Design Report Part I by Melanie Etchart Hernandez

Inner Space

Introduction

At one of the highest points on the Wirral peninsula, in the conservation area of Bidston Hill raises the Grade II Listed Bidston Observatory. Outstanding scientific research carried out in the building was of worldwide interest for almost two centuries and during its life, tools and systems were developed that significantly improved the understanding of time, tides and meteorology. George Fosbery Lyster designed the Observatory in 1866 in response to the needs of the growing shipping industry in Liverpool. With the primary aim of aiding sea navigation, the observatory entailed a quest in the understanding of time and location by carrying analysis through astronomical observation. Unfortunately, technological advancements and light pollution have left the Observatoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s facilities obsolete, causing the abandonment of such a relic.

Inner space resurrects Bidston Observatory,

together with the rich landscape of Bidston Hill and its abandoned WWII Air Raid Shelters in order to honour the historical value of the site. All three are integrated in a journey that reconnects visitors with nature and the sky; a sky that has sparked curiosity and fascination for centuries resulting in the science of Astronomy: the foundation of Bidston Observatory.

Brief

or centuries, our ancestors have looked into the night sky with curiosity. It made them question the relation of our existence with the universe on a psychological, intellectual and creative level. Yet now we are born into an age where humans have redirected their attention from the night sky to the city lights. Unlike our ancestors, we are no longer connected with the immensity of the universe after the sun sets in the horizon. The rapid development of new technologies and light pollution has created an intangible breach that has resulted in the loss of the spirit of curiosity, a feeling that has made Astronomy a science and driven mankind to conquer space. In order to recover that, visitors of all ages and backgrounds are taken on a journey through Bidston Hill before accessing the Observatory. The exploration of the rich landscape and the mysterious Air Raid Shelter tunnels will set the stage for the experience inside the building, serving as a foreplay for the senses, creating the meditative mind-set that is required for a truly immersive journey. Through an evocative and sensorial design, the spaces within Inner Space allow visitors to explore the field of Archaeoastronomy in a phenomenological way. This means questioning their individual vision of human existence in context with the Universe around them through exploring how ancient cultures perceived and interpreted celestial phenomena. The journey through the building is proposed to be vertical, from underground to the roof and the spaces are articulated following the principles of the Scientific Method: - Question: Addition of the underground tunnels where a sense of curiosity is sparked through a light and sound installation and vertical apertures to the ground level aligned with celestial phenomena becoming naked eye observatories. - Explore: Interactive exhibition space on ancestral culturesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; astronomical records, predictions, alignments and spirituality. The elements on display will be based on replicas and loans from national museums. - Experiment: Stargazing tool interactive workshop for all ages and levels of expertise. Tools will be assembled from ready-made parts. - Analyse: Exhibition space focused on star mapping and celestial navigation, and the role of Bidston Observatory on Sea Navigation. Original artefacts from Bidston Observatory will be reallocated from Liverpool Museums and the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool. - Reflect: Contemplative space distributed between the roof and the restored domes. The original Transit and Equatorial telescope will be restored and reallocated from Liverpool World Museum. The design of these spaces will work together with the building, creating minimum impact on its structure, but incorporating contemporary solutions into the exhibition display design. Contrast between the old and the new will be an important feature of the design. Inner Space with its focus on Ancestral Astronomy or Archaeoastronomy, could offer the North West of England a point of contrast to learning centres that focus on modern technologies in Astronomy like Jodrell Bank Discovery Centre in Manchester, or the Astrophysics Research Institute at Liverpoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s John Moore University.

Inner Space.

A JOURNEY FROM ARCHAEOASTRONOMY TO PHENOMENOLOGY.

Part I

Feasibility Design Report By Melanie Etchart

The Life Of Bidston Observatory 1864 Plans Historic Images

Bidston Hill - A Land Of History Bidston Lighthouse

The Semaphore Station The Windmill Ancient Rock carvings Other Landmarks Air raid Shelters

Astronomy: The Foundations Stonehenge

Aztec, Inca, Maya Ancient China Babylonia Ancient Greek

Bibliography

Figure Reference

Contents

28 8

Part II

Fig. 1

*Longitude: Imaginary lines, or meridians, which run between the North and South Poles. They measure east-west position. The prime meridian is assigned the value of 0 degrees, and runs through Greenwich, England. Meridians to the west of the prime meridian are measured in degrees west and likewise those to the east of the prime meridian are measured to by their number of degrees east. (Maptools.com, 2016)

The Life Of Bidston Observatory

irst known as Liverpool Observatory, Bidston Observatory was built as was part of the redevelopment scheme of the docks in Liverpool, where its predecessor was located. After the Industrial Revolution, Liverpool expanded rapidly, and so did international trading. In the 19th century it became one of the leading ports in the British Empire. Sea navigation was dangerous, at the time the earth surface was not fully charted, and loss and wreck of ships was a common issue. With all the problems this implied; uncountable deaths, long delays, or loss of the cargos, it was necessary to develop better tools and techniques to navigate safer and faster. So far, looking at the stars was the only aid to reference location, it was important that the crew understood astronomy, because being able to observe the planets, particularly Jupiter and its moons, which was always in the night sky and allowed them to calculate an approximate location. The problem was that it was hard to get a steady sight using a telescope on a moving ship, and there was no accurate reference of time to track the transit of the stars. England’s Royal Observatory in Greenwich (see Greenwich Case Study) was built to find a way to tackle this issue. Eventually, accurate time was known at Greenwich but in 1830 the longitude* of Liverpool was still unknown, therefore Greenwich meantime could not be calculated with precision. The calculation of accurate time was only possible through observation of the stars, so the construction of an observatory in Liverpool was becoming an ever-growing need. The fastest communication between Greenwich and Liverpool was by horse and the journey could take several days, meaning that the difference between the two noons could not be measured as accurately as was needed for sea navigation. Not knowing how far East Liverpool was from Greenwich was a problem. Lieutenant Jones R. M. first addressed the construction of an observatory: “An error of only one second per day in the working of a chronometer would, after a 2 month voyage, result in an error in longitude of 15 miles, one third of the distance between the Irish and Welsh coasts at the entrance of St. George’s Channel.” (Scoffield, 2006, p. 70)

Fig. 2 7

An observatory committee was set by the common council to consider the issue, and by 1841 a construction in Waterloo Dock was approved. Liverpool Observatory (Fig. 5), the predecessor of Bidston, was finished by 1844, and its purpose was to: - Determine the exact longitude of Liverpool - To give accurate time to the port by observing the stars through a transit telescope. - To test and rate Chronometers, “a timepiece that is precise and accurate enough to be used as a portable time standard; it can therefore be used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation.” (General Science, 2008) - To undertake meteorological observation.

Liverpool Longitude was set to 53° 24’ 48’’ N / 3° 0’ 1’’ W. Therefore, the noon at

Liverpool occurred 12 minutes and 2/10s of a second before Greenwich. This was crucial information for the Time ball drop ping and the rating of chronometers. It was also thanks to John Hartnup, Director of Liverpool Observatory that the highest precision for rating chronometers was found to be achievable in a temperature controlled room, as extreme temperatures affected the density of the oils. By 1854, Liverpool Observatory became one of the most important observatories in the world for its practicality and accurate results. It also achieved one of the first stereographs* of the moon (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3

*Stereograph: a picture composed of two superposed stereoscopic images that gives a three-dimensional effect when viewed with a stereoscope or special glasses. (Merriam-webster.com)

Fig. 4.1

1860’s map showing old / new location.

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Melanie Etchart Hernandez Leeds Beckett University

In 1864, due to the imminent development of Waterloo Dock, a site for a new observatory needed to be found, and after many locations were considered, Bidston Hill became the chosen one. The building commenced the same year, under the directions and design of George Fosbery Lyster, who developed detailed plans including designs for the tiled floors; plaster cornices, and the meticulous details of the domes (view Building Analysis). The construction was finished on 10th of November of 1866. During this time, John Hartnup made preparations to readapt important data, as is the difference of longitude and noon exact time on the new location, for accurate rating of chronometers. Noon at Bidston Observatory was calculated to occur 17.04 seconds later than that at Waterloo Dock. Therefore noon at the new site was 12 minutes 17.15 seconds later than at Greenwich. Liverpool Observatory (Fig. 5) also had a Time Ball like Greenwich (see Case Study), a time signalling device consisting of a wooden or metal ball that would be dropped on an axis at 1 o’clock every day. The time ball could not be transferred to the hill because of the lack of visibility from Liverpool, so this was substituted for a Time Gun (Fig. 6) installed on the Birkenhead side of the river and fired electrically from the observatory at exactly 1 pm everyday, making the signal visible and audible from the premises of the chronometer makers in the area.

Fig. 5

Map of Liverpool Docks, 1860

Fig. 4

Fig. 6 9

Equatorial Telescope

Fig. 7

Transit Telescope

Fig. 8

Astronomical observations began in 1867 with the telescopes that were transferred from the original Liverpool Observatory. In the East dome it was the Transit Telescope, an instrument designed to calculate accurate time by repeatedly observing the same stars crossing the meridian which the telescope is aligned with. The west dome held the Equatorial telescope, an instrument capable of observing in daylight small planets and comets as they crossed the meridian. According to Joyce Scoffield, the equatorial telescope â&#x20AC;&#x153;was considered to be the finest instrument in existence for daylight observation. (â&#x20AC;Ś) The Greenwich observatory had not yet acquired a comparable instrument, so it was arranged that, for the time being, Liverpool would take responsibility for observing faint planets and comets, specifically those between the orbits of Mars and Jupiterâ&#x20AC;?(2006, p.288) The observations made with the transit telescope would enable the rating of the chronometers housed in the warm air chambers at the instrument room. Chronometers required a stable temperature to maintain their accuracy, hence the adequate equipping of Bidston Observatory. Sextants, thermometers and barometers were also tested in the basement.

Stars photographs original from the Observatory. Found at Liverpool Museum Archives

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

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The following are images of some of the astronomical instruments used in the observatory to determine the transit of the stars in order to determine accurate time. It also shows the Stereograh (Fig.15) used by Observatoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first director John Hartnup to photograph the Moon.

Fig. 19

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Artificial Horizon

Fig. 14

Fig. 20

Fig. 15

Figures 19 and 20 show the Astronomical Regulator Clock which was for a long time the standard timekeeper at Bidston Observatory. There is only 3 of its kind in the world. Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Fig. 21

Figures 17 and 18 show the clock used to set off the 1 oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;clock gun at Morpeth Dock. It was last fired in 1969. 12

Meteorological observations were also carried out and recorded in the building since 1867. Fig. 21 - 22: Self Registering Barometer built in 1862. It recorded changes in atmospheric pressure with great sensitivity. Fig. 23 - 24: Mercury Thermometers. Fig. 25 : Meteorological Hut located in the roof of the Observatory. Fig. 26: Anemometer being removed from the building. Fig. 28 - 29: Components of meteorological instruments.

Fig. 26

Fig. 22

Fig. 23

Most of the surviving instruments are on display in the Liverpool World Museum, and some are kept in the Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s archive. Fig. 24

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

Fig. 29

Fig. 30

Figures 32 - 33: Manually recorded meteorological information

Fig. 25

Fig. 31

Fig. 33

Fig. 32 13

Fig. 34

One of the observatoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chronometer .

William Plummer was passionate about astronomy, he put his efforts into maintaining certain type of astronomic activity within the building despite the imminent cease of activity. He kept using the telescopes for his own interest, but also he organized lectures based on astronomy for amateurs or students of Liverpool. In 1927 a total eclipse of the sun was viewed in England in 1927. â&#x20AC;&#x153;It was reported that 50,000 people assembled on Bidston Hill to observe the eventâ&#x20AC;? (Scoffield, p.171) The lack of funds to maintain the functioning of the telescopes meant that by 1960s the telescopes were moved to Liverpool Museums.

espite its international reputation in chronometer rating, radiotelegraphy technology started developing, meaning that the time could now be signalled from Greenwich, making the need of transit observation and chronometer rating fade quickly. At the same time, as industry developed and electric light took over the city nights, two essential factors for an atmospheric pollution that would eventually condemned the usability of the telescopes. By 1921 astronomical observation ceased, although members of the Liverpool University Astronomy Society were allowed to use the instruments for research. The current director of the Observatory, 14

Fig. 35

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Fig. 37

Fig. 38

Fig. 39

Removal of the telescopes from the Observatory and reallocation in the Museum. Fig. 40 15

The

end of astronomical observation did not mean the end of Bidston Observatory. In 1921 Professor Joseph Proudman of Liverpool University addressed the need for collecting tidal* data and prediction a task for an official institute rather than for individual scientists and by 1924 the Liverpool Tidal Institute was allocated in the Observatory. This was the beginning of impressive scientific endeavours within the building.

Fig. 41 16 16

Dr.

Arthur Doodston, Associate director of Liverpool Observatory and Tidal institute (the new amalgamation of Liverpool Observatory of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board and the Tidal Institute of the University of Liverpool) made important suggestions in the design of the significant tide-predicting machine that would later be installed in the observatory. Fig. 50

Fig. 46

Fig. 51

Fig. 42 Fig. 47

Fig. 43

Fig.52

Fig. 44

Fig. 48 Fig. 49

Fig. 53 Fig. 54

Fig. 45 *Tides: The periodic variation in the surface level of the oceans and of bays, gulfs, inlets, and estuaries, caused by gravitational attraction of the moon and sun.(Farlex, 2003) 17 17

Fig. 55

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Fig. 58 Fig. 61

Fig. 60

Lord Kelvin

Tide-predicting Machine

ccording to Eric Jones, “Tide-predicting machines are devices that can be ‘programmed’ with harmonic tidal constants for a particular port and then proceed to provide predictions or hindcasts for any desired date. As they required very high precision engineering, very few were in existence and several foreign governments asked the institute to supervise the construction of machines for their own use” (1999, p.30) The Objectives of the Tidal Institute were to carry continuous scientific research into all aspects of knowledge of tides and to undertake special tidal research for commercial and other entities, at the same time than being a training school of applied mathematical research.

Fig. 62

Fig. 64

Fig. 65 18

Fig. 63

orld War II was a particularly

important period in the history of Bidston Observatory. Dr. Doodson planned to combine family holidays with the attendance to a meteorological conference in Canada and few lectures he was giving with Professor Proudman in Washington in 1939. However, the war outbreak demanded the early return of the director to the observatory. He was escorted in his journey back, avoiding routes that could intersect with enemy submarines. The Tidal institute

was responsible of producing tide predictions of the principal ports throughout the British Empire.

Fig. 66

Fig. 67

Doodson-Légé

“One of the tide-predicting machines was placed in a separate semi-underground room in the observatory grounds. Indeed the door to this room suffered blast damage from a bomb and the Observatory building itself lost a hundred panes of glass as well as suffering damages to doors, interior walls and ceilings in six different incident...The scientific work itself was speeded up so that predictions were advanced by a year and they were photographically recorded against loss – a wise precaution, as some were lost at sea. The staff at this time were mostly female ‘computors’ and some volunteered for war service” (Jones, 1999, P.31)

Tide-predicting Machine

Fig. 68

Fig. 69

Fig. 70 19

Fig. 71

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I Fig. 73

t was thought that the Nazi hierarchy was aware of Bidston’s involvement in the war effort, and for this reason the observatory also served as a fire-watching place and security measures were taken to protect the instruments as several bombs fell over the Hill, and during the ‘Blitz’ Liverpool was the second most bombarded city in the UK only after London. As the war continued, several countries kept getting involved, meaning that the tidal prediction of different coasts over the world was part of Bidston workload. Staff worked overtime, and tidal prediction machined kept being relocated through the building for security. In 1944, Dr. Doodson an his staff of six girls were demanded to urgently prepare tide tables for various locations along the coast of Northern France. Scoffield states “these emergency

Fig. 74

predictions were used for the D-day landings on June 6th” (2006, p.197).

Rumours affirm that the letter D of D-day (day of landings in Normandy) might come from Dr. Doodson name, in honour to his crucial contribution in such an important day. “At that stage, Bidston was the foremost tidal predicting station in the world. The coast and Geodetic Survey of the United States came second, but at the time was producing one third of the quantity of predictions that Bidston produced” (Scoffield, 2006, p.198)

fter the war, Joseph Proudman resigned from directorship, being replaced by Dr. Doodson and tidal prediction for overseas countries became the main activity at Bidston Observatory. In the 1960s The Liverpool Observatory and Tidal Institute became a component body of the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and changed its name to The Institute of Coastal Oceanography and Tides. Its expansion involved an increased number of staff and eventually this required the construction of a new building on the Observatory grounds; the Joseph Proudman building, which was finished in 1975. However, the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory as it is now called was relocated to the University of Liverpool’s main campus in 2004, as part of the National Oceanographic Centre. Due to the costs of the ongoing maintenance and the lack of buyers, in 2013 it was decided that the new building should be demolished (Simpson, 2013)

After the Observatory closed, an attempt was made to rehabilitate it as a museum, but it failed due to lack of funding and support by the local authority. Wrigley Associates stated, “It is understood that this was due to the lack of a credible business plan” (2013, p.1)

It could be suggested that the maintenance of the Observatory was also becoming unbearable for the NERC. In 2013 the observatory was sold with listed building’s consent for conversion into residential apartments. This alarmed the Bidston and Wirral community. The group called Friends of Bidston Hill, dedicated to preserving the heritage of the area stated “A residential use would be a better outcome than the status quo – unwanted, slowly deteriorating, office space.” (Bidstonhill.org.uk, 2013) However, the group’s primary interest is to preserve it for community use instead. The fight to keep Bidston Hill as a recreational area can be traced back almost 110 years, when the Bidston Hill Committee accomplished the prevention of the construction of 400 dwellings along Vyner Road.

Fig. 75

Historian Peter Crawford, of Bidston Preservation Trust, said to the Liverpool Confidential (2013, p.1): “It will be a sad day when this important building is turned into flats. We have pressed for years for the creation of a heritage museum given its rich history without having the support needed to get it off the ground.”

Fig. 76 21

OLD PLANS

Fig. 77

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1864 Plans

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Historic images 1900s Fig. 81

1940

Fig. 87

1903

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1940s Fig. 88

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1940s Fig. 89

1979

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1906

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1909

Fig. 86

1900s Fig. 91

2016

Fig. 92

Bidston Hill, A Land Of History

Bidston Observatory is located on Bidston Hill, a conservation area within the Wirral peninsula in Merseyside, North West England. A guide on the hill written by the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences reads: “The Wirral waterline is almost unique and the area was well settled by Norsemen” (1974, p.1). The Hill sits at the northern part of the peninsula, between the Rivers Dee and Mersey, and rises up to 70 metres above sea level, imposing great views to the rivers and the Irish Sea. Bidston Hill’s geography is not the only aspect of its singular value; the land also holds immense heritage, and remarkable geology and archaeology. There is evidence of occupation since the Stone Age, a fine stone axe head was found dating from sometime between 3000 – 1800 BC according to Liverpool Museums. Bidston Hill seems to have been valued throughout history, likely due to its elevation in contrast with the relatively flat surrounding land. The Village has a medieval style, which is believed to have been maintained by the Vyner family.

They acquired the land from the Earls of Derby, and owned it until 1866, when the Birkenhead Corporation (now Wirral Borough Council) purchased it. Since then the aim has been to protect the site from house building, and it is required as shown in the deeds that the land always remains used as an open space for public recreation (Simpson, 2014). An organization called The Friends of Bidston Hill, formed in 1994, in collaboration with the Countryside Service and Wirral Council Parks, work in order to protect and improve the area for the benefit of both the hill and the visitors. They have compiled information about the treasures that inhabit Bidston Hill, and have organized a Heritage Trail that allows visitors to make a journey of exploration.

Fig. 93 Bidston Hill Profile

The following sections outline the context of some of these remaining pieces of history that will be preserved and included in the sensorial and spiritual journey proposed in this project.

Fig. 94 29

Bidston Lighthouse

Fig. 95

he position of Bidston Hill led to its use as a watchtower for a long time. In the 1760s, Liverpool Dockmaster William Hutchinson addressed the need to construct lighthouses in order to aid seafarers navigate towards the entrance to the port from the Horse Channel, which was full of hazardous sandbanks. In 1763, two lighthouses were built at Mockbeggar (Leasowe) and two others at the anchorage in Hoylake; they were known as the Sea Lights and Lake Lights. As the diagram shows,

ships would wait until the pair of lights on each side were aligned in order to take a turn and sail safely through the Channel.

Fig. 96 30

Fig. 101

Fig. 97

Fig. 101a Fig. 98

At this time, Hutchinson had begun experimenting with parabolic reflecting mirrors to enhance the brightness of the lighthouses in the signal house at Bidston Hill. His experiments created a light “200 times stronger than the old light at Everton Beacon” (Scoffield, 2006, p. 30). The power of the new light would come in suitable after the wreckage of the lower Sea Light in 1769, since Hutchinson figured that Bidston Hill was also aligned with the second Sea Light. In 1771 a Lighthouse was built in the Hill from local sandstone, and its light was visible for 21 miles due to the massive parabolic reflector (Bidston Lighthouse, 2015). In 1865 the building was damaged by fire, and by 1873 a new Lighthouse was built a few metres to the north under the plans of Bidston Observatory’s architect George Fosbery Lyster.

Fig. 99

Fig. 100 31

The Semaphore Station

Fig 96 Fig..102

n 1763 a flag system was developed to resolve an important issue at the time: the notification of arrival of vessels to the owners on land. The Wirral peninsula obscured visibility from the Liverpool docks, so ships could not be observed until they turned into the river Mersey (around New Brighton area). This was a problem for ship-owners as they had very little preparation time for offloading their cargoes. Bidston Hill became a strategic location to look out for ships when they were still hours or days away from port. At the time, very few tall trees or buildings blocked the views from Liverpool to Bidston Hill, so a flag system was successfully developed to aid communication between the two. Near the Lighthouse, a signal tower was set up, and a line of flagpoles was erected from the tower to the windmill. Once the ship was seen from Bidston, the signal flag of the ship-owner would be hoisted and identified from Liverpool by the ship-ownersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; staff. There is still evidence remaining of the holes for the flagpoles at Bidston (Fig. 97).

Fig. 103 Remaining flagpole hole 32

Fig. 104. Detail of 1828â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s painting showing the Lighthouse and flagpoles in the distance (middle left)

Fig 105. Possible line of flagpoles location according to fig. 102 33

The Windmill

Fig. 106

he first record of the existence of Bidston Windmill dates from 1609 although its construction could have been as early as 1595. Strong winds caused its destruction in 1791. In 1800 it was rebuilt from bricks and was used to grind corn into flour for at least 75 years. Its location was beneficial for catching the wind, producing large amounts of flour per hour. The top can be rotated so the sails are aligned with the changing direction of the wind. The windmill was closed for renovation in 2004 and reopened in 2006 with a new roof. The Metropolitan Borough of Wirral has turned the Mill into an educational resource and it is open to the public on the first Saturday of every month. It is known that bats hibernate inside it, so the windmill is closed during winter months.

Fig. 107 34

Ancient Rock Carvings

orse Carving: Almost life size, the horse is partly worn away. “Experts from Liverpool Museum have suggested that the circular carved device in the horse’s neck may be a symbol depicting the sun; this combined with the possible orientation onto equinoctial sunrise may suggest that the horse embodies some solar significance. Greek, Roman and Norse mythology all consider horses important in the rising of the sun, indicating that seven horses are needed to pull the sun or the sun chariot (Sun Goddess) into the sky.”’ (Holden, 2006, p.1) Research is in process to determine its age and relation to The Sun Goddess (Fig. 103).

Fig. 108

The Mummer’s Carvings: Different stories associated with occultism have been related to these carvings, from devil worshippers to witches’ rituals. They are understood to be rooted in the pagan origins of the area. ‘It is thought that these carvings have some links to the performance of seasonal mummer’s plays to welcome the spring; celebrate the harvest; resurrect the sun at midwinter by the death of the winter deity and his eventual rebirth; and chase the winter blues and evil spirits’ (Holden, 2004)

Fig. 109

The Sun Goddess and the Moon God: On a long flat sandstone outcrop just north east of the observatory is a 1,5 metre long carving which There are different theories around it. It faces the direction of the rising sun on the summer solstice. Some archaeologists say it could be the oldest feature of the hill, and associate it with the Norse- Irish culture around 1000 AD. Fig. 110 35

Other Landmarks...

Fig. 110a

Fig. 111

Fig. 113

George’s Way: Vyner Bridge: 8 metres above Footpath opened by King Vyner North road, it was founded in George V and Queen Mary 1896 due to an eventually unexecuted in 1914, this path is heavily plan to build houses in the hill. overgrown today.

Tam O’Shanter Cottage: Currently an urban farm, the cottage was built around 300 years ago using local sandstone. Its name comes from the carved stone slab added to the building in 1837, which depicts a scene from Robert Burn’s Poem ‘Tam O’ Shanter’. It has been rescued on several occasions by the Birkenhead History Society. The Farm has the 2nd nearest carpark to the Observatory.

King

Fig. 114

Fig. 112

Fig. 115

Direction Dial: At the highest point of the hill, this Penny-a-day Dyke: Remaining wall of stone running

flat brass dial gives directions and the distance to various landmarks in the North West. Although there are not many records of the date of its installation, It first appears in 1910’s vegetation was much lower, allowing better views to the points indicated on the dial.

from the Observatory towards the Mill. It is part of a dyke dating from 1407, as a boundary for a deer-hunting park.

Fig. 116

The Cock Pit: It is believed that this 25 cm deep and

6 metres diameter trench could have been the site for illegal cock fighting. Other theories suggest that it could have also been the remnants of a Gorse Mill. 37

Air Raid Shelters

were cut out in a familiar gridiron layout, with four long perpendicular tunnels fed at both ends from the two main entrances and eleven cross tunnels" (Rayner, 2012, p.1). The tunnels were seven feet wide and six feet six inches high, with an arched roof that was not part of the original planning, but ‘due to the unreliable nature of the rock, which was not apparent until it had been exposed to the air for a considerable period of time’ (Boumphrey, 2004, p.). The tunnels are about 30 feet underneath the surface; most of the entrances have been covered in concrete and the shafts filled with sand. There is an entrance facing Hoylake Road. Another access can be found at the junction of Worcester Road and Boundary Road, by the electric substation. Tickets were handed out to residents in the area to ensure access in the event of a raid. The Chair of Bidston Preservation Society, Peter Crawford, informs that the tunnels are brick structures of eight feet tall that could house 3000 people and that they were totally dark (Hidden Wirral Myths and Legends, 2015). He adds that this structure shows how

n Wirral on the Home Front 1939-45, Ian Boumphrey (2004) states that in 1941, the Wirral’s Civil Defence Emergency Committee considered it necessary to build two large and deep civilian air raid shelters, under rock outcrops. One of these was under Tranmere, and the other one under Bidston Hill. Rayner (2012) notes that although originally the government’s preference was to build small dispersed shelters, when the Blitz started in 1940, permission was granted for the two large civilian shelters to be built. The funding was raised quickly, given the importance of protecting dock workers. The construction started in May 1941 and lasted until April 1944, directed by mining engineer Mr Kooyker. 950 tonnes of sand were removed from the tunnels, which were blasted with explosives. Boumphrey (2004) states that the excavation was cheaper and faster than that of Tranmere, due to the softness of the rock. "Bidston’s shelter was in the side of the hill allowing access at grade into two main entrances... the tunnels in between these ends

Fig. 111

Fig. 117

seriously the war was taken as a threat. As Bidston was a potential target in the Second World War due to the work that was being done in the Observatory, information about the tunnels construction and location were Fig. 118 kept secret and remain limited until this day. Recently urban exploration groups, driven by curiosity, have gone into an exhaustive investigation, trying to compile information about the tunnels. Most of the information here has been gathered from online forums and discussion groups dedicated to Bidston Hill. Some individuals say that the City Council is not interested in making any information about the tunnels public because they are considered dangerous and prone to crime and vandalism (WikiWirral, 2009). Some sources agree that it was estimated that the tunnels would accommodate 2213 bunks and 793 seats, as well as a canteen, staff dormitories, toilets, medical aid posts and a ventilation shaft, which would also serve as Fig. 119 an emergency escape hatch (Hidden Wirral Myths and Legends, 2015). However, only 1596 bunks were actually erected (Boumphrey, 2004). Hidden Wirral Myths and Legend, interviewed in the Liverpool Echo, suggests that there other tunnels running along Wellington Road in New Brighton, popularly called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;wormholesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, which supposedly connect with all the tunnels in New Brighton and Bidston Hill. Rayner (2012) says, however, that the Bidston shelter was built too late in the war, so afterwards it was used for fire brigade training, customs and excise storage, and was even considered for the Cold War. The tunnels were sealed in the late 1950s and since then different attempts at reopening them have Fig. 120 been made, although for security reasons they remain closed. In 2009, Peter Crawford, supported by a large number of members of the community, was looking to open Bidston Tunnels to the public. They were looking at the possibility of turning the rhododendron garden into a war memorial, and linking it to the shelters as a tourist attraction (Hughes, 2009). However, there was no success with this bid. (For Location of the tunnels see Site analysis)

Fig. 121

lacing enormous flag poles that made the Hill visible from the sea; aligning the Lighthouse and its strong light with a building almost 3 km away; observing the sky to determine time or understand tides; carving the sandstone to worship the celestial gods... Bidston Hill has always been connected in one way or another with one essential matter: Our place in the world. Most of the features of such a meaningful land and particularly the Observatory, have been discontinued because of technology development. Although we must be grateful for most of technology achievements, we have to accept it has blurred our vision of the nightsky through the city lights and it also has disconnected us from the value of relating to the sky and nature in order to make sense of the world we live in. Is part of this project to recuperate these values and revive the essence of Bidston Hill and Bidston Observatory.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Watching the sky leads to a silence which in turn gives rise to the

experience of being part of something much greater, a whole beyond our

limited existence and lifetime of mere years. The vastness of space points to

the vastness of wholeness, to the vastness of inner experience, to the infinity of timeâ&#x20AC;?.

(Kafatos, 2010)

Fig. 122

Astronomy: The Foundations

Fig. 123 42 42

Fig. 124

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The regular occurrence of sunrise and

moonset provided our ancestors with a

concept of order, a stable pillar to which they could anchor their minds and soulsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Aveni, 1997, p.2)

efore city lights and atmospheric pollution veiled the vision of the dark night sky, the sight of thousands of bright stars overwhelmed all who stared above the horizon after the sunset.

why their particular perceptions of the cosmos affected and defined so much of their lives, both socially and individually. To our ancestors, Astronomy was not just a pragmatic science.

There is certain mystery about the precise origins of human consciousness in the history of evolution, but it can be accepted that at some point, the mind began to question the meaning of our sensorial inputs. Despite the different views humans from all over the world had of the heavenly vault, there has been for thousands of years, a recognition of shapes and patterns of change in the skies. In this context, different civilizations started to make sense of these objects, and tried to find order in the universe around us.

The making of calendars became a fundamental tool for predicting future events, and was essentially one of the main reasons why different cultures of the past observed the patterns in the sky carefully. The objects or phenomena they would pay attention to would naturally differ in diverse parts of the world, as not only is the sky perceived differently in reference to individual location but different connections were also made according to varying needs and desires. Some of the current interpretations of what it was that our ancestors were looking at are based on speculation, as not all the cultures left written records but mostly archaeological ones.

With the arrival of civilization, about 10,000 years ago, superstitious mindsets evolved into religions and myths, always aiming to make sense of humanityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s place in the world. Myths and rituals varied across different eras and areas of the earth, but what all these places had in common was a night sky to contemplate with awe. There is no doubt that our ancestors wondered what we are, where we came from and how we fit in the universe. Stars were perceived as fantastic creatures, ancestors, animals, or even gods.

It is this subjectivity of interpretation that is most interesting for the purposes of this project, as the goal is to encourage visitors to formulate their own perceptions as to what the cosmos and the development of science means to us. Through a study of different ancient cultures we will see how other people do not necessarily perceive the world in the way we do. It seems a logical thought that in order to predict individual and environmental nature we must learn from the past. So too believed our ancestors. The sun, the moon and certain group of stars and planets would offer a regular motion relatively easy to track with the naked eye in order to define temporal patterns.

For our ancestors, sky knowledge was crucial. Heaven and nature shaped a great part of their myths, religions and the divining of human affairs. Thus developed the foundations of Astrology. Sacred temples were aligned and shaped with the aid of careful recordings and markings of astronomical phenomena. Likewise festivities, harvesting seasons and primitive but essential calendars were designed around the interpretation of celestial events. Repeated observation and familiarization with the elements of the night sky also helped them to find their way through unknown territory without technological aid. It is important to consider that for our ancestors, astronomy and astrology were closely entwined, if not the same thing. This is important for understanding

The Mayans, similarly to Western scientific cultures, carefully recorded celestial events, which then they would analyse to create a calendar that facilitated predictions. Other cultures, such as the Megalithic or Inca societies seemed to deal with timekeeping through architecture or the environment itself.

Stonehenge

Fig. 125

hen it comes to unwritten records, Great Britain is the home of one of most famous remains of ancient astronomical observation: Stonehenge. Throughout history, there has been much speculation around the purpose of this premeditated circular arrangement of multi-ton worked stones: a cemetery, a place of worship, the place of coronation of Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first kings, an open air planetarium, even a landing place for UFOs. (Aveni, 1997.) Archaeologists have stated that the placement of the original

group of stones dates back to 3000 B.C, although with more research it has been determined that Stonehenge has been a constantly changing sacred monument in a sacred landscape. Considering the length of its life, we must assume that it was a multifunctional sacred space with strong social purposes, like a communal gathering place at the same time as being a celestial temple.

The alignment of the structure with the sun and moon positions have been studied several times by many archaeologists and astronomers, but its construction, destruction and reconstruction over thousands of years make it difficult to establish an accurate theory that put its origin’s mystery to an end. Discussing the controversy of opinions on this matter, historian Jaquetta Hawkes asserts that “every age has the Stonehenge it deserves – or desires” (1967, p.98), meaning that theorists’ interests will always influence interpretations of the purpose of this relic. Again, there is a subjectivity suggested by the mystery of the evocative yet unknown.

Fig. 126 Fig. 127

Some of the alignments mentioned by different scholars include tracking the standstill

positions of the sun and the moon, framing views of these elements in particular moments of time like equinoxes and solstices. The stones could also be reference

points for following the sun, its appearance and disappearance on the horizon; they could also serve as a tool to chart the moon’s cycle. Their shape could have also been the major influence when constructing a round temple. In a context where the Sun is a deity, a powerful force that provides warmth, food and life, its apparent motion in the sky needed to be marked in order to define when the rituals and ceremonies of worship should be carried out. That makes it, in essence, a timepiece. An unwritten calendar set in stone.

Fig. 128 45

Fig. 129. Dresden Codex

Fig. 130

Aztec, Inca, Maya.

MAYA: 250 BC - 900 AD INCA: c.10TH AD - c. 15TH AD AZTEC: c. 6TH AD - c. 16TH AD

Fig. 131 Mayan Pyramids

Fig. 132 Inca Calendar

esoamerican cultures (Maya, Inca and Aztecs) had great obsession for timekeeping with the main goal of administering the needs of the state. They have awaken the interest of many archeologist, astronomers, historians and philosophers because of how much did the cosmos rule their spiritual and material world. The Mayans are in contrast with Megalithic much more detailed about the influence of the cosmos in their time and space interpretation. Although most of their records were destroyed by the Spanish colonization, magnificent architecture and some written records remain to testify how they built temples that allowed them to exhaustively observe and record the sky, particularly Venus. The meticulous way they tracked the sky every night, for generations, served to create an accurate 365 day sun year calendar, a 260 day ritual almanac, also to predict weather and eclipses and to guide them in time and space; mainly conducted by the Sun, the Moon, Venus, the Gemini and Pleiades constellations. The Dresden Codexâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a surviving almanac containing tabulations of the cycles of appearance of the moon, Venus and possibly Mars, and even of lunar eclipsesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;seems to have been an attempt to predict the various motions of the celestial bodies. In doing so, the Maya reached a outstanding level of mathematical sophistication, yet their ultimate belief was that particular celestial configurations can foretell future events or that they can determine or influence the characteristics and lives of people at their moment of birth; and the belief that they are directly connected to current terrestrial events.

In Mesoamerican cultures, architecture was designed to fit the observational needs.

Fig.133 Illustration of the Inca Alignments

Most of the buildings were aligned with selected positions of the celestial bodies in the horizon and they would use prominent features in the landscape as markers. Heaven

was the realm of gods, and heavenly forces guided humans. The Mayan not only defined the way they structured agricultural seasons or religious rituals, it was also used greatly for divination of human and nature. The Aztecs shared many of the Mayan astrological views, but also they believed they had to maintain the alliance with the sun god in order to keep the universe going. Sacrifices of human bodies were part of a battle against the forces of darkness. Their cosmology had a militaristic character, and Venus watching was essential for their conduction of war rituals.

In the other hand, the Incas’ astronomic alignment scheme went from architecture to city planning. The whole city of Cuzco had a radial layout that incorporated their knowledge of the skies; the places of sunrise and sunset defined axis of arrangement. Principles of organization were based on duality and verticality. And once again, their planting seasons were based on sun positions, and rituals and social hierarchy was also based on the position of full moon.

The knowledge of astronomy was also expressed in Mesoamerican architecture through light and shadow. A technique called Hierophany, which means showing something sacred, was applied in certain Mayan Pyramids. “It usually consists of a phenomenon in the land- and skyscape displayed via the deliberate arrangement of architecture” (Avenis, 1997, p.145)

Fig. 134

Mayan Pyramid Hierophany

The most relevant case is the Descend of the Serpent in the largest Mayan pyramid. In a period of few days before and after of the equinoxes, the edge of the pyramid cast a shadow on the western balustrade of the north stairway. The shadow is a wavy line that attaches to the serpent head located at the base. This stairway is the only one with a serpent’s head, and it also leads to the main door of the temple at the top.

Ancient China

n the other side of the world, a great meticulous observation of the sky also occurred, recording celestial events from as early as 2000 B.C. Unlike ancient American cultures, there was a clear distinction between a ‘scientific’ observation and a divination observation (astrological). The first one was based on repeated cycles of elements in the sky, for calendric reasons. An observation aimed at divination would focus on transient elements like meteors, comets, or eclipses. Chinese worked on tools that would allow them to observe accurately in order to create reliable calendars. “Chinese astronomers established an impressive record in the development and construction of astronomical instruments. One of the most remarkable is a giant gnomon, in the form of a brick tower, built by the astronomer Guo Shou Jing in 1276 AD. This enabled Guo to establish the length of the tropical (seasonal) year with an error of only twenty-six seconds” (C. Ruggles, 2005, P.94). Chinese also meticulously recorded and mapped the stars. Like the Mesoamericans, there was a tight relation between the cosmos and the power of the Emperor, he was, in short, the responsible of maintaining the order and harmony between Earth and the Universe. The ancient Chinese astronomers called the 5 major planets by the names of the element they were associated with: Mercury to Water; Venus corresponds to Metal (gold); Mars to Fire; Jupiter to Wood and Saturn to Earth. Chinese Astrologers believed that a person’s destiny can be determined by the position of the planets, in relation with the positions of the Sun, Moon and comets and the person’s time of birth and attributed Zodiac Sign. The system of the twelve year cycle of animal signs was built from observations of the orbit of Jupiter. Chinese recordings of star maps have been found from as early as c. 4000 BC. However, the earliest remains of star maps in printed form is from 1092.

Fig. 135

1276 AD Giant Gnomon

Fig. 136

Oldest existent star map in the world (1092 AD)

A tool commonly used in China was the Armillary Sphere, an instrument that represents the great circles of the celestial sphere and could demonstrate the movement of the stars for prediction. It first appeared in China during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220), although its exact origin is unknown. “Some sources credit Greek philosopher Anaximander of Miletus (611-547 BC) with inventing the armillary sphere, others credit Greek astronomer Hipparchus (190 - 120 BC).” (Basu, 2009)

Fig. 137 Armillary Sphere, designed by Zhang Heng in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), Nanjing, China.

Babylonia

he Babylonians, alongside the Greeks, were major influences on the development of Western European scientific culture. The reason for this was primarily the way that across generations they exhaustively recorded their observations of the sky, and most importantly, the durability of the media they used: clay. These systematic records allowed a mathematical approach to the interpretation of data, an alien-like type of language at the time. The precision of the information recorded in the cuneiform tablets about the sun, the moon, Venus, Mars and eclipses make modern historians more concerned with the date of origin rather than the reason for their creation. It is also remarkable how two cultures from opposite sides of the world (Mayans and Babylonians) had such a great obsession with Venus.

Fig. 138

Cuneiform tablet at British Museum . 164 BC

Fig. 139

Babylonian Planisphere. ca 700 BC

A scientific-based approach was not the only way Babylonians perceived the sky; they also had a great spiritual connection with the universe. In fact, Babylon is the birthplace of the astrological Horoscope. Clives (2005, p.no) writes that “an important prerequisite was the division of the zodiac (through which the planets move) into twelve regions of equal size. Birth charts began to appear in the second half of the first millennium B.C. and represented a move away from the astrologers having to watch the skies passively, waiting for omens to appear, to the more active pursuit (performed on demand) of calculating where the planets would have been among the stars at a particular time”

* Cuneiform: “Of or relating to any of various related writing systems of the ancient Near East having characters formed by the arrangement of small wedge-shaped elements and used to write in Babylonia” (Farlex, 2003)

The Ancient Greek To the Greeks we owe fundamental principles that helped us develop our scientific thinking: reasoning through logic, geometrical perception of space and a philosophical approach to existence. And still, they considered earth and cosmos connected entities; humans were only microscosmic elements part of a higher structure ruled by celestial spheres. Similarly in Inca culture, this shows in their city radial planning, with the Agora located at the city’s core. The Incas imitated the way they believed the gods designed the universe. They carefully observed every element of the sky visible to the naked eye and also introduced physical model making of the universe’s structure (which they called Simulacrum), as they perceived it. Important figures like Thales of Miletus, Anaxagoras and Aristotle formulated sophisticated cosmological interpretations with geometrical arrangement as a common factor that we still use nowadays to depict the solar system. Different arrangements of the universe

Fig. 140 Antikythera Mechanism

in relation to the earth’s position were considered in Greek times, but the one that became most accepted was the Geocentric model, introduced by Aristotle and cemented by Ptolemy in the 2nd century A.D. Greek thinkers had already established that celestial objects moved at a constant speed and in regular circular orbits, but Ptolemy defined an extensive system of a spherical universe with circles within circles of rotation of different elements, having the earth at the centre. His theory remained accepted until the 16th century. Even though the Greeks used models of the space to minimize observation and predict universe behaviour, they still had a strong belief in underlying truths. In Aveni’s words “The Greek thinkers of the Classic period, like our contemporary scientists, believed that what we see on the surface of things is only an imperfect approximation of a deeper, hidden truth that exists in the form of unvarying principles that remain fixed in an ideal world – a world that exists only on a mental plane” (1997, p.189.)

Fig. 141 Antikythera Mechanism diagram

The rationalism inherited from the Greeks has led into modern science’s dependence upon data, and an explosive development of technology has occurred over the past two centuries since the Industrial Revolution. In modern days, astronomy is completely detached from astrology, science has left no space for an interpretation of the cosmos that has any type of spiritual influence over our lives and it only focuses on the contrast of theories over empirical data. Nevertheless, contemporary understanding of the sky and the earth would not have been possible without the invention of precision equipment like telescopes, clocks or mechanical prediction devices.

Fig. 142 Detail from the frontispiece of Giovanni Battista Riccioli's Almagestum novum (Bologna, 1651): This image shows on the left the heliocentric Copernicus's view of the Universe (1543) and on the right depicts Tycho Brahe's model of the Universe (1588) which combines the Copernican model with the early Greek Ptolemaic model (ca. 150) in which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars all orbit around the Earth. Brahe's model allows that the other planets revolve around the Sun, but maintains that the Earth is the stationary center of the Universe.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;What is the origin of the peculiarly scientific basis of our own high civilization? In our present generation we many stand on the shoulders of giants and examine in considerable detail the history of science in China, the complexities of Babylonian mathematics and astronomy, the machinations of the keepers of the Mayan calendar, and the scientific fumblingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of the ancient Egyptians. Now that we have some feeling for what was possible (and what not) for these people we can see clearly that western culture must somewhere have taken a different turn that made the scientific tradition much more productive than in all these other casesâ&#x20AC;? Derek de Solla Price, Science since Babylon, 1975.

Fig. 143 Johann Zahn Three Configurations of the Universe 1696

54 54

55 55

The New Astronomy European Renaissance (14th to 17th Century) was an important time for the foundation of astronomy as the science we know today. Under the influence of rediscovered ancient records, many figures of the Renaissance period, including Leonardo Da Vinci, kept reformulating a geometrical functioning of the universe. A key fact was the development of Nicolas Copernicusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Heliocentric model of the universe. His theory sparked ideas all over the world since the development of printing facilitated the distribution of ideas. Copernicus revolutionary ideas are considered to be the trigger of the Scientific Revolution. In this time a process of discovery that focused on empirical evidence lead to a well-extended methodology known as The Scientific Method. It implied that theories could not be determined by mere observation or deduction as Aristotle expanded. This methodology is still valid nowadays, as it proved itself to be indispensible in the development of astronomy as well as other sciences such as biology, physics or anatomy. In this scientific atmosphere, a need for understanding the objects that are observed became urgent; in a geometrical conception of space it was also needed to relativize the position of the celestial objects from the earth rather than just predicting when were they going to appear in the sky. This was as important knowledge not only to understand our position in relation with the cosmos, but also our position on earth. The sky has been known to serve as a clock, a calendar and a navigational help, and with the increasing sea trading industry, astronomers from all over the world focused their attention on understanding and mapping the nightsky; being this a very practical way to aid seafarers to find their way through unknown territory.

Fig. 145 Scientific Method

Fig.144 Heliocentric Model 56

The Astrolabe, Quadrant, Sextant and Octant were commonly used instruments to calculate the altitude of the stars en reference to the horizon for celestial navigation.

The Astrolabe was a popular astronomical instrument

Fig. 146 Astrolabe / Parts

of the pretelescope era. It was mostly made of Brass and it was part observing tool and part calculator. It was used from ancient times up until the 17th century, when the invention of the telescope made it obsolete. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the astrolabe was a basic astronomical education tool in Europe. In its day, it was the most accurate astronomical device available for navigation. This device can measure the angle of a shining star above the horizon. A rotating metal star map was engraved with precision to locate stars in the sky, determine time and direction, sunset and sunrise times, and to simulate the movements of the heavenly bodies, as well as for surveying. Although known to the Greeks, this versatile instrument was perfected by the Islamic astronomers in West Asia, Central Asia and Spain and travelled to India along with Arab astronomy. The earliest surviving astrolabe is an Islamic instrument dated AD 927-928.

The Quadrant was probably the first instrument used

Fig. 148 Sextant

Fig. 147 Quadrant

to measure the altitude of stars above the horizon. This very simple tool has been on the domain of astronomers since Ptolomyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal. It consists of a quarter of a circle, typically wooden, with engraved degrees from 0 to 90. It has not only been used for astronomical navigation but also for terrestrial. Different cultures experimented with improved versions of the tool, leading to the invention of the Quadrant Mural by the famous Danish astronomer Tycho Brache, and later to more advanced navigational tools based on the same principle: The Sextant and The Octant. In this case, the wooden body was replaced by a sturdy brass structure to resist strong winds, and mirrors or prisms were added to improve the measurement of moon or stars at night when the horizon is not so visible.

Fig. 149 Celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit

Fig. 150 Galilean Telescope Fig. 151 Jupiter Moons by Galileo

While Star mapping continues being the main focus of Astronomy in the 17th Century, a revolutionary event changed the way sea navigation was being resolved: The invention of the Telescope. Contrary to popular belief, Galileo was not the inventor of the telescope; neither was he the first to use it for astronomical purposes. The first documented creation of a telescope occurred in 1608 in the Netherlands, by Hans Lippershey, a spectaclemaker who discovered that by holding two lenses up at the same distance apart, objects appeared closer. Galileo’s achievement was to draw the attention of scientific society towards it. He was able to observe the craters of the moon, the rings of Saturn, the four moons of Jupiter and sunspots, just by using a limited 30-power magnifying telescope. The Galilean telescope as we know it today used a convex lens as objective and a concave lens for the eyepiece. These telescopes are easy to build and can also be used for terrestrial observation. In 1610 Galileo published his findings in Sidereus Nuncius, Latin for ‘Starry Messenger’. The manuscript not only included his findings about the moon, but also what he discovered to be the 4 moons of Jupiter, which had previously been known as planets. He also noted that the Pleiades were a cluster of at least 40 stars, not only the 6 or 7 that could be seen with the naked eye. Another important study conducted by Galileo was of the changing phases of Venus. He observed that as the planet changed from a full phase to a crescent phase, its size changed drastically. This was very important as it helped to prove that Copernicus’s heliocentric model was more coherent than the geocentric one. The vision-enhancing tool of the telescope became so popular that people from all over Europe started experimenting with it and improving its components.

Fig. 152 the Moon phases drawn by Galileo

The rapid development of this tool implied not only the descovery of a new sky, but it also allowed a very accurate observation of the transit of the stars which would eventually allow precise Timekeeping. As a result, a much safer way to navigate at sea would become available.

Fig. 153 60

â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is irony in the way contemporary astronomy has developed. As our machinery penetrates even deeper into the microcosm, and further out into the macrocosm, so, to, it functions to form the barrier I have been talking about between ourselves and our ancestors view of nature. The complex tools we construct remove us from direct contact with the natural environment our predecessors once experienced. As for as our attitude about the astronomy and calendar of other cultures is concerned, the power of our technology and the scientific outlook that accompanies it can lead to a kind of naturalistic narcissism.â&#x20AC;? (Aveni, 1997.p.193)

Image Reference

Part I. Figures:

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Photo-1.jpg> 90: Bidston Observatory 1979 (2013) Available at: <https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/6f/98/36/6f9836bb9c295b 7f33770eee84f7be95.jpg > 91: Bidston Observatory 1900’s (2013)Available at: <http://www.bidstonhill.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ObservatoryandLighthouse.jpg> 92: Bidston Hill (2016) Available at: <https://karenlawrencephotography.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/dsc_0005.jpg> 93: Google Earth (2016) Bidston Hill Elevation [Google Earth]. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/intl/en_uk/earth/ (Accessed: 1 March 2016). 94: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Bidston Hill Location [Digital Collage]. 95: Old Bidston Lighthouse (2015) Available at: <http://www.bidstonlighthouse.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Postcard-NotBidstonHillObservatory1830-1024x612.jpg> 96: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Wirral Lighthouses Alignments [Digital Collage]. 97: Hutchinson parabolic light experiments (2013) Available at: <http://lowres-picturecabinet.com.s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws. com/43/main/13/92432.jpg> 98: Old Lighthouse drawings (2015) Available at: <http://www.bidstonlighthouse.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ Phare_de_Biston.jpg> 99 – 100: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Images. Bidston Lighthouse Plans at Merseyside Maritime Museum Archives [Photograph]. 101 – 101a Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. Bidston Lighthouse [Photograph]. 102: Bidston Hill Flag Poles (2013)Available at: <http://www.bidstonhill.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Flagsall.jpg> 103: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. Bidston Hill Flagpole Hole [Photograph]. 104 : Detail of 1828’s painting showing the Lighthouse and flagpoles in the distance (2014) Available at: < http://www.bidstonlighthouse.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Gipsey-detail.jpg> 105: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Bidston Hill Flag Poles Location 106: Bidston Windmill (2012) Available at: <http://www.wirralmemories.co.uk/wm_images/aaiu_wm.jpg> 107: Bidston Windmill Section (2012) Available At: <http://www.bidstonhill.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/windmill225x300.jpg> 108: Horse Carving (2011) Available At: <http://www.allertonoak.com/images/BidstonHorse.jpg > 109: Mummers Carvings (2012) Available At: <http://www.hiddenwirral.org.uk/communities/4/004/012/549/994//images/4607770347.jpg> 110: Sungoddess and Moongod Carving (2007) Available At: <http://www.allertonoak.com/images/BidstonSunMoonGoddesses.jpg> 110a: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. Bidston Hill Historic Features [Digital Collage]. 111: Tam O’Shanter Historic Photograph (2012) Available At: <http://www.tamoshanterfarm.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/TamOShanter.jpg> 112: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. Kings George Way [Photograph]. 113: : Vyner Bridge Historic Photograph (2008) Available At: <http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5X5O1htLZ9g/VDhC1EZTvsI/ AAAAAAAAGYU/x4xW6P_yHbo/s1600/Bidston%2BWindmill%2Bno%2Broof.jpg> 114: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. Direction Dial [Photograph]. 115: Penny-a-day Dyke (2009) Available At: <http://www.wirralhistory.net/hill/bston17.jpg> 116: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image. The Cockpit [Photograph]. 117: Bidston Air Raid Shelter (2007) Available At: <http://www.images.wikiwirral.co.uk/forum/2007.jpg> 118: Air Raid Shelter Entrance (2010) Available At: <http://www.wikiwirral.co.uk/forums/ubbthreads.php/ubb/download/ Number/14288/filename/2009_0203tunnelpoice0007.JPG> 119: Air Raid Shelter Tunnels Inside (2010) Available At: <http://i1234.photobucket.com/albums/ff411/Degenotron/ Bidston%20Hill%20Deep%20Shelter/Bid-26.jpg> 120: Air Raid Shelter Tunnels Inside (2010) Available At: <http://farm9.staticflickr.com/8512/8552162784_590e644d8c_b. jpg> 121: Air Raid Shelter Tunnels Inside (2010) Available At: <http://i770.photobucket.com/albums/xx345/ojay1234/Other/ Bidston/8.jpg> 122: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Light Pollution [Digital Collage]. 123: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Study of Archaeoastronomy Visual [Digital Collage]. 124: Venus Orbital (2014) Available At: <https://arubsaqib.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/xx4gt.jpg> 125: Stonehenge (2015) Available At: <http://earthnworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/sunset-view-1.jpg> 126: Stonehenge plan (2015) Available At: <http://www.lerepairedessciences.fr/sciences/astronomie/histoire/stonehenge_ plan2.jpg> 127: : Stonehenge Alignments (2013) Available At: <http://www.mikebouckley.net/stonehenge/sh003.jpg> 128: : Stonehenge moon calendar (2012) Available At: <http://static.shop033.com/UserFiles/2602-Files/image/Stonehenge_ moon_calendar.jpg> 129: Mayan Dresden Codex (2012) Available At: <http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/dresden-codex-4.jpg> 130: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Maya, Inca and Aztec Location map [Digital Collage]. 131: Mayan Ruins (2012) Available At: <http://www.globalsherpa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/mayan-ruins-palenque-jan-harenberg-wikipedia.jpg> 132: Inca Calendar (2006) Available At: <https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/MdJAN8ZuQOuDnaD0Wc4nJ5Bw0ymGrRhEdL66KSnvl1leEcNOX5ItdiVasMMFwQUabu3XXPjrqLqyE1Y2fzAI2eTypUkmXqyMbdJ9dgPIt_iEoOz2VA> 133: Wyrobal, D. (2016) Inca Alignments [Illustration]. 134: Mayan Pyramid Hierophany (2012) Available At: <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/ChichenItzaEquinox.jpg> 135: Chinese Giant Gnomon (2012) Available At: < http://images.china.cn/attachement/jpg/site1007/20120801/00137299 63

28e61182fe1b22.jpg> 136: Chinese Star Map (2013) Available At: < http://41.media.tumblr.com/5dc334fbbfc9db2a2c55005b99f12d9f/tumblr_ n5hd04QuIi1qbh26io1_1280.jpg> 137: Chinese Armillary Sphere (2012) Available At: <http://education.asianart.org/sites/asianart.org/files/styles/asianart_resource_detail/public/resource-images/Ming_Dynasty_Armillary_Sphere.jpg?itok=asjgnZRH> 138: Cuneiform tablet at British Museum (2009) Available At: <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/ Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley’s_comet.jpg> 139: Babylonian Planisphere (2012) Available At: <http://ancientufo.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Planisphere. jpg> 140: Antikythera Mechanism (2011) Available At: <Mechanism http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/4/images/figure01.jpg> 141: Antikythera Mechanism diagram (2012) Available At: <http://img.theepochtimes.com/n3/eet-content/uploads/2014/06/Antkythera-338x450.jpg> 142: Detail from the frontispiece of Giovanni Battista Riccioli’s Almagestum novum (Bologna, 1651) Available At: <https://smedia-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/09/b4/b2/09b4b28923463508e8f75a578a5b4278.jpg> 143: Johann Zahn Three Configurations of the Universe (2012) Available At: <http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0669/8775/ products/VA_Zahn_Johann_1696.jpg?v=1418756511> 144: Heliocentric Model (2009) Available At: <http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/geocentric_heliocentric-580x310.jpg> 145: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Scientific Method Illustration [Digital Collage]. 146: Astrolabe Parts (2005) Available At: <http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/PG/images/astro2.jpg> 147: Quadrant (2008) Available At: <https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Hadley’s_reflecting_quadrant. png> 148: Sextant (2012) Available At: <https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/b8/ab/0e/b8ab0e4efbe71b8e81ec7225d0dcb1b9.jp> 149: Celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit (2011) Available At: <https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg> 150: Galilean Telescope (2009) Available At: <http://amazingspace.org/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/scopes/galileo/graphics/tele_galileo_big.jpg> 151: Jupiter Moon’s as observed by Galileo (2015) Available At: <https://thecuriousastronomer.files.wordpress. com/2015/02/galileonotebook.gif> 152: The Moon drawn by Galileo (2012) Available At: <https://scienceofthestars.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/gallileo_ moon2.jpg> 153: Etchart, M. (2016) Own Image: Types of Telescopes [Illustration].