Megan Lowe-‐1862, New College Swindon Cri7cal and Contextual Studies. Unit 1. An Inves7ga7on into the Human Form Throughout the History of Art. Part 2 of 2
Jan van Eyck The Arnolfini Portrait 1434
The Arnolfini Portrait depicts a male and female character stood in a bedroom (poten7ally their own bedroom) Form has been created through tonal modeling. Light and tone has been used to create spa7al effects and give a realis7c depic7on. There is a shallow foreground following through to a linear recessive perspec7ve. There are many different textures visible here, for example the fur on the floor and then the beads on the wall. Van Eyck uses light to illuminate important features such as the faces, hands and objects. All the colours used are rich jewel like tones, there are strong contrasts between warm and cool colours. Such as white and red next to each other and cream flesh colour next to blue. There is a mysterious atmosphere here due to the gestures and the odd placement of the mirror on the back wall.
A chandelier with one candle lit. Prayer beads.
A mirror, with a reflec7on, and pain7ngs of Jesus
Oranges
A house brush hanging on the bed
Shoes, in the foreground and slippers in the background.
A small dog
Large red bed with hanging bolster
Who could the people be? Among the foreign merchants living in the prosperous Bruges at the 7me, were many members of the Arnolfini clan. They were involved in trade as well as finance and banking. There are many arguments over which of the Arnolfini family this might be. It is mostly considered that it could be Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini, who married Costanza Trenta in 1426.
The Oranges There are three oranges are very symbolic and the patron as well as the ar7st would have appreciated this. Oranges grow in the south of Europe and to import them in would have been expensive and something only the wealthy could afford to do. Also the fruit and the blossom of an orange tree symbolised love and marriage and oranges were also recommended by doctors to keep the plague away.
There are many signs of fer7lity within this pain7ng. Such as the red bed and the rug-‐ a rare commodity in the 15th century and both associated with a birthing chamber. Also on the chair behind the woman is St Margaret-‐ the patron saint of childbirth. The apparent pregnancy Giovanni and Costanza had no recorded children and Costanza had passed away by 1433 (the year before the portrait was painted) Therefore some argue that this is a memorial piece to Costanza whom may of died in childbirth. However, ar7sts o^en posed woman in a pregnant stance, whether they were or not, as a sign of fer7lity.
The Chandelier As we can see the chandelier only has 2 candles present. We assume they represent the figures (there is one above the man and one above the woman) the one above the man is alight and burning however the one above the woman is burnt out. This could symbolise the woman being posthumous.
Their Clothes Both the man and woman wear the products that are associated with Bruges at the 7me-‐for example; fur, silk, wool and linen. The woman’s dress is made using squirrel fur perhaps as many as 2,000 skins were used. The most pres7gious fur at the 7me was sable-‐reserved for royalty. Pine marten (the next best thing) is what the mans coat is lined with-‐ again showing wealth and expense..
The Sandals These sandals lying on the floor are the one really fashionable element of the woman’s ensemble. With the leather strap and the brass studs these would have been classed as the Loubou7ns of the day
We can see in the mirror that two people are either looking in from the door or are about to walk into the room. They are stood where the viewer would be stood, so we can assume that it could be us (as the viewer) being depicted.
Around the mirror are 10 sta7ons of the cross (Jesus’s journey to his crucifixion.) The mirror is convex, which is typical of glass mirrors of the 7me. Mirrors like this were a rare domes7c item, only the wealthy and privileged were able to have mirrors.
The string of beads hanging to the le^ of the mirror is a pateronoster (a form of prayer bead or rosemary) produced in Bruges. Van Eyck was perhaps adver7sing a local industry exported by Arnolfini. Beads symbolised female piety and were a standard gi^ from a man to his bride. The brush, hanging to the right of the mirror, represents the industry and humility of Christ’s mother-‐sugges7ng the Flemish tradi7on of showing biblical characters in modern sedngs.
Just above the mirror is this wri7ng-‐ Johannes van Eyck fruit hic which reads as Jan van Eyck was here, this confirms the presence of the ar7st himself. Others believe that this is because van Eyck was witness to a marriage and this was his witness signature.
This is a brussels griffon, the descendant of a long line of flanders terriers bred to catch rats. The breed reached England in the 19th century and its features are s7ll carefully prescribed by the Kennel Club today.
My personal interpreta7on… There are many different theories as to why, who and when is in these pain7ng. I believe that it is Giovanna di Nicolao Arnolfini and Contanza Trenta. I believe that Contanza died during child birth, this is due to the patron saint of birthing being present and also the bed being red. Red is o^en used as a colour of danger. Therefore is she died during childbirth on that bed, the red could represent danger and heartache of the man. We also know that in the Northern Renaissance that “seeing was believing” therefore pain7ng a portrait with his wife posthumous, means that they can be together forever in a portrait, if Arnolfini can see it, he can believe they are s7ll together. This par7cular effect at a double portrait is also u7lised by more modern ar7sts such as David Hockney’s Mr and Mrs Clark with Percy, 1970-‐71. (305cm x 213cm, Tate Gallery, London)This pain7ng depicts the fashion designer Ossie Clark and his wife tex7le designer Celia Birtwell shortly a^er their wedding in which Hockney was Clark’s best man. When planning this piece Hockney drew inspira7on from the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck in the symbolism and composi7on of the pain7ng.
The posi7ons of the figures are reserved compared to the Arnolfini Portrait and the female character takes the dominant role. We can see this as she is stood whereas he is sat and she has her hands on her hips giving an open and powerful pose.
The lilies near Britwell are a symbol of female purity and are also associated with depic7ons of the Anunncia7on (at the 7me of the portrait we know Birtwell to of been pregnant.)
The cat on Clarks lap is a symbol of infidelity and envy. In this case we can assume it relates to Clarks bisexuality and con7nuous affairs leading to the breakdown of the marriage in 1974.
This cat is not in fact Percy. However Hockney felt that Percy made a bemer 7tle than Blanche.
Mr. Ossie Clark and Miss. Ceila Birtwell married in an almost perfect marriage of style , and their collabora7ons helped define the era. The newlyweds had two sons Albert and George. Clarke had hoped for a long an joyous family life but his hedonis7c lifestyle and drug use greatly impacted on his welfare and finances. It was also rumoured that Clarke partook in several promiscuous and homosexual rela7ons. Clarke and Birtwell divorced in 1970’s This sparked a downward spiral for Ossie who never emo7onally recovered from the split. With his family structure and work stability now gone, his crea7ve output became strained. Mr. and Mrs. Clarke and Percy is a pain7ng that uses a chroma7c colour paleme. We can see that it is set in a domes7c sedng and the composi7on is le^ naturally open. We see this by the pain7ng on the le^ side as it is not framed on the far le^. We can see the window balcony door on Mrs. Clarke’s side is shut and on Mr. Clarkes it is open, this could relate to his sexual openness and promiscuity. Mr. Clarke (we can assume) was also happy chasing a^er the sexuality he was therefore the light is shining on him though the door and Mrs. Clarke is stood in the shadows as she was cast to the shadows within the rela7onship. This can be seen in my own photograph from the Tate Britain. I was amazed by the clarity of the oil paint and the dimensions surprised me. Seeing it in the flesh made the characters come alive much more than looking at a digital image.
Jan van Eyck, Madonna of Chancellor Rolin c. 1433-‐7 (Oil on panel) 66cm x 61.9 cm, Lourve, Paris
Madonna and the Chancellor Rolin shows Jesus Christ sat on the lap of the Virgin Mary. Chancellor Rolin sits across from the virgin and Jesus with his hands clenched together in a prayer pose. Like the Arnolfini Portrait; there is much symbolism within this pain7ng. We can see from the architecture behind the figures that there are capitals showing biblical stories from the old testament such as Adam and Eve but the one that stands out if the drunkeness of Noah and the whale-‐this relates to the sinfulness of man and acts as a warning sign to the viewer. Behind the capitals is a non specific urban and rural landscape. We believe that the real landscape was probably the urban scene, however part of Rolin’s income came from investments into vineyards, so it is likely he asked for these to be put in. Its also a possibility that in the distance the town is a higher spiritual place such a “Jerusalem”. There is a garden beyond the por7co with roses, lilies and peacocks this could possibly a symbol for the Virgin Mary or it could be to impress the viewer with the riches or poten7ally both.
Roger van der Weyden, The Deposi7on, c.1435. This masterpiece was painted oil on oak panel as was very popular at this 7me. It is large scale coming in as 220 x 262 cm. Weyden painted this piece when he was serving as the official painter of the town of Brussels and this is o^en considered one of the most drama7c religious pain7ngs ever executed. It deals with the moment that Christ is being bought down from the cross-‐this is o^en considered the lowest of the low in Chris7anity history. Christ is being manhandled down from the cross by several hands, like so much lumber. This was meant to be a private moment of grief and tragedy for him immediate family, friends and apostles however, this moment in 7me is being shown publicly and shows much humilia7on.
Van der Weyden, Deposi7on, 1435, Mary Cleophas (half sister to the Virgin Mary
Van der Weyden himself was born in Tournai. He was considered one of the greatest of the so called “Flemish Primi7ves” This was a group of ar7sts who worked in the south of the Netherlands during the 15th century. They bought about a new radical way of working and o^en gave a painfully bru7sh kind of realism. Van der Weyden trained under Robert Campin, who was a master in the Northern Renaissance. A^er serving as a painter for the town of Brussels, Van der Weyden moved to Italy. He worked in Rome and Ferrara where he painted for the Estes and the Medici’s. But he never could surpass his early masterpiece and cri7cs said the later on in his work he got, the more his pain7ngs looked like a formulaic imita7on to The Deposi7on.
There is a human skull on the bomom le^ hand corner. This is believed to be the skull of Adam-‐ Adam is the original sinner and this is symbolic of the sins that Jesus was believed to have commimed.
Mary, wife of Cleopas-‐present at the crucifixion
Mary Magdalene
Nicodemus
St. John the Bap7st
Mary, mother of Christ
Joseph of Arimathea-‐he obtained permission to take down Christ's body
We can see here that Christ is taking his last breath. We can s7ll see the blood dripping off his body. This is an awkward moment to watch and many consider it the saddest pain7ng in the history of art.
The character of Nicodemus is wearing clothing fashionable of the 7me it was painted (1435) this gives us the impression that the Christ narra7ve happened during the 15th Century. This was again about “seeing is believing” and if Weyden pictured the people living in the 15th century then they truly could of done. As we can see demonstrated by the red curves there are many echoing forms. Aswell as the blue eyes (many eye lines) ac7ng as repoussior towards Christ.
As we can see, Mary (mother of Jesus) and Christ himself are both lead in this disheveled pose. They are repea7ng the same form and both conform to the same echoing curve form that unites the whole image. Weyden would of done this to show us that they are of the same blood and both are as devastated as each other. We can also see that the pose they are in some what resembles a cross bow. The guild of archers were the patrons of this piece and cross bows to them would have been an essen7al tool, therefore the poses are a subliminal reference to the guild themselves.
Also in the wood work on the top le^ hand corner, we can see a small carved cross bow, this is more of an obvious reference to the guild.
Van der Weyden did other alter pieces such as this one called The Crucifixion with the Virgin and Saint John the Evangelist Mourning, painted in 1406. These depic7ons are usually painted in a triptych format so this was thought as being “umerly remarkable ar7s7c tour de force” The essence of the piece is in juxtaposi7on to the powerful narra7ve and the minimal way in which the story is presented. The two portrait panels work together to form a large square, this shape is regular and creates a harmonious balance. The mother Mary is pictured in blue awe would usually expect but it is the stark red blocks that unify this image. In the le^ panel we see St John suppor7ng the Virgin as she collapses through grief.
The pain7ng space is shallow condensing the area within which the ac7on unfolds. The drapes of the weeping Virgin spill over into Christ’s panel, linking them and reinforcing the connec7on between mother and son.
Van der Weyden painted the loincloth flumering upwards, perhaps to suggest Christ’s spirit rising up to heaven signifying the moment of death. His body appears elongated and his skin has a yellowish skin tone.
Hugo van der Goes was born in Ghent and is considered an undoubted great master during the 15th century, although there is only one piece that is authen7ca7ng directed to him-‐Por7nari Altarpiece. There are other pieces amributed to him but none that are decisively made at his hand. He was known to have been working in Ghent in 1467 where he decorated civic decora7ons for public events such as weddings. In 1475 Van der Goes became dean of the painters guild in Ghent. He then went on to spend his last seven years of life as a lay brother in a monastery. His reasons for entering the monastery are unknown, they could be religious reasons although it is thought that he knew he was mentally unstable and entered as a sense of security. In 1481 he experienced a severe mental breakdown and died a year later. The Netherlands was were Van der Goes was known to paint. The Netherlands was a center for successful trade, shipping and banking and ar7sts were o^en amracted from elsewhere to work in such a flourishing city. But the Netherlands was also a perpetual bamleground for the poli7cal and military rivalries of the major European powers. As a result of this power struggle many documents, works of art and even libraries were destroyed especially during the reforma7on. Compared to what was produced few examples of Netherlandish pain7ng survived and informa7on about the ar7sts is meager.
The enormous size of the pain7ng were specified by Por7nari, who wanted an altarpiece the size commonly found in Italian churches. The saints are life size.
Here we can see a member of the Por7nari family (who commissioned the work) the family members are all protected by St.Thomas the families patron saint.
Thomaso Por7nari is shown kneeling in prayer behind him are his two sons: Antonio born in 1472 (far le^) and Pigello, born 1474. Pigello has been added in at a later date. This suggests to us that the work was already under way when Pigello was born. Three other children were born between 1475 and 1479.
There are 15 angels shown which lay reference to the 15 joys of the angels.
The central panel illustrates how ar7s7c ideas were being exchanged between the Netherlands and Italy at this 7me. The central image with the Virgin and Christ child is a varia7on on a theme commonly found in Netherlandish art, however other aspects reflect Italian art.
The sheaf of grain is a reference to Bethlehem and the purple Columbine represents the Virgin’s sorrow. The red carna7ons may symbolise the Trinity; and the discarded show signifies holy ground.
The winter landscape in the right hand panel shows the three Magi. Italian pain7ngs rarely depict a 7me of year or a loca7on so specifically.
We can assume that the portraits are painted from life models. We can see the life quality-‐the men looked troubled and the women have fashionably high foreheads and pale heads.
Hans Holbein the younger was a northern renaissance German painter. He is best known as one of the greatest portrait painters of the 16th Century. Holbein uses subtle blend of realism and idealism with addi7onal clues from objects and gestures to give an insight into the simer’s personality and status. Holbein began his training with his father, Holbein the elder, in the town of Augsburg in Germany. The crisis caused by the Reforma7on led to Holbein’s first visit to England in 1526. Portrait of Henry VIII is now a lost work as we know it was lost during a fire in 1698. However, this is possibly the most iconic pain7ng of Henry VIII and Henry is one of the most famed portraits of any Bri7sh monarch to date. It was originally created for the Palace of Whitehall in London 1536-‐1537. Henry became the Holbein’s main patron. Henry is painted posed without any of the standard Royal amribute such as the royal septer or crown. This image therefore shows his being in7mida7ng and powerful without hiding behind his crown or without the use of his 7tle.
Hans Holbein the younger painted The Ambassadors in 1533. The pain7ng is 207x210cm (just over life size) The pain7ng shows two men show surrounding some objects. The man on the le^ is Jean de Dinteville who commissioned this pain7ng of himself and his friend George de Selve, who visited England in 1533. As we can see the figures take up two thirds of the canvas and both stand in dominant and imposing posi7ons. Jean de Dinteville wears very tradi7onal clothing which were flamboyant and lavish at the 7me showing wealth and status. George de Selve is wearing less flamboyant clothing but we can s7ll see the expense in the fur lining. The simers status and wealth are also implied by the rich colours used, such as the green drapery they are stood in front.
This is a celes7al globe. The celes7al globe may hint at Copernicus’s revolu7onary work establishing that it was the Sun, not the Earth that was the center of the solar system. The intellectual and ecclesias7cal consequences of this propor7on were profound and disturbing. Around his neck Dinteville wears a pendant of the order of St Michael, one of the coveted orders of chivalry founded in France by Louis XI in 1469.
We can see that Dinteville is holding a dagger, which is inscribed AET. SVAE 29 an abbreviated La7n inscrip7on giving the age of the simer as 29.
The terrestrial globe has been posi7oned to show the countries that were important to Dinteville. The globe has been edited to include things personal to Dinteville such as his Chateau Polisy near Troyes.
The lute here has a broken string this is symbolic because the lute is tradi7onally a symbol of harmony so the broken string is telling us the harmony is broken. We believe this is reference to the reforma'on.
As we can see here the skull casts a shadow on the floor, this is known as the shadow of death. This was Dintevilles personal insignia. It has par7cular symbolism here as we know Dintevilles health was extremely uncertain.
This sun dial shows a date, the date we assume the pain7ng was painted (11 April 1533)
This is a Arithme7c book this symbolises the modernity and the new technology of the 7me. It also reflects on the Ambassadors educa7on and intellect.
Georges de Selve was the bishop Elect of Lavau in France and good friend of Dinteville. He is leaning on a book on the edge it reads AETATIS SVAE 25 (meaning he is 25)
This here is an anamorphic skull. Anamorphism is an extreme play on perspec7ve first noted in Leonardo’s notebooks. When you at it face on it is meaningless however, if you view it on the right side it becomes a skull. This is a momento mori (or a remind of your mortality) Par7cularly apparent due to the reforma'on and Dintevilles health issues
The mosaic pamern on the flooring is an accurate copy of the flooring in Westminster Abbey. It must of made a great impression on Holbein for him to of memorised and reproduced the pamern
The reforma'on the reforming of the Chris7an religion in the 16th Century. Mar7n Luther was a monk living in the 1500’s . He was unhappy with the way Chris7anity was changing and the way. Therefore he began to protest and he nailed his protests to his local church door. He believed that the church needed to reform, he also thought that there was too much money being spent by the Roman church on people trying to atone for their sins. The Gumenberg prin7ng press had been invented in 1436 and now the bible could be printed in each individual vernacular language and there was not longer a demand for religious art, as people could simply read the narra7ves of the bible.
The reforma7on ended in the division of Chris7anity. It divided into the Catholic Faith and the Protestant Faith. Protestant churches became white washed with no art as they believed that the wrimen word was the way religion should be received. This also lead on to the Catholic or Counter reforma7on that we see later in the history of art.
Baroque translates as a broken pearl, not as precise as the perfect pearl. The allegory says that the Northern Renaissance that came before was the perfect pearl and then it moves on to an imperfect movement. Baroque appeals to emo7ons and senses, the images can be very graphic. The ar7st o^en captures the moment in the most theatrical part of the narra7ve and o^en acts as a snapshot of movement. This style was o^en used by the Catholic church used to illustrate religious studies, this was because of the great drama and the feeling of being able to evoke emo7on and passion instead of the calm ra7onality of the Renaissance. We understand today that Baroque was linked to the ideas behind the counter reforma7on. Caravaggio (born Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio) was born in 1571 in Sicily. He was an Italian painter ac7ve in Rome, Naples, Malta and Sicily. His pain7ng combine a realis7c observa7on of the human state both physical and emo7onal with a drama7c use of ligh7ng. He is now considered a master of the Baroque period. Caravaggio-‐aged 13-‐ trained as a painter in Milan under Simone Peterzano who had himself trained under Titan. When he turned 20 he moved to Rome and started pain7ng to make money for himself. He was o^en arrested for drunkenness and figh7ng many 7mes and in 1606 it was thought that he commimed murder over a tennis match. A^er which he fled to Naples, where there was amempt on his own life. He later died in 1610 in Tuscany.
Baroque
It was o^en though that Caravaggio would use his own face (self portrait) for the representa7on of dead saints. It is thought that he might of done this because he believed that he had commimed such heinous crimes that he himself should be beheaded and dead like the saints he shows. Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1599 Self Portrait as Sick Bacchus, 1593
David with the head of Goliath, 1609
This is Caravaggio, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1599. There is a strong sense of light and tone within this pain7ng known as chiaroscuro. We can see the graphic moment when Judith beheads Holofernes. In the narra7ve Judith is a beau7ful widow who had the amen7on of Holofernes. Holofernes was an Assyrian general who was about to destroy Judith home, the city of Bethulia. Therefore Judith seduces Holofernes and gets him so drunk that he passes out and then unaware to him he goes on to decapitate him. Some believe it was with help of her servant others disbelieve this and say she acted alone.
Here we can see Cranach’s depic7on of the narra7ve during the Northern Renaissance. Its very ra7onal and shows Judith holding Holofernes head, it shows Judith is a calm and a placid manner. Much a contrast of
Here we can see Gen7lleschi’s depic7on of the same scene. We can see a slightly more vulnerable female character however we can see that she is slaying Holofernes in a vindic7ve way. Despite the sexual assault Gen7lleschi went through previously to pain7ng this work, she is not shown as a vic7m, however not a monster either. We can see clear determina7on on her face and she is clearly driven as is demonstrated through her con7nuing to behead Holofernes through the graphic blood pouring out.
This was painted at the end of the Reforma7on and we can see that the reforma7on would have had a clear influence on the work of Caravaggio. The protestant reforma7on introduced a wave of iconoclasm (the destruc7on of religious imagery) Although this is a biblical tale, Carravagio used real life models to depict biblical, this was also working with the council of Trents wishes.
The council of Trent was held between 1545 and 1563 in Trento, North Italy. It was the Roman Catholic highest council. They believed in religious art works and that religion should have iconography and not only the wrimen word. Caravaggio was working in retalia7on to this. He was crea7ng art with recognisable people within it, his use of chiaroscuro was also bringing these subject mamers to life and giving people something to worship and look to.
Thomas Gainsborough was an English ar7st who was born in 1727 and died 1788. Gainsborough was with Reynolds (his main rival) the leading portrait painter in England in the later 18th century. He is renowned for his feathery brushwork and his mature rick sense of colour. Unlike Reynolds Gainsborough doesn't’t reference Italian Renaissance art and poses his simers in fashionable contemporary dress. He was a founda7on member of the Royal Academy though he later quarreled with it over the hanging of his pictures. He became a favourite painter of George III and his family. He was born in Suffolk but trained in London , he then moved to Bath where he began a love affair with the fashionable cliental there. He moved back to London in 1744 and subsequently died 44 years later. His private inclina7on was for landscape and rus7c scenes however, patrons rarely wanted just landscapes so Gainsborough became a portrait painter yet o^en painted his simers in a landscape or surrounded by forestry. It is rumoured that Gainsborough painted using a 6^ long paint brush that is how he achieved the feathery and lightness of his brushstroke.
Mr and Mrs Andrews, Thomas Gainsborough was painted in 1750, oil on canvas at 70 x 119 cm. Today it is housed in the Na7onal Gallery, London. It depicts 22 year old Robert Andrews and 16 year old Frances Carter, they were married in 1748. They were both from wealthy landed families from Essex. We can see that this piece of land was in Sudbury due to the small tower in the le^ background being St. Peters Church in Sudbury, there is also a church in the middle of the pain7ng, this one is All Saints Church, Limle Cornard.
The Rococo style was an art movement in 18th century France. It is characterised by lightness, playfulness and grace. The pain7ngs are o^en courtly and painted using a pastoral paleme. This was a development from, but largely a reac7on against baroque. It boasted curved lines and carelessness o^en described as frivolous and flirta7ous. Many items were imported from France as the Rococo was more rife over there. Therefore the fact that Mr Andrews had these items imported for his wife shows the wealth and status that this family had. We can see this style in the famous Fragonard pain7ng ‘The Swing’ in 1767.
The whole pain7ng shows modernity which in turn shows status and wealth of Mr and Mrs Andrews. Portraiture creates a conversa7onal piece and this is a prime example. For example, if Mr and Mrs Andrews were to host a dinner party, this could feature in the dining room and then they would have something to talk about, for example, the Rococo furniture and dress, the farming or the land. These conversa7onal pieces were o^en used by the wealthy to show off their wealth and modernity.
The fields are enclosed using a 5 bar gate, this was also modern and pudng shephard’s out of a job. This also shows the controversial ways that the Andrews farmed and their status that they didn’t need to conform
The neat parallel of the corn was obviously produced by Jethro Tull’s. This was a revolu7onary and controversial seed drill that helped achieve efficient farming but put many people out of jobs in an already struggling economy
Roman7cism is about the viewers feelings and provoking emo7ons in the viewer. It was a European movement that originated in Germany. The ar7sts associated with this movement wanted to express their strong emo7ons usually feelings such as fear and trepida7on. It has o^en been thought in art that this was a reac7on to the French revolu7on and the rapidly changing social climate. This was a movement across all the arts, including literature, pain7ng, sculpture and music. There was not however a definite Roman7c style and there was never a manifesto wrimen. They followed on the wri7ngs of Goethe, who was considered as a roman7c writer of his 7me, he moved away from ra7onal themes of science and produces a story in which Dr Faust wants to perfect himself through learning and science, yet finds he destroys his faith and his reasons to live by bargaining his soul to the devil.
Portrait of Casper David Friedrich, Gerhard von Kugelgen, 1810-‐1820
Casper David Friedrich was a 19th century German roman7cism landscape painter. He is most well known for his mid-‐period allegorical landscapes which typically feature contempla7ve figures silhouemed against the landscapes. Friedrich was born in Pomeranian, studied in Copenhagen and then semled in Dresden.
Freidrich’s work has hugely influenced many ar7sts over the years. In his early career his contemporaries such as David d’Angers spoke of him as a man who had discovered “the tragedy of landscape." However, during his later life his work was less favoured and Freidrich died in obscurity and some say he was “half mad” on his death bed. The early 20th century bought a renewed apprecia7on of his work, beginning in 1906 with an exhibi7on of 32 of his pain7ngs and sculptures in Berlin. In the 1920’s his work was discovered by the expressionists and then by the surrealists in 1930’s. The rise of Nazism in the early 1930s again saw a boost in popularity however this was followed by a sharp decline as his pain7ngs were associated with the Nazi movement and were misinterpreted as having a na7onalis7c aspect. It was not un7l the late 1970’s that Freidrich regained his reputa7on as an icon of the Roman7c movement.
Casper David Friedrich, The Abbey in the Oakwood, 1808-‐1810
Casper David Freidrich, Colister Cemetery in Snow, 1817-‐1819
Friedrich painted Wanderer above the sea of Fog, 1818, oil on canvas, medium scale. This pain7ng really makes the viewer appreciate the sublime; great, awe inspiring, terrifying. Freidrich is wan7ng the viewer to feel scared of nature and being alone in the cold landscape in front of you. There is a massive contrast between the light and dark tones here, this makes the image stand out and the light creates an undefined and eery landscape. The mans black clothing and the dark colours used for the rock he stands on creates a silhouemed outlined of the man.
The wanderer is stood on a pyramidal composi7on with his head at the apex. This is symbolic as your thoughts being pinnacle and the most important of all your surroundings.
All the landscape in the background act as a repoussior in towards the figure in the center.
As we can see the figure stands directly on the central and ver7cal axis, this shows us his importance in the pain7ng and makes us recognise the individual is important.
Friedrich was also considered by many to be a philosopher and he once said “The ar7st should paint not only what he sees before him, but also what he sees within him.”
We have no formal iden7fica7on of the wanderer, not even a fixed hair colour. This is symbolic that this person facing life struggles and strifes could be anyone. We are stood behind the viewer, as to form a cue, this could also be symbolic that we are next in-‐line to struggle this mind block. These factors sparks fear in the viewer and would help you ques7on yourself and your life choices. This piece is warning us of the power that nature has against man physically and mentally. Its clearly showing that the figure is small and weak in comparison to what is out there but this is also allegorical of what is in reality and how your environment and the world around you can feel daun7ng and overpowering. This is clearly a roman7c piece as we so cleverly get lead into the mind of the wanderer. We are pulled into the trepida7on that the figure is feeling. This is symbolic of a roman7cism pain7ng. Although we are pulled into becoming the figure, the composi7on places the viewer in an uncomfortable posi7on. This is because we are almost spying behind the figure and we are on-‐ looking without the figure realising we are there. This adds to the roman7cism genre, it s7rs emo7ons from within you.
The Ra^ of the Medusa, was painted by Gericault. It took 2 years to complete (1818-‐1819). Gericualt had a private income and was therefore a new type of ar7st. He did not need commissions and therefore could paint what he like without worrying about what sells and not-‐he was also not controlled by a patron. Gericault studied in Italy from 1816-‐1818 and was greatly influenced by the work of Michelangelo. He returned to France to paint this picture and his own influence is visible in the work of his contemporary Eugene Delacroix. The Ra^ of the Medusa broke new ground by taking art into the controversial realm of poli7cal protest. The pain7ng shows the story of the downfall of the French ship the Medusa. In summer 1816, the French had set out (with help from the Bri7sh) to colonise Senegal. The ship was carrying soldiers to semlers to the island. The capitain was incompetent and he gained his role through poli7cal influence. The ship was wrecked just off the coast of Africa. When it became wrecked the ships carpenter made a ra^ for people to board. The rich and influen7al made it onto their own more suitable life boats. On this makeshi^ life ra^ were 149 men and 1 women, they were aboard the ra^ for 13 days. Only 15 survived the horrors on the ra^ and later 5 more died a^er reaching land. The 10 survivors told horror stories of rape and cannibalism. When this pain7ng was seen by the French public, it became an apparent embarrassment that the French captain had abandoned the ship and 150 crew members. The incident was seen as a metaphor for corrup7on in France a^er the fall of Napoleon. Ar7s7cally the pain7ng makes a stark comparsions to David’s Oath of the Horad, which is of a similar size and hung besides Gericaults in the Lourve.
This curved shape is echoed several 7mes throughout the pain7ng and unifies the image. The curved line is a line that could only be made by human bodies. This is a contrast to the neoclassicism that came before and that we can clearly see in Oath of the Horad, David. David produces a typically neoclassic pain7ng with rigid and sta7c poses-‐o^en known as stock poses.
The clouds are broken up by small rays of light, this symbolises a slight ray of hope, however the light is slowly becoming covered by the wave and the billowing sail, symbolising the realisa7on of there being no hope.
Billowing Sails Gericault made a trip to Normandy to study wave movement to give the pain7ng a sense of being realis7c and naturalis7c. The sail echoes the shape of the large wave behind it, and so gives it greater power and force. The echoing forms also adds prominence of the journey being persistent with no hope.
We we can see an abandoned uniform here believed to be a metaphor for the poli7cal and military collapse of France. It is also a clear and abrupt sign that the people in charge (wearing uniforms) abandoned the ship and the crew members.
I believe that the more realis7c depic7on that Gericault uses is the best way to show historical events because the viewer can get a real understanding of the way the people would of felt. Roman7cism gives the viewer a feeling of being there and experience what was happening. David glazes over the truth with his pain7ngs and gives the event some staleness and s7llness, rather than it being engaging and story telling.
As we can see, Gericault studied bodies, par7cularly dead and drowned bodies from the morgue to create a drama7c realism. This creates a juxtaposi7on to the David pain7ng hung next to it the Ra^ of Medusa. David creates strong rigid poses whereas Gericault creates real bodies that have movement.
Cubism was a 20th century avant-‐garde art movement that revolu7onised European pain7ng and sculpture. In cubism art, objects are broken up, analysed and re-‐ assembled in an abstract form. Instead of depic7ng objects from one viewpoint, ar7sts o^en used a mul7tude of viewpoints all depicted in the same scene to preset the piece in a greater context. Cubism stemmed from the wri7ngs of the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1851-‐1914) Bergson’s wri7ng suggested that the mind is in a constant flux and never fixated on one par7cular subject. For example; you could be viewing a presenta7on but thinking about what you will be doing the next, in your subconscious. Therefore the cubists wanted to portray the mind in flux on their canvases. This meant that o^en is cubist art the surfaces intersect at seemingly random angles presen7ng no coherent sense of depth. The background and object or figure planes interpenetrate one another to create the ambiguous shallow space characteris7c of cubism. As we can see in this early cubist pain7ng by Georges Braque, Man with a guitar, oil on canvas, 1911-‐12-‐ objects are broken up and reassembled in an abstracted from, showing the way the brain works (according to Bergson) The object (or figure) planes interpenetrate one another to create the ambiguous shallow space.
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907, oil on canvas. This large scale pain7ng depicts five female nude figures. It was set in the Avignon Street brothel in Barcelona, which we know Picasso frequented. The pain7ng is abstracted with the interpentera7on of face7ng planes. There is no nega7ve space, only block colour, which gives the feeling of a crowded composi7on and shallow picture space. There is no tonal modeling which came to be avant garde at the 7me. The public were used to viewing female nudes such as the Bougereau underneath. The Birth of Venus was painted in 1879 and is of similar dimensions to Picasso’s.
In the Bougureau pain7ng we can see a female nude coyly looking over her le^ shoulder. She can see clear tonal modeling which creates realis7c curves on the women, however in Picasso’s all the bodies are angular and sharp and the bodies are made up using block colours which no modula7on. The women are also looking out of the pain7ng and making direct eye contact with the viewer which at the 7me made the viewer feel uncomfortable, however in the Birth of Venus the lady is almost covering her face which adds innocence to her demure.
This woman on the bomom le^ is squadng-‐probably to pose for an examina7on. This is why we assume that these ladies are pros7tutes. The lady is also-‐ along with the lady stood above her-‐wearing a mask. These masks were influenced by the Dogon tribe in Africa. At the turn of the 20th century, ar7sts started viewing and collec7ng influences from what they knew as “primi7ve” art. This was art from other cultures, much of which shocked and surprised the Western world simply due to the lack of knowledge and understanding of it.
The figures in the pain7ng appear to have no connec7on. None of them are engaging in a physical way or by making eye contact, they appear to be layered over each other but appear as if they have no correla7on. This is because we assumed that the ladies were observed at different 7mes and in different rooms. Due to the Bergson theory Picasso believed that the mind was in a constant flux and that your thoughts would never focus solely on one thing.. This is evident here as Picasso is bringing back memoires on the brothel and mixing them all together on a 2D surface to create a memoir piece. As we can see to the right, each figure could easily be viewed as a singular piece, there is no direct connec7on or engagement between them.
Picasso became almost obsessed by art from other cultures. This included the Dogon Tribe from Africa and also Iberian art. Although many viewed these art work as “primi7ve” Picasso felt it would free art from the constraints of western art standards. Picasso once said about the Dogon Tribe Masks “they are magic things… against everything… I too am against everything.” It was also rumoured that Picasso stole an Iberian deity or vo7ve figure from the Musee d’Etnographie du Trocadero where he viewed this art form other cultures. We can see clear influences from the statue to the eyes used on the women in his pain7ng.
I was lucky enough to visit this pain7ng in his resident home in the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. I was surprised by the scale of the pain7ng. It being so big almost assaults your eyes and you are faced with the subject mamer front on. When stood in front of the work there is limle elsewhere you can look and so are forced to make uncomfortable eye contact with the ladies depicted.
Public art can be the subject on controversy as well as the much loved presence that we know. For example, Henry Moores Draped Seated Women (Old Flo), 1957. The beyond life size sculpture has caused up roar over the ownership and future of the sculpture. Henry wanted Old Flo to be kept in the public realm however, Tower Hamlet Council plan to sell the sculpture to a private collector. The sculpture links to the Bethnal Green tube shelter disaster. This occurred on Wednesday the 3rd March 1973 in the East End of London. On this day 173 people died in a crush at the sta7ons bomb shelter. The public thought they could smell burning so they came running in and then a women carrying her child slipped on the step, which in turn made others slip and there was a crush. There was however no bomb struck that night and no death was directly a result of military aggression making thus the deadliest civilian incident of World War Two.
Henry Moore was an official War ar7st as we can see from his drawing on the le^. Shelter Scene: Bunks and Sleepers, 1941, Watercolour. As we can see in this pain7ng to the le^ Moore’s work is painted in a sketchy or ebauche manner. This is similar in the sculpture of Old Flo and the way in which he sculpts her drapery is similar to the blankets in the pain7ng. It is said that the figure of Old Flo represents all the strong female characters and feminine characteris7cs of World War Two wai7ng in the bomb shelters.
Here is a cast of a preparatory marqueme that Moore produced to help plan and show the final product. Marquemes are minature versions of the sculpture and were used to help sculptors visualise the dimensions and the final outcome.
The deep undercudng used on the drapery of old Flo’s skirt helps to create realism but also create drama and emphasises the human from underneath by lying into her open legs.
The face is very simplis7c and looks almost robo7c. There are small piercings for the eyes and there are no recognisable features, which means that this woman could be anybody. It can relate to any woman.
The statue was gi^ed to the S7fford Estate in the East End but has been on loan to the Yorkshire Sculpture Park for the past 15 years. In 2012 the Mayor Luuur Rahman made the controversial decision to sell Old Flo to provides funds to cover the budget cuts from the government. This promoted outrage from councilors and residents. Consequently, the sale had been delayed. However, in October 2013 it was decided that she would be sold as soon as possible. There have been several protests against the sale of the sculpture many lead by the contemporary ar7st Bob&Roberta Smith. Bob&Roberta Smith born as Patrick Brill is a main advocate for Old Flo and ac7vely protests against the sale of Moores work. Here we can see when a group protested against the sale and posing and holding signs saying “not for sale” The picture on the top le^ shows a picture taken by Amy Pennington in the 1960’s showing where Old Flo was supposed to sit. This space outside the Ewhurst Tower Block now le^ empty.
I have seen a cast of the Old Flo in the Tate Britain in London. The thing that most surprised me was the undercudng used in the drapery. We can even see some nega7ve space within the drapery. The use of materials can allow for this to happen.
I also saw a small marqueme made during the planning of Old Flo. Its interes7ng to see a small version of the final product.
The proposal has aroused the fury of, among others, Henry Moore's daughter Mary, the local MP Rushanara Ali, and Danny Boyle, hero of the Olympic opening ceremony. In a lemer to the Observer today, they write that it "goes against the spirit" of Henry Moore, who sold it to London County Council at a price – £6,000 – far below its then market value. It demonstrated the "belief that everyone, whatever their background, should have access to works of art of the highest quality".
I think that the reasons behind selling Old Flo are wholly effec7ve and I can understand why Tower Hamlet want to sell it in this current financial climate, considering that the sculpture isn't even in its original place. There is no original link to the estate where it was originally placed, seeing as there are no certain ownership over the sculpture anymore and the sculpture is not kept there. I would not like to see the sculpture destroyed or mistreated but selling it to another area on the UK would not be a bad decision. Councilor Shahed Ali, one of Rahman's cabinet members, told the BBC that "we'd love to keep it in the borough", but it is "uninsurable", at a 7me when large bronzes like this are some7mes stolen for their scrap value. This is also a cri7cal factor, the area in which it should be kept has a high crime rate and we can see from incidents such as Hepworths sculpture being stolen that sculptures like this are of high risk and the appropriate council feel they cannot protect it. Therefore selling it off in an auc7on would be for the best of the future of the sculpture.
In conclusion, we can see that over the history of art the condi7on of the human form has changed. From classicism where it was used to show idealised beauty and to improve society. It also highlighted the length in which the human form could be stretched and pushed. These ideas were mostly forgomen a^er this 7me due to the use of the human form in represen7ng religious narra7ves. However, it was in the Renaissance where these ideas of classicism allowed ar7sts too consider the idealised human form once again. This was stretched further during the Baroque period where heightened realism spread the ideas of the Council of Trent and art work became even more drama7c. The enlightenment and the rise of science created new avenues for ar7sts which was eventually superseded by the pursuit of irra7onal ideas of Roman7cism. This movement gave ar7sts an opportunity portray the world around them in a new light and too depict recent events on the scale off history pain7ngs. The modern era was influenced by the rise of travel and industrialisa7on and ar7st began to look at art from other cultures too create a radical depic7on of Western art. Toward the end of my study I was again made aware of the importance of public art on peoples lives. It was interes7ng to note how public art can s7ll s7r up an emo7ve response from the viewer. Even though Moores depic7on of the female form was radically different from classical interpreta7ons its impact on society is s7ll felt today.