area to site area, the target volume for collection is calculated and then the surface area requirement. AREA REQUIREMENT
VI
1
104
2
The results mean that a minimum of 53.425 of green facade area and 1068.5 of total facade area is required to capture 50% of excess rain on site. Considering the building footprint developed in the previous section, the target is actually significantly below 50%. This would mean that with the provision of the required surface area, the sponge building could collect well above its target volume.
Calculating facade surface area required Assuming the whole facade is covered in ‘T’ thickness of rain-absorbing soil, VI = 44.452 m³ x 0.5 = 22.226 m³ (facade targets to capture 50% of V, the rest is captured by the ground) Ap = Vs /T Vs x 0.52 (Holding capacity of soil) = V I Vs = VI /0.52 = 42.74 m³ Ap = 42.74 m³ / 0.8 m (T) = 53.425 m³ At = Ap x 20 = 1068.5 m2
105 Massing generation3 36000
2. Structural Strategy
LIGHTWEIGHT LATTICE INSPIRED BY THE VENUS GLASS SPONGE
106 Extracting the principles behind the aquiferous system of Venus Glass Sponges, in particular the use of folds along its walls to maximise water intake inspired the concept behind the form strategy of the Sponge Building. While the inner folding of the Venus Glass Sponge is not driven by any kind of stimulus rather a general approach taken to increase surface area, I decided for wind driven rain (WDR) to be the driver behind the foldings of the Sponge Building facade. This is apt because I regard the building façade’s ability to collect water as one of the first lines of defences against stormwater management in any flood prone area. WDR is a more accurate depiction of rain as it takes into account wind direction that greatly affects the trajectory of rain. The diagram explains how WDR direction is the resultant vector of gravity and wind vectors.
107 Steel diagrid shell structure Core building structure Suspended walkways Primary circulation Reinforced concrete Forest floor foundation
108 Mesh fastener Wire mesh infill Steel diagrid frame
109 Steel diagrid frame Provides framework to support the growth of facade ecological sponges + Stainless steel fine wire mesh infill Collects and pools water through surface tension
Forest floor foundation Provides the foundation for the growth of elevated rainforests.
110
Forest floor Growing
GeotextileOverflowsubstratepipefilterfabricDrainagemembraneRootbarrierWaterproofingcompoundConcreteslabPerforatedpipe
ProgrammaticKit-of-parts
THE FOUR PHASES THAT WATER TAKE
112
The kit-of-parts will be developed based on the course that rainwater takes from entry into the building up to it’s exit into pub’s drainage system and it will respond to different flood prone sites by varying the intensity of each part in the kit. There are four main phases that water passes throough within the sponge building- Collection, Treatment, Retention and Release. Each of these phases houses various programmes that form a single network. Water will travel through this network, passing through all the programmes at different rates and experienced by people in different manners. In particular, the third phase: Hold and Release focuses on the delay of water flow in different ways. This phase is also primarily where the rain centered sensory park experience can be realised.
3.
4. Release After 4 hours, the treated water is released into main drainage pipes.
113
1. Collect Rainwater groundwaterandcollection.
2. Treat Using both bio-filters and treatment tanks.
3. Hold & Experience Delaying the traverse of water through the building and enjoying the process.
114 ManagementRainwater
115
Kit-of-partsbetweenRelationship
Facade planters and steel mesh
The theme of the sponge building is a vertical rainforest split into two zones- Rainforest and Subterranea. The rainforest is situated above the subterranea zone, and celebrates a natural environment that thrives in rain. It will house plenty of moisture dependent plants and see various themed zones that highlights the natural features of a rainforest such as forest floor level fog/misted gardens, lush canopy level walkways and bioswales. It will be partially opened to the sky, for the plants to receive direct rain and reduce the dependence on irrigation during a rain event. The subterranea zone occupies the lower levels of the Sponge Building. It instead celebrates the inner workings of what is often unseen by many, the __ of the forest floor. This zone highlights the work of soil, roots and other organic matter in water filtration. It will also house more unconventional features such as units of exposed soil suspended over one another by wired mesh. A tall space is also provisioned to allow rain to be filtered by one unit then drip slowly to another unit to be filtered again.
116
SPATIAL ORGANISATION
117
FLOW OF WATER
Facade planters and steel mesh In addition to rainwater and groundwater collection, additional sources of rainwater can be directed to the Sponge Building to utilise its bio-filter system and increase the volume of water available to sustain the ecosystem within it.
Step 1 collectionRainwater Step 3 collectionGroundwater
122 Bibliography.
123 Bibliography.
24 Chow, W.T., Cheong, B.D. & Ho, B.H., 2016. A multimethod approach towards assessing urban flood patterns and its associated vulnerabilities in Singapore. Advances in Meteorology, pp.1–11.
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11 Jones-Bros, R., New Paradigm — Designing with Water. Closing Keynote Speech.
12 Campbell, M., 2021. What are sponge cities and could they solve the water crisis in China? euronews. Available at: https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/11/15/china-ssponge-cities-are-a-revolutionary-rethink-to-prevent-flooding [Accessed July 3, 2022].
28 Yang, W. & Kuang, J.Y., 2020. Water: From scarce resource to national asset 2nd ed., Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore.
29 Yang, W. & Kuang, J.Y., 2020. Water: From scarce resource to national asset 2nd ed., Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore.
7 Anon, 2022. Three common types of flood explained. Zurich.com. Available at: https://www.zurich.com/en/knowledge/topics/flood-and-water-damage/three-commontypes-of-flood [Accessed July 1, 2022].
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17 Maas, W., 2022. “what if we create a new layer on the earth that incorporates growing human habitation and consumption?” asks Winy Maas. Dezeen. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2021/11/02/the-sponge-winy-maas-manifesto-dezeen-15/ [Accessed July 31, 2022].
10 Aiken, C. et al., 2014. DESIGNING WITH WATER CREATIVE SOLUTIONS FROM AROUND THE GLOBE, The Boston Harbor Association.
5 Denchak, M., 2022. Greenhouse effect 101. NRDC. Available at: https://www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-101 [Accessed July 1, 2022].
4 Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021: Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.013.
9 Abdrabo, K.I. et al., 1970. The role of urban planning and landscape tools concerning flash flood risk reduction within arid and semiarid regions. SpringerLink. Available at: /10.1007/978-981-16-2904-4_11https://link.springer.com/chapter[Accessed July 3, 2022].
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8 Vojinovic, Z. & Abbott, M.B., 2012. Flood Control and Disaster Management. IWA Publications. Available at: https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/flood-control-anddisaster-management [Accessed July 2, 2022].
15 Anon, 2020. Sponge Cities: Leveraging Nature as Ecological Infrastructure. Available at: https://www.clc.gov.sg/events/webinars/view/sponge-cities [Accessed July 4, 2022] 16 Spens, M., 2007. From mound to sponge: How Peter Cook explores landscape buildings. Architectural Design, 77(2), pp.12–15.
6 Anon, Climate Change Indicators: U.S. and Global Precipitation. EPA. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-us-and-globalprecipitation [Accessed June 30, 2022].
19 Anon, Climate of Singapore. Available at: http://www.weather.gov.sg/climate-climate-of-singapore/ [Accessed July 5, 2022]. 20 Ibid. 21 Anon, Data.org. Climate. Available at: temperature%20is,mm%20%7C%2032.9%20inch%20per%20year.https://en.climate-data.org/europe/the-netherlands/south-holland/rotterdam-910/#:~:text=The%20average%20annual%20[AccessedJuly7,2022].
22 Tan, A., 2022. Budget debate: Singapore’s Daily Water Consumption Rose in 2021 for second straight year. The Straits Times. Available at: water%20consumption%20is,from%20154%20litres%20in%202020.com/singapore/politics/budget-debate-daily-consumption-of-water-rose-again-in-2021-to-reach-158-litres-per-capita#:~:text=SINGAPORE%20%2D%20Household%20https://www.straitstimes.[AccessedJuly7,2022].
14 Yu, K., 2012. Stormwater Park For a Water Resilient City. Stormwater Park for a water resilient city. Available at: https://www.turenscape.com/paper/detail/387.html [Accessed July 3, 2022].
13 Xiang, C. et al., 2018. Sponge City Construction in China: Policy and implementation experiences. Water Policy, 21(1), pp.19–37.
23 Yang, W. & Kuang, J.Y., 2020. Water: From scarce resource to national asset 2nd ed., Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore.
25 Anon, 2021. Keeping orchard road flood free: Stamford Detention Tank & Stamford diversion canal. ExplorerSG. Available at: the%20main%20Stamford%20Canal.explorersingapore/keeping-orchard-road-flood-free-stamford-detention-tank-stamford-diversion-canal/#:~:text=The%20two%20drainage%20projects%20cost,on%20https://explorersg.com/[AccessedJuly8,2022].
26 Oh, T., 2102. PUB to spend S$1.4b more on drainage improvement projects in next 5 years. The Business Times. Available at: https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/ government-economy/pub-to-spend-s14b-more-on-drainage-improvement-projects-in-next-5-years [Accessed July 8, 2022].
34 Jun Peng, 2020. Sponge: Skyscraper designed to contain, store, treat, and distribute water in NYC - evolo: Architecture Magazine. eVolo Architecture Magazine RSS. Available at: https://www.evolo.us/sponge-skyscraper-designed-to-contain-store-treat-and-distribute-water-in-nyc/ [Accessed July 21, 2022].
39 Ibid. 40 Anon, 2020. Glass skeleton is tough yet flexible - biological strategy - asknature. AskNature Glass Skeleton Is Tough Yet Flexible Comments. Available at: https:// asknature.org/strategy/glass-skeleton-is-tough-yet-flexible/ [Accessed August 17, 2022].
37 Anon, What is a sea sponge. Acme Sponge Company. Available at: https://acmespongeonline.com/what-is-a-sea-sponge/ [Accessed August 16, 2022].
35 Anon, Kampung Admiralty “ Landezine International Landscape Award Lila. Landezine International Landscape Award LILA RSS. Available at: https://landezine-award. com/kampung-admiralty/ [Accessed July 21, 2022].
41 Anon, 2021. On-Site Stormwater Detention Tank Systems. PUB. Available at: https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/detentionTank.pdf [Accessed August 16, 2022].
38 Anon, 2017. Phylum Porifera: Canal system in sponges, types of canal systems in sponges, functions of water current posted on : 25-11-2017 posted by : Admin. Phylum Porifera: Canal System in Sponges, Types of Canal Systems in Sponges | Study&Score. Available at: https://www.studyandscore.com/studymaterial-detail/phylumporifera-canal-system-in-sponges-types-of-canal-systems-in-sponges-functions-of-water-current [Accessed August 16, 2022].
32 Anon, Singapore Green Plan 2030. Available at: https://www.greenplan.gov.sg/key-focus-areas/overview [Accessed July 12, 2022].
31 Anon, 2022. Parks and nature reserves. National Parks Board. Available at: https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/parks-and-nature-reserves [Accessed July 12, 2022].
33 Mehta, M., 2020. Nuru karim’s rain water catcher highlights water conservation and climate change. STIRworld. Available at: https://www.stirworld.com/see-featuresnuru-karims-rain-water-catcher-highlights-water-conservation-and-climate-change [Accessed July 19, 2022].
125 30 Anon, Data.gov.sg. Available at: https://data.gov.sg/ [Accessed July 8, 2022].
36 Yu, K., 2011. Harbin Qunli Stormwater Park. 土人设计网 - 北京土人城市规划设计股份有限公司 (城市设计、建筑设计、环境设计、城市与区域规划、风景旅游地规划、城市与 区域生态基础设施规划). Available at: https://www.turenscape.com/en/project/detail/435.html [Accessed July 21, 2022].
Figures
126 Fig 1: Frequency of Extreme Weather Events (2011-2020)
Fig. 2: Clausius-Clapeyron (C-C) Relation Fig. 3: Global Temperature Anomaly (°C) Fig. 4: Extreme Precipitation Intensity v. Temperature Fig. 5: In US, a man struggles to walk under intense downpour Fig. 6: Global Precipitation Anomaly (mm) Fig. 7: Global Arid Regions Fig. 8: Earth bund Fig. 9: Flood barrier Fig. 10: Inflatable tubes Fig. 11: Sandbags Fig. 12: Raised building platform level Fig. 13: Flood risk land use planning Fig. 14: Water Square Benthemplein (ZOHO, Rotterdam) Fig. 15: Rain Garden Fig. 16: Sky Garden (City Vue @ Henderson HDB in Singapore) Fig. 17: Sanya Mangrove Park Fig. 18: Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park (Before) Fig. 19: Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park (After) Fig. 20: Drain overflowing Fig. 21: Visitors at Haikou Meishe River Fengxiang Park Fig. 22: Egret Fig. 23: Redhead duck Fig. 24: Traditional farming in China Fig. 25 - Fig. 28: Traditional farming practices Fig. 29: Ecological engineering module Fig. 30: Chemical composition of polluted water Fig. 31: Elevation of the Sponge Building Fig. 32: The Sponge Growing (Substance: Mushrooms) Fig. 33: Monsoon periods Fig. 34: Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) Fig. 35: Annual Average Rainfall (mm/yr) Fig. 36: Average Number of Rain Days Per Month (mm) Fig. 37: Frequency of reported floods on Singapore (1892 - 2015) Fig. 38: Stamford Diversion Canal Construction Fig. 39: Stamford Diversion Canal Interior Fig. 40: Precedent Evaluation Radar Graph Fig. 41: Sea sponge canal systems Fig. 42: Aquiferous system of Venus Flower Basket Fig. 43: Silica square lattice skeleton on the exterior and section Fig. 44: Singapore’s wind rose
127