Park Slope. Barnsbury. Sydney. Victoriana. Melbourne. San
Francisco. New York
City. Toronto. United
States. Pittsburgh.
Wall Street. Glasglow.
Scotland. Bilbao. Spain. Manhattan. Soho.
Gentrification on a Global Scale
Foreword This publication is split into three categories: Gentrifer Types, Timeline of Gentrification and the Waves of Gentrification. It is classified in such a way that readers are able to see where each Gentrifer Types fall under the Waves of Gentrification. However, the end of each wave does not signify the demise of the Gentrifer Types. Some of them do died down however majority of them occurs concurrently even as the next wave begins. Also this publication works hand in hand with the creative precincts map. The map directs the readers to the publication to look at the definations that are properly coined. Which allow the users to look at Gentrification at a global perspective instead of the terms that might be loosely coined by journalist that
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might not be well-verse in this scope of research.
Content Page
Gentrifer Types P4. 16. 30. 33
Timeline of Gentrification P32
Waves of Gentrification First-Wave | P6 - 15 Second-Wave | P6 - 15 Third-Wave | P17 - 29 Fourth-Wave | P33
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First-Wave of Gentrification This wave started in the 1950s till 1973 prior to the Global Economy Recession. This form of gentrification is state-led and scattered around the cities. It can also be identified through the reinvestment of the suburbs properties. The government also provided funding for housing that are experiencing this wave. 4
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Countries that experiences this wave: Australia United States Park Slope 1949 & 1954 Housing Acts Western Europe Barnsbury, UK Home Improvement Grant
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
The Kosciusko public swimming pool, Bedford-Stuyvesant district of Brooklyn, July 1974.
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Back to the City Movement Initiated by the government through urban renewal programs in the 1970s, this movement sparked the increase of work spaces, malls and the upgrading works of residential developments.
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Section Two | Gentrifer Types
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Lynch Park, Brooklyn, NYC, June 1974.
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These changes could potentially address white flight suburbanization, that brought about largescale migration of the whites from an older inner city to rural areas. However, Gregory Lipton (1977) highlighted that the displacement of whites could also lead to an influx of the black and other minority populations. Throughout the 1970s, a wave of “urban-pioneers� was birthed - a group of young, well-educated professionals whom brought about a renewed sense of community, vitality and a reasonably seasoned form of urban renaissance as they reside in these cities.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Brownstoning Movement In the 1950s in the heart of United States - New York City, gentrification occurred after war. Urban renewal in neighbourhoods were prevailing, often and not buildings were demolished and replaced by contemporary housing and highways. Many historians and architecture activist followed by young families started to contest against these reforms by investing in old housings in seemingly “bad� neighbourhoods in that time. These activist were willing to painstakingly refurbished these dilapidated housings. This form of gentrification is commonly associated
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with buildings that are made out of sandstone which weathers as a chocolate brown colour. Block of brownstone residences in Park Slope of Brooklyn, June 1974.
Lynch Park in Brooklyn, June 1974.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
A magazine about brownstone living was also published by a group of advocates helmed by Everett Ortner a pioneer gentrifer residing in Park Slope. Happenings such as the historical inquiry, rehabilitation insights and the politics of gentrification were commonly featured. In 1974, Everett Ortner also founded “The Back To The City Conference” in hopes to advocate brownstone living. Her conference was also supported by the Economic Development Council of New York City, the National Trust for Historic Preservation, the Municipal Art Society of New York, and Brooklyn Union Gas. The support garner also shows how their case is acknowledged by a greater body of organisations that delves into topics such as preservation, finance, and promotion within the city’s polity and economy.
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Alternatively: Shop-Steading Homesteading | Baltimore Red-Brick Chic | San Francisco Whitepainting or Whitewallling | Toronto Evelyn and Everett Ortner at their Park Slope home in 1980.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
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Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Homesteading Baltimore Baltimore Homesteader Park, August 2015.
13 Baltimore Homesteader Park, August 2015.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Red-Brick-Chic San Francsico
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The Press Coffee Shop at Fifth and Jessie streets was a popular spot near the San Francisco
Sacramento Street, San Francisco 1978.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Duke University’s, Crowell Building in the foreground, 1904.
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Studentfication
Duke University’s, North from the Washington Duke Building.
The emergence of studentfication began in Britain where the famous campuses are situated. The rise ensued when an extensive growth of higher education was emphasized. Often coined as a “gentrification factory” students are characterized as a group of prospective gentrifers. The high influx of students in the U.S. “College Town” are also experiencing such a phenomenon.
Second-Wave of Gentrification After the Global Economy Recession, gentrification began to evolved in 1970 & 1980s. This wave of gentrification that sits in light of Post-recession- “Expansion Resistance� is often characterized by the rise of enterprises. New strategies were also implemented to develop the economy with regards to the art scene in cities 16
such as Pittsburgh in the United States, Glasglow in Scotland and Bilbao in Spain.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Loft Living : Commercial Gentrification Commercial gentrification constitutes to a range of processes that reflects the characteristics of gentrification. This form of gentrification is closely Collins Street, Melbourne.
related to the rise in the social class of housing estates induced by aesthetic-cultural themes. The landscape of Victoriana in inner Melbourne is one such example. Artistic pursuits are integrated into the lives of these affluent middle-class consumers through recreation, contributing to their status, venture and their individuality. Their quest for such a lifestyle are often translated into the interior dĂŠcor of their houses. Where walls are deliberately taken apart to make way for large kitchens and open lounge, distinguishable to passer-by. This also ensued the gentrifers in showcasing their affluence and prestige. Which eventually lead to the rise in property prices which resulted in the eviction of the artist who pioneered the movement. Likewise the fad that drives this form of gentrification also permutated (turn) into gimmicky fashion catering to consumers with higher spending power.
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Section Two | Gentrifer Types
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Loftliving Another representation of commercial gentrification “Loft Living” is also a phenomenon that started in New York desolated production deports - Soho (South of Houston) in the 1960s and 1970s. The influx of artist in these estates also attributed to the rebuild of Lower Mahanttan’s economy through the cultural impetus. Alternatively coined as the (AMP) Artistic Mode Of Production. Consumers (middle-class) are often drawn to the outlook of these lofts that identifies with an ancient period or an aesthetic approach to living. Gradually, Soho became largely dominated by wealthy urban professionals in contrast to pioneersartist who first set foot in this space.
Cromwell building stood on the corner of Elizabeth and Bourke Street, 1952.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Collins Street
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Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Soho! Whitney Independent Study Program Seminar with Donald Judd at his studio in 1974. Photo by Barbara Quinn, Courtesy Judd Foundation Archives
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Hello
The Colony Room, Dean Street, Soho.
Claes Oldenburg in his studio, 1965.
Claes Oldenburg in his studio, 1965.
Hello 21
Soho!
James Rosenquist in his studio, 1974.
Edmund V. Gillon, [Donald Judd House and Museum], 101 Spring Street,1974.
Soho!
on
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Second tier of: Commercial Gentrification The emergence of commercial establishments within the streets or vicinity of these cities are associated with terminology such as “boutiqueification” and “retail gentrification”. The retail fabric in these areas are averse to products that are mass-produced in the market. This form of preference can also be seen in the suburbs of Sydney where Bridge and Dowling (2001) debated that the consumer’s preference towards individualized diners in comparison to mass consumption eateries such asfood halls is associated to gentrification.
Boutiqueification 22
Retail Gentrification
Deli Groceries abound every few blocks in many New York Ci Bay, Brooklyn is among the most well known.
Brooklyn Street Scene, 1960s.
Retail Gentrification
Brooklyn, 1956.
Boutiqueificati 23
Boutiqueification
ity neighborhoods. Jimmy's Famous Heros, in Sheepshead
Retail Gentrification
Boutiqueification Sutter Avenue, East New York, Brooklyn, 1950
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Berwick Street Market, Soho 1950s.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Provincial Gentrification The term provincial gentrification was first coined when London came under the scrutiny of the New Labour’s urban renaissance agenda. This phenomenon to the breeding of gentrification in these provincinal cities in London. Gradually the term evolved into “State-led Gentrification” and “Municipally-Managed Gentrification”. State-led gentrification is also evident in Barnsbury & Park Slope in the first-wave of gentrification where the government funded and pushed for the rebuilding of the residential estates through - “Home Improvement
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grants in Barnsbury” and the “State-funds in Park Slope” aggressively, resulting in a boost of gentrification.
Also known as: State-led Gentrification Municipally-Managed Gentrification
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Section Two | Gentrifer Types
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1974, Looking west down Old Fulton Street to the Long Island Safe Deposit Company building and Bankside Boon Dock bar and restaurant
Super-Gentrification or “Financification” Super-Gentrification began when the catalyst of gentrification is predominated by business sectors in London. Butler and Lees (2006) also mentioned that the impetus of this movement could be attributed to steady effects of the second-wave of gentrification in 1980s. Cities such as Brooklyn and New York City also experienced this form of gentrification that is coined under the term “Financification”. The title “super” also implies the stresses towards these already gentrified cities that are commonly associated with the influx of affluent enterprises. Which led to a boost in the economy in these places in comparison the other waves of gentrification. Besides, this form of gentrification is also contrary to stage-models of gentrification as it ultimately reaches a steady and continuous point where “Mature Gentrification” happens. Cities that are capable to abode universal financial headquarters are more susceptible to this movement. Some examples of this cities are: the City Of London – the “Golden square mile” – Or Wall Street – or in cities such as San Francisco.
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Third-wave Gentrification The Third wave of Gentrification identifiable through the collaboration between the government and private sector to aid gentrification. It was also the period when recession came to a halt in the 1990s. The government was also receptive in furthering this wave. AntiGentrification also deprecated during this 30
period. Suburbs will also be expecting the effects of gentrified neighbourhood. Barnsbury and Super-gentrification are some examples.
Section Two | Gentrifer Types
Marginal Gentrification Marginal gentrification is introduced by Rose (1984), that addresses the educated that are not holding a stable job Chomeur(euse) instruit(e) – educated unemployed male/ female. This gentrifers often prefer living in the heart of the city. They also prefer to not conform to the typical modern urban planning. Also they are commonly associated with the persona as “Hipppie�. This pioneer gentifers consists of women, students, artists, young couples and single-parent families.
New-build Gentrification This form of gentrification is deemed as a form of urban living. However, it causes displacement affecting the social and cultural aspect of the precinct. Even though existing residents are not displaced, the demographic of the estate undergoes a change due to the influx of the middle-classes.
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Timeline of Gentrification
Stage models of gentrification First-Wave [1968 - 1973]:
Transition Gentrification Slows:
Gentrification is dispersed into the suburbs of U.S North east and Western Europe. Transition | Gentrifers buy property [1973 - 1976] In the 1980s, gentrification began when developers
problems in these gentrified neighbourhood leading a handful speculate that the gentrification is retracting in these estates.
and investors from New York and other suburbs
Third-Wave [1993 - 2001]
started to acquire these neighbourhoods with
Gentrification Returns:
deprecating property values.
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The economy downturn resulted in cash flow
Second-Wave [1976 - 1988] The anchoring of gentrification: During the Second-Wave, gentrification begin to
The speculation of gentrification retracting was denounced as there are still neighbourhoods that are undergoing gentrification. The government was also supportive of developers revamping the neighbourhoods. Gentrification is also said to be
dwell within smaller suburbs. The habitation of the
linked to large scale capital.developers revamping the
arts scene in New York City also induced residential
neighbourhoods. Which led to the linkage of large-
gentrification in neighbourhoods such as SoHo,
scale capital.
Tribeca, and the Lower East Side. Poorer residents also started to move out, which led to a heightened political contest.
Fourth-Wave of Gentrification Tight integration of local gentrification with national and global capital markets. Gentrification also seemed to have evolved into a positive light in this wave, which led federals to advocate this movement.
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