MODERN propaganda TOOLS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS in CONTEMPORARY populism
Major Project Merve Edis (Bachelor of Arts) Fashion Marketing & Communication Level 6, 2019-2020 6FAMK001C Major Project CWK1 Teacher: José Guerrero Word count: 9232
Acknowledgements
I, Merve Edis, confirm that this is an original and unique piece of dissertation and that no parts of it has been written by anyone else but the author; I approve this paper has been appropriately referenced using all Harvard Referencing system); all sources and citations provided; No section of this dissertation has been plagiarized; Nor this work has not been submitted for any other assessment or institution priorly. I would like to acknowledge and thank Jose Guerrero, my main tutor throughout the major project, and Anna Rowe, my specialised tutor, for their endless support and motivation; for helping me write a paper I am proud to present; which I could not have done without their support. I would like to thank my parents and my brother for believing in me and my goals all through my life; and teaching me as the three amazing role models that they are; and shaping me into the person I am today. This paper was only made possible through their endless love and support. I would like to also acknowledge Anahita Yahyaei; for being the best collegue and study partner I could have asked for throughout my whole adventure in Barcelona. I am forever grateful to have your presence and friendship. I would finally like to acknowledge Emili Resa Gimenez for always supporting and believing in me when sometimes I did not; and for always motivating me to believe in myself.
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Abstract
1
Key Findings
1
Motivation
2
Methodology
3
Introduction
4
Literature Review
5
Data Results
13
Discussion & Conclusion
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Bibliography
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Annex
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Abstract
The aim in this paper is to examine and analyse populist propaganda and its core implications; while giving a perspective on different executions of the core ideologies utilised by different belief systems. Through a study of sociological, psychological and business fields; this paper will analyse and identify different tools that further support and strengthen populist propaganda with common demeanours in between core ideologies; and associations to such tools being used in contemporary and historical contexts; with the key finding being the utilisation of digital tools. The research has concluded that the utilisation of such tools in contemporary era does not always follow a given pattern; and the ideology under populism is usually supported and used by already-existing cultural norms and fears in given societies. Public reaction to such manipulation techniques and tools are examined in psychological aspects. The research is then further supported by factual data on given theories and ideas and for additional understanding, case studies are utilised; and original models are produced by the author to further shed light into the area of topic.
Key Findings
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• •
While previously the term ‘populism’ was coined to benefit majorities via given solutions to existing problems; today populism is used mainly to attract the majorities with extremist propaganda and manipulation of media. Social media, while created to give a voice to masses, is easily manipulated to be run by third-parties (bots, bought followers) to push political agenda. While populism has core ideologies; the execution of these ideologies tend to vary greatly.
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Motivation
Since the rise of populist ideologies in the 19th century (Muddle 2016); no era existed that populism was as wide spread as today globally. Right-wing authoritarian populism from Turkey to the United States; the world is witnessing a dramatic lean towards the direction of such leaders (Nadesan et al 2017 pp43-60). Implications of such movements are not only accompanied today by extremism; but it carries other implications and propaganda tools that ensures its success that has been widely understudied (Nadesan et al 2017 pp43-60). The motivation of this paper is to further analyse and add information to this understudied field to shed light into how cultural and psychological tools are being used to undermine oppositions under core populist ideologies. The dissertation aims to add further exchange to the area of populism under different tools from branding to advertising; as well as shaping public opinion in benefit of furthering propaganda. This paper will also work to uncover implications of populism as well as public outlook on current populist tools used by popular leaders.
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Methodology
Throughout the research of this dissertation; the data used mainly has been quantitative such as surveys taken from Statista and Ipsos (2020). Surveys have been selected carefully to represent the target group examined throughout the thesis. Surveys analysed from Ipsos (2019) have been done in a a target group of 19,541 people ages ranging from 18 to 74; from 27 countries. The survey has been interpreted throughout the literature review from its key findings; and has been further shown in annex. Surveys analysed from Statista (2020) entitled 803 corresponders; based in the United States with ages 18+. Both datas are presented in the Annex from Figures A to M. Per primary data creation; models and charts have been made from sources researched mainly in journal articles and research institutions such as Statista, McKinsey and Ipsos. This paper also includes original data models created by the author throughout. Throughout the research, the analysed information has been selected due to its relatability to the given field; as well as in order to explain previous techniques and charts used in earlier psychological or sociological studies. Main restriction in research throughout this research has been due to the lack of information in regards to social response and attitude change in result of political propaganda; however appropriate research models have been applied in places for compensation.
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Introduction Cas Muddle (2016) has made a point to describe the framework in which the ideology of populism is built has divided the society into two separate groups, “the pure people” and “the corrupt elite”. Propaganda in populism generally tends to be directed at majority crowds who do not feel represented by the established system, and identifying a good and evil in the given socio-political environment. Populist propaganda commonly tends to be used to influence voters’ decision making processes. The birth of the populist movement in the United States began in late 19th century; positioning itself in support of the agrarian workers, Figure 1 - Texas Farmer’s Alliance Flag , University of Texas 2020
elite ranged from bankers to the government officials (Khan Academy 2020). The populists built the Farmer’s Alliance, and instantly began a campaign to associate itself with “the people” against the corruption and the rapaciousness of the elites. The group instantly made it so through careful (conscious or unconscious) branding; associating its beliefs with wisdom and justice; that if one was not in support of it, they would automatically be “against the people”; perhaps giving birth to a new almost-religion like belief system of the ‘good’ and the ‘bad’. Populism remains as a ‘side’ ideology to specific political
Figure 2 - Texas Farmer’s Alliance Article , University of Texas 2020
defending the workers against the ‘elite’ of the time, and this
leanings one might have, as populism in itself does not carry any alternatives to governing, nor any other change-making
This paper will focus on contemporary tools that contribute
implications. Within itself, populism remains as a constant
to contemporary populist leaders and their propaganda;
battle between “we, the people”; implying and building on top
while identifying cultural phenomenas that occur as a direct
of an existing hierarchy within a society, and the others of
result of such attempts. It will later help identify similarities
“corrupt actions” decided in the eyes of the people. It often is
between branding and marketing tools that in response used
associated with the terms ‘nationalism, anti-immigration,
to shape the minds of masses; and how the language of
unity.’
populism is the key factor in doing so (Hunston 2017).
Populism can be identified as a reaction to a chain of events,
The dissertation will build on existing research of experts in
and different ideologies being born under the wing of
their fields such as Cas Muddle (2016); however sociological
populism. Manuela Caiani and Paolo Graziano (2019) argue
and psychological aspects of populist propaganda has not
that in most situations the birth (or rebirth) of a populist
been widely researched previously; and this paper aims to
movement can be predicted and identified within the
shed a light on direct correlations between populist
struggles faced inside a nation; the main driver being an
propaganda and why/how it succeeds. Main objective of this
economic crisis; albeit not the sole cause nor the singular
paper is to further develop the understanding between
driver. It is clear that populism tends to give birth to several
political propaganda promoted to unify masses and how it
other ideologies; main ones being nationalism, protectionism,
causes a reaction, whether it be conflict or further success
control over media to promote beneficial ideals to the public,
through quantitative data such as surveys and polls done by
and finally extremism (Ray Dalio et al. 2017).
reliable consulting firms such as Statista (2020) as well as the interpretation of public opinion and reaction.
While nationalism is not a general theme between left and right-wing populist politics; Jordan Kyle and Limor Gultchin (2017) point out 74 out of 102 populist parties in Europe also are nationalists; hence it is clear that nationalism remains as a popular trend.
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Literature Review MINI INDEX
MINI INDEX I.
Language of Populism I.I Importance of Branding Touch-points in Populist Propaganda I.III Identification via Political Spectrum I.IV Brand Promise: The Message to’ Unify’ Masses
II.
Branding in Action in Support of Populist Propaganda II. I Celebrity Endorsement II.II Digital Language in PropaganDA Istituto Europeo di Design / Westminster University
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I. Language of Populism This paper will now depict and analyse the popular language
social media age, commonly resulting in ‘highlights’ and
used between populist leaders to influence and appeal to the
popular hashtags on social media channels; grabbing the
masses.
attention of all.
“We, the people” movement has since evolved and adapted to
Anthony Downs (1957 p207) believes in 3 objectives in the
contemporary social issues surrounding each nation;
voters’ decision-making processes. In the contemporary
however a key phenomenon that remains is the battle
world, a sensible and logical decision-maker more than
populists believe they are fighting against the ‘evil’, making
usually only obtains a certain amount of knowledge without
themselves beau ideals of society and fighters of good.
diving deep into a topic, and almost always the reports of
A common need in populism is the requirement of a strong,
news and facts are biased in accordance the beliefs of the
charismatic leader who can convince the masses. Ernesto
representative party, and the select information they choose
Laclau (1977 p143-70) argues the ability of populist leaders’
to share; however in an ideal world; a rational citizen is aware
generally have to organise and unify people with similar
of the second point and chooses to inform oneself via a
ideologies and beliefs; generally feeling unrepresented and
variety of different sources. However, the willful ignorance
devalued by institutions and governments; while Ray Dalio
proven by the masses is explained as that the benefits of
(et al. 2017) argues that populism could give birth to even
putting in the effort to keep updated outweigh the benefits
further divisions and disagreements between pro-anti
of not doing so – hence why masses choose to lean towards
groups and between countries; resulting in more
only one-sided propaganda (Downs 1957 p209-220). The
disagreeable relations further along. This synergy generally
usual voter tends to get its information via the free-
would tend to result in some degree of public disarray;
information provided to them by running governments; such
strikes, demonstrations; which ultimately ends in a degree of
as recent actions of these parties, future propositions of
media ban and propaganda; combined with the general trend
these parties/persons, via publishing on national news
of economic issues and general divisions created inside the
media; hence remains biased by the information usually
nation.
favouring the selected party and its peoples (Downs 1957 p222). Gustave Le Bon first came up with behavioural
In 2017, during the presidential election campaigns in France,
contagion in 1895; identifying a social pattern that people
Marine Le Pen, running against Emmanuel Macron, has used
generally tend to follow those who they share certain
the growing phenomena of immigration as well as the fear
aspects; such as sharing a social status, encouraging attitude
towards Islamists nations to propose an end to immigration
and conflict-resolving ideologies. Populist propaganda
(Hines 2017). La Pen has made an effort to make it common
generally revolves around fixing and solving problems that
knowledge that Islam and freedom could not exist under the
populists believe rise from the ‘elites’ of the society, and
same umbrella, assuring to the people that the only way
generally tend to offer the solution in themselves and how
towards freedom was through eliminating the threat and
they can beat the threat.
protecting “we, the people”, the majority.
In Marxist ideology, cultural hegemony can result in the ruling
Populist leaders are generally of those who make extreme
government conditioning new ideologies over the society,
statements, speaking non-politically but bolder and directed
ideologies and cultural norms that are opposite to dominant
generally towards an enemy. (Passari 2020) A similar
ideology, in which presents the beliefs that are considered
statement previously was that the word association
universally dominant. Karl Marx theorised of two types of
President Trump has made about ”Building a wall between
cultural hegemony by the end of the 19th century; intentional
the United States and Mexico” to be ‘beautiful’ (Hunston
ideology and spontaneous ideology (Bratton 2016 p40-56).
2017), while during the disagreements between North Korea and the United States, President Trump has also threatened North Korea with “fire and fury” (Economist 2018); once
Intentional ideology was fashioned to appeal to upper to
again using the language argued by Hunston (2017) that will
middle classes who tend to have control over mass
be understood by a majority and will appeal to a majority;
communication channels; characterising and filtering through
with specs of populist propaganda in between. Thomas
the public understanding of events. The chosen publication
Graven argues this method of communication is rather
owners and/or mass media personalities are then influenced
intentional; as populists tend to use a language that is
to sway the public opinion and the selective truth from
breaching alleged taboos; creating ‘drama’ for media
viewers; aiding only for the profit of the rulers.
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Anthony Downs (1957 p207) has contributed indirectly to this ideology; with his theory of the information-seeking public having to pay a ‘cost’ and ‘effort’ to achieve the ultimate truth; many choose not to do it. Therefore intentional ideology is significant for those in power aiming to manipulate the public truth; as the working class has no
The use of social media has significantly changed the way the public tends to get its information; creating a more direct line of communication in the eyes of the masses; which proves a fact of implications of branding for populist figures. I.II Importance of Branding Touch-points in Populist Propaganda
choice but to believe the free information provided to them. Another interesting upcoming trend that resulted from this has been that in recent years instead of these corporations selling news and facts; corporations began selling their credibility and audience to persons to gain public support
The paper will now focus on commonalities between branding and populist propaganda via carefully selected touchpoints; and will provide answers to whether or not branding tools are vital for the spread of populist propaganda.
share (Chomsky 2002). Newspapers such as The New York Times; known for credibility is now able to sell its clientele to certain outlets; promoting an agenda to the ‘political class’ which Chomsky argues to be the decision-makers of society. The public tends to believe in the information received from a source that is most reliable in the public eye; and identifying
“..country branding occurs when the public speaks to the public, when a substantial proportion of the population of the country – not just civil servants and paid figureheads – gain behind the strategy and lives it out in their everyday dealings with the outside world.” (Anholt 2011 pp7-12).
the news reported in the way that was presented; positive or negative, depending on the author. In an opposite spectrum, Cas Muddle (2016 p143-46) considers that populists tend to gain power through closing media channels to turn the media scenery towards the direction they achieve to have. This objective fits rather well with examples of past actions of populist leaders in their prime; as such Marx believed that spontaneous ideology resulted in everyday actions of one; daily routines and events that shape the mind to help make it form ideas and belief systems. United States Census Bureau’s Statistical Abstract (2007) found that on average the exposure to media channels in 2007 was 3.518 hours per year per individual; almost 5 months per each person. Which can be argued that with the help of intentional ideology and populist belief systems of majorities tends to be easier to influence the people; also taking into account behavioural contagion influence system previously explored by Gustave Le Bon (1895) to identify the influences by media channels and the amount of time spent; leaders are now capable of influencing public more than their 20th-century counterparts. “The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is a central feature of a democratic system” - (Chomsky, 2002) While the language of populist leaders has always distinguished itself from its opposition; their use of media also tends to prove different from others. While the effects of traditional media channels have been considered and analysed; non-traditional media channels (social media) must also be taken into account.
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Nation branding is generated for a country to represents its ideals and policies to an international audience; typically representing a nation under a belief and ideology umbrella; and tends to showcase a unified mass (Jordan 2014 pp282-303). As below quote explains; country branding shares many similarities with populist ideology; and examining further evidence; branding and marketing efforts can be observed in such leaders (Hunston 2017). It is important to note that studying nation branding through the theories of consumer behaviour could be vital in analysing the dynamics of public outlook (Omura et al. 1985 pp94-96). 4 stages of branding strategy has been identified by Creative Revolution (2017) and will be further explored to identify similarities within political propaganda and strategy below. I.I Brand Architecture Model on Building Propaganda Creative Revolution (2017) has identified 3 types of brand architecture that tends to show itself; corporate, product and endorsed brands. This stage is highly beneficial while identifying the type of branding that populist ideologies fit into. Corporate brand implies the brand selling its reputation rather than being product-focused; and tends to deal with creating an emotional connection via different strategies. Corporate branding tends to provide benefits to those who have invested emotional or financial value into it, and has a severe influence on corporate identity (Fetscherin et al. 2012). Comparing the implications of corporate branding and its channels; one could conclude that while other political outlooks and theologies could fit into other sorts of segments; populist ideology tends to reveal itself under corporate branding strategy; a face for a political ideology
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Figure 4 - Mitchell’s Eight Ways (2007) Wikipedia
and dampening opposition effects by hindering emotional connections via touchpoints; such as creating open communication lines via social media and promoting via endorsements. I.III Identification via Political Spectrum The brand positioning statement is relatively close to vision and missions of a company; expressed via a singular sentence; “Just do it” by Nike; or “Make America Great Again” by Donald Trump (Creative Revolution 2017). Brand positioning statement tends to declare its mission and the benefit that is offered simply for customers to understand.
Figure 5 - Mitchell’s Eight Political Americans (2007) Wikipedia
Expanding this towards brand positioning; brand positioning relies on identifying the correct target audience and ‘product’ or ‘ideology’ demand. Brand positioning is not new news in politics; identification of left and right wings have been around since right after the French Revolution (Heywood 2017 pp 14-17) (Knapp et al. 2006). Ruth Breeze (2018 pp89-104), however, explains that as such positioning used by is done because populist leaders aim to position the masses through their pre-existing resentment while boosting nationalist propaganda; hence resulting in a conflict between the ‘victims’ (the masses, majorities) and the enemy created; whether it be ideologies (anti-immigration etc) or
Positioning in business theory and political theory could be
the elites, which is the ‘evil’ bystander towards what the
known to serve an akin purpose; identifying brand ideologies
masses are suffering through.
and strengths to reflect and find one’s place in the given environment; hence working towards unifying ideologies as a
Hans Eysenck (1956 pp11-54) on the other hand began his
fact after identification. It could also be argued that
investigation concerning a clearer identification diagram of a
positioning would be beneficial to identify competitors and
political leanings spectrum; thus came up with the
create benchmarking; hence competing better in the given
beginnings of nowadays known as political compass; while
landscape. Political compass currently operates digitally on a
other researchers have contributed to this finding in later
free platform with a comprehensive test to identify social
years. Brian Patrick Mitchell (2007) has also identified two
and economic leanings of one (Political Compass 2020). The
different diagrams to showcase his findings in related fields;
diagram then identifies the ideologies and positions one on
further adding to the theory of Hans Eysenck that political
the axis to showcase with similar political leaders.
leanings could be identified and categorised into appropriate segments.
However; it could be arguable if such actions would result in conformity amongst masses. Coleman (2012 pp17-34) argues that political conformity could reveal itself to have a bigger impact on groups and masses; as a voters could choose to adapt into the belief system of political parties due to reasonings such as party identification, poll results and leaders’ behaviour.
Figure 2 - Beginnings of Political Compass (2007) Wikipedia
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I.IV Brand Promise: The Message to’ Unify’ Masses
have many similarities; such as celebrity endorsement and right usage of social media tools; providing a convincing case to unify masses that would support and provide further propaganda through earned media (word of mouth, recommendations and endorsements).
MUTUAL BENEFIT PROMISE
Brand personality, on the other hand, is the entirety of brand strategy in political landscapes; connecting the brand and ideologies to a singular persona/leader to create harmonic language on multichannel (creative revolution 2017). As such it contributes to the creation of further bonds between receiving parties; public and the leaders; as intended by leaders.
Communication tools shared between marketing and politics
MUTUAL BENEFIT PROMISE
Brand promise and personality are key identification factors in populist propaganda. As previous examples have shown; populist leaders are those who tend to identify majority ideologies and produce propaganda to sometimes ‘unify’ masses; although more than likely resulting in further inner conflict (Dalio et al. 2017). Brand promise could identify and guarantee both tangible and intangible benefits; in politics, this could be identified as “Making America Great Again’; furthering an intangible idea; while also promising to provide more jobs and income to the unfortunate; thus providing financial aid; upward mobility; a tangible benefit. Creative Revolution (2017) argues that a succeeding brand promise would entail a similar communication language directed towards the target market/voter; and tends to be relatable. Another similarity factor is now revealed that the architectural process of Donald Trump’s speech has benefited from such a strategy (Hunston 2017). The language used by Donald Trump was consistent with who he was aiming to appeal to, the lower class and the uneducated. Hunston (2017) believes that while not entirely presidential sounding, Donald Trump’s use of language has been carefully fashioned to fit with those who would ultimately vote for him, a majority, making it the perfect fit dialectal of populism. Donald Trump aims to not be seen as a politician, but one of the people, the one who will defend the people at the end of the day; because he is one of them. Although his social status, wealth and former career as a reality television host does not seem to get in the way, the people believe into Donald Trump’s charisma and the nonchalance of his language guarantees his voters will understand him, identify with him, and support him, and believe he is one of the people. (Hunston 2017).
False consciousness was first analysed and mentioned by Friedrich Engels in 1893; identifying the adaptation of ruling class’ ideologies in nations (Lukacs 1967 p34). Through cultural hegemony and false consciousness; the elite corrupt can result in building and establishing certain ideologies in societies that are falsely advertised to benefit the people in the end (Lukas 1967 p40-56), traditionally with the promise of upward mobility (Marshall 1984 p426-43). Upward mobility is generally the aim of those who vote for populists; to gain more benefits from governments, minimise the control of the elites, be given opportunities that were not present before. Branding effects can then take a form of ‘convincing’ the masses via analysed touchpoints; furthering nation branding to serve the primal ideologies of populist leaders.
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II. Branding in Action in Support of Populist Propaganda II. I Celebrity Endorsement Kurzman (et al. 2007 pp347-67) marks the rise of the
litical figures is not unheard of; with examples ranging from
celebrity culture to be late 20th; with the rise of privileges
Oprah Winfrey supporting President Barack Obama’s
provided to those of elite status in societies, a new social
presidential campaign in 2008 (Mishra et al. 2014. 408-26)
class and status was being born; the celebrity society. While
to John Legend openly being against President Donald Trump
the rise of elites and a privilege system previously could have
(Higgings 2018 pp128-40).
been attributed to religious and social stratification born under it; today the new aristocratic rose from mass media.
II. II Digital Language in Propaganda
Celebrity influence over masses began with television; where celebrities were able to reach bigger crowds and bargain their
The effects of social media are undeniable in the 21st century;
influential statuses to affect the understanding of other
changing the landscape of how every part of the society has
people on various subjects (Street 2004 pp435-52). With the
operated from previously.
rise of social media; the growth of celebrity endorsement and
Twitter remains to be the most widely used social media
its mediums have expanded. Before exploring the term that
channel with users over 350 million (Ember et al. 2016).
previously was used only on film stars and singers;
Twitter is the most influential tool in social media in today’s
celebrities are now classified as “a person who’s
political scenery, as it has a system of following ‘highlights’
characteristics and/or lifestyle detaches them from
and ‘trending’ items that can then spread globally; providing
masses.” (Chang et al. 2019) With the rise of social media
an immense word of mouth effect in both good and bad
channels and a celebrity society being born, people from
news; nevertheless the most ‘dramatic’ news tend to spread
online influencers to activists could potentially be identified
faster; hence making it easier for creating sensational
as celebrities. Within business sense; customers tend to pay
fallacies by oppositions and leaders. A research done by the
more for a product endorsed by a credible celebrity whom
United States House of Representatives (2010) found that
they share common ideologies, ethics and life choices
politicians of extremist belief systems and radical views tend
(Balakrishan et al 2011 pp99-111). Concluding from a
to collect a higher count of followers; concluding that posts
business psychology aspect; the credibility of the celebrity
of such nature tend to spread faster (Sounman et al. 2016).
and the support the political personas will obtain correlate directly (Mishra et al. 2014 pp 409-25); while another theory
Twitter remains to be a useful tool to track public reaction
follows the possibility younger generations are more likely to
due to its momentary and trend-based functionality.
expect such endorsements from celebrities and politicians via
(Ausserhofer et al. 2013 p290-316).
social media (Loader et al. 2016 401-19). The new ‘fan’ culture has started a considerable change in the way young
Another way social media has changed politics is that now
people saw the roles of celebrities; many layers above the
digital channels such as Twitter allow the public to be active
‘entertainment’ factor; now the public expects celebrities to
in politics in other ways; such as liking or sharing tweets;
be role models; hence following them as such (Austin et al.
which ultimately creates earned media; and due to Twitter’s
2008 pp 420-435). Fans of celebrities now often consciously
popularity algorithm (Twitter 2020), the more engagement
or unconsciously tend to mimic the celebrity in ways of
the tweet receives the more likely it will be placed in the
beliefs, style, brand inclinations and occasionally ideologies
highlights; possibly reaching different audiences; as well as
(Sami 2006 pp68-88) (Edson et al. 2005 pp377-89).
showcasing public approval (Van Poel et al. 2014). A fact to remember is that generally these small participations in
Now even following (social media term for subscribing) a
digital channels can lead to bigger demonstrations of support
celebrity or engaging with their posts could be identified as
from unified people on discussion platforms (Cunningham
endorsement, and same applies to politics. Recent years
2018 p62). Social media provides an environment where like-
have seen the highest number of political leaders becoming
minded people can unite, creating a community as it would
increasingly active on social media channels; gathering and
be in consumer brands. However; a disrupting factor into this
interacting with people and gaining traction and highlights
process is the existence of ‘bots’ rising in the recent years.
through their efforts. Celebrity endorsement in both positive
The existence of ‘bots’; accounts that are run by computer
and negative forms amongst
programs that are originally meant for accurate news
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distribution; now dominate Twitter with one-sided
This action does not necessarily need to be violent or
propaganda (Ashton 2013). These bots could be purchased to
extreme, but a 2016 study found that if an individual feels
increase the ‘retweets’ or ‘likes’; creating fake engagement
supported on an issue they have communicated online; it is
rates; may then result in ideologies that are paid to most to
more likely for them to speak out about the issue in their
be highlighted; creating a false consensus effect.
workplace (Hampton et al. 2017pp1090-1104); which could
A finding reveals that throughout the revolutionary change
be argued that is a way for like-minded to unify; feeding into
social media presented, now whether or not action of
populist ideologies. A result of this domino could be a false
political nature will be favourable by the public almost
social perception and social comparison theory; individuals
certainly depends on the reaction received on social media
manufacturing and adapting their thoughts and beliefs based
channels (Cunningham 2018 p65). In a world today where
on surrounding people; and along may also begin developing
selective exposure is forced upon masses due to the
further social influences. (Bauman 2002 pp293-95). In
strategies of populist leaders and their propaganda, and in an
summary; while actions as such may seem to be aimed at
age where trust in news stations is at its lowest point (Swift
specific results; such as higher voter share when done in
2016); social media strategy seems to be the most efficient
politics in such long periods may also result in further conflict
in delivering news and propaganda material to masses. Jamie
amongst masses and an aimed result by populist leaders to
Bartlett (et al. 2011) has also theorised that social media
develop naïve realism amongst masses. The issue has grown
could feasibly work as a ‘recruiting’ network for populists
significantly enough that in 2016; leaders of their respective
towards those who feel disenfranchised; allowing masses
countries of the European Union have discussed the effects
who would not otherwise engage with each other to form
of the filter bubble in Brussels (Albeanu 2016).
relationships and unify under belief systems; hence benefiting the populist leaders who aim to do such. Social
“retreat into our own bubbles, …especially our social media feeds,
media seems to have allowed the masses who were
surrounded by people who look like us and share the same
considered to be previously as the ‘audience’ gain the status
political outlook and never challenge our assumptions… And
of ‘content creator’; which resulted in the audience and
increasingly we become so secure in our bubbles that we start
performer to be distinct from each other without a
accepting only information, whether it’s true or not, that fits our
difference; and the rise of opinion leaders.
opinions, instead of basing our opinions on the evidence that is out there.”
-
However; while such branding techniques are used on
President Barack Obama (2017)
masses; the architecture of social media algorithms tend to rise to new issues. Barbera (2015 pp1531-42) argues that a
Although a disagreeing theory presented by Joshua West (et
new rise in the term ‘echo chamber’ has now stretched to
al. 2017) argues the eligibility of the filter bubble; arguing the
digital media; resulting in a tunnel vision and false consensus
statement through a research that showcases per every 3
effect; together with another similar effect, “filter bubble”.
like-minded friends an individual has on Facebook; they tend to have 1 non-like-minded friend; resulting in a naturally built
Filter bubble is resulted on several social media channels
news feed for similar belief people; arguing that political
designing their algorithms to showcase content similar to
polarisation is not the fault of social media algorithms, but
what is being shared/liked/interacted by one (Hosanagar
the pre-existing ideologies (Oremus 2017). Although an
2017); while echo chamber is one that individuals can
argument that could be made is that; if humans that share
frequent to further amplify their beliefs. As such; if a person
ideologies naturally tend to connect; the 20% of the opposing
supports a certain political person or a brand; echo chamber
ideologies that are present are made via acquaintances
would then result in the person constantly being exposed to
whom individuals would not normally tend to share such
similar content, and would eventually result in individuals
discussions with; creating an opportunity to challenge their
mainly interacting with like-minded people; creating a false
beliefs (Kamin 2017).
illusion of false consensus effect. False consensus effect can be described as an individual seeing their own choices and
While the example could be made in the case of Facebook;
moralities as a common belief in societies (House et al. 1977
such beliefs are not supported for social media channels such
pp279-300). As such; individuals with ideologies that may
as Twitter; where the main highlight of the website is to
not carry majority support may then believe that their
highlight most-talked topics geographically and present
philosophies are those of majorities; and result in a non-
(Twitter 2020).
digital action to be taken.
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While individuals could free themselves from such a filter bubble and echo chamber effects; it requires one to visit multiple view-based websites and share posts with a variety in ideologies (left-right etc). In the recent years via the rise of such trends; several digital tools (plug-ins) have been launched; generally tend to aim to ‘fact check’ news; and another being the ‘Escape Your Bubble’, where users can still receive individual-based news from their respective political parties; the news received is promised to be fully transparent and factual (Chrome Extensions 2020). The use of such tools requires an effort in respect to individuals; hence may not always prove successful due to the effort-reward theory
America receiving their news from digital channels that foster fake news almost undetectably does not make the case any better (Alcott et al 2017 pp211-35). While identifying fake news and its means; one must consider the benefits coming out of such trend. While the main aim of ‘bots’ distributing fake news on social media could be attributed into two benefits; 1) Calumniating the opposition for publicity damage and 2) Pushing for certain political agendas for support. However; a factor that has not been widely explored remains to be ‘Why news stations began creating fake news?’’ As previously explored; the spread of scandalous news tends to be much faster than
(Downs 1957 p207-p32).
factual news; hence it could be argued that nowadays news
Such trends resulted in a distrust in traditional media outlets in the past 5 years; the intentions of media outlets and the rise in ‘fake news’ has resulted in a distrust by the masses (Ipsos 2019). See Annex A/I. While geolocation of the research tends to vary from one another; focusing on populist countries; trust in newspapers and magazines are at an alltime low; with television and radio following it directly (Ipsos 2020). Norman Vasu (et al. 2018 pp1-14) explores the role of cognitive responses to fake news; identifying the weaknesses in the memories of humans. Vasu (et al. 2018 pp14) argues that the fallibility of human memory systems; stating that humans tend to remember information
stations are using similar tactics to drive more traffic into their websites; creating a tangible benefit of financial gain. As such; the integrity of newspapers and news stations have come under a strong scrutiny that it triggered legislative interferences by governments (CNA 2017). In a global survey done in 2019 by Ipsos; one of the key findings support the distrust that has grown towards news stations; with over 52% of the participants agreeing that the prevalence of fake news in newspapers and magazines, as well as television and radio. However; while previous figures have concluded that a high majority of people tend to get their news from social media channels; the survey done by Ipsos (2019) proves that a strong majority of the participants agree that online news
regardless of the factuality of it; therefore it could be
websites and social media platforms tend to provide the
concluded that due to the information bombardment functioned via bots and the spread of ‘dramatic’ news being faster than factual information (Silverman 2016) could lead for the brain to an easy manipulation; hence the use of these channels could be identified as crucial to populist leaders aiming to spread propaganda.
highest amount of fake news. For further analysis Annex figures A to I can be observed. George Gerbner has identified a new theory of cultivation in 1981 (Turov 2006) with the rise of commercialisation of televisions in households globally (Stephens 2020). In this
Fake news; however; is not a new phenomenon; although it has seen a constant rise due to the recent political landscapes; the origins of fake news could be traced back to 18th century New York (Schudson 2019). In 1775; a revolutionary group identified as Sons of Liberty that was gaining traction due to new taxation laws put in place
theory Gerbner argued that the degree of exposure to television and its contents could potentially result in an individual’s identity being reshaped to fit into the content (Turner et al. 2010). It is no surprise that in a time where televisions became the new channel for news distribution such phenomenon occurred; and now with the rise of other social channels the same theory could be argued for its
directed at colonists by Britain; and today this group is perhaps referred to as the ones that sparked the American Revolutionary War (Miller 1944 pp494-95). Sons of Liberty took action against a journalist working for the New York Gazette; James Rivington, after news of him melting plates to make bullets to fight against the colonists (Shudson 2019). Later proven false; the fact of these fake news had driven the Sons of Liberty into violence; perhaps marking one of the earlier cases of spread of fake news and its effects. Fake news today is on a particular rise from a decade ago; and the
effects on digital outlets and expectedly create the same response towards social media manipulation highly regarded by populist leaders. While the use of such tools and channels are highly regarded by populist leaders; the execution of such tools tends to differ from one another. This is the result of Leaders’ adding their own ideologies over core ideologies that come with populism.
simple data fact that over 62% of the population in
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DATA RESULTS
MINI INDEX
I.
Populism Core Model Analysis
II.
Comparison of President Trump and President Erdogan
III.
Donald TRUMP: Creation of a Brand
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Populism Core Model Analysis
Figure 6 - Populism Core Model Reanalysed
This paper will now look at common patterns of populist
which Ataturk directly translates to ‘Main Turk’ or more
propaganda and different utilisation of core ideologies via
popularly ‘Father of the Turks’; the discrimination towards
below model; firstly by exploring a 16-Year Running
those who did not share the Kemalist ideology were forced to
President of Turkey; Recep Tayyip Erdogan; and more
fit into the then-accepted ‘good’.
contemporary techniques used by President of the United
The rise of AKP (Justice and Development Party founded by
States; Donald Trump.
Recep Tayyip Erdogan) were then fully able to leverage being
Above data model has been prepared via data analysis of the
oppressed for generations by the ‘elites’ to rise to power
below case studies; and through analysation of different
democratically (Matusiak 2015). Not being a religious state
occasions and examples given in the annex A to I.
while sharing borders with many in Middle East; and not sharing or being accepted into Western world also helped
President Recep Tayyip Erdogan
shape the minds of the Turks; further expanding the realism of the ‘outside’ threat.
As per analysing President Recep Tayyip Erdogan; his response to conflict within the country will be explored; while analysing the social response of Turks regarding populism. An example in right-wing extremist populist leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the President of Turkey; providing censorship in media to keep the people uninformed of facts, and while people follow this route suggested by Anthony Downs to remain wilfully ignorant, these techniques work. Turkey is not new to populist ideology; although previously not explored fully under the title. Turkish political documents show that distrust and fear towards the ‘outside’ has always been the country’s one of core identities; which resulted in nationalist propaganda. Even in the times of the founder of Turkey;
TURKISH NATIONAL ANTHEM FURTHER SUPPORTING FEAR TOWARDS OUTSIDE OF NATION (TurkishGovernment 2020).
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk; Istituto Europeo di Design / Westminster University
Fear not, the crimson flag, waving in these dawns will never fade Before the last hearth that is burning in my nation vanishes. That is my nation's star, it will shine; That is mine, it belongs solely to my nation. Oh coy crescent do not frown for I am ready to sacrifice myself for you! Please smile upon my heroic nation, why that anger, why that rage? If you frown, our blood shed for you will not be worthy. Freedom is the right of my nation who worships God and seeks what is right.
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In 2015, just before the general elections in Turkey, then-
This paper will now examine a different way of execution of
Prime Minister Erdogan has banned several social media and
given core ideologies discussed in literature review.
news outlets; such as YouTube and Twitter, and a year prior to President Donald Trump that, the same was done in the local elections to elect President Donald Trump began showing his populist Mayors (Kasapoglu 2015); establishing a pattern of ideologies before he had announced of his campaign for manipulation on uneducated and non-information seekers to presidential elections as The President had begun its remain uninformed and provide no channel for labelling of fake news even before he was elected into the communication for opposition. office, by forbidding certain media outlets from attending his This trend began in Turkey during 2013 Gezi Park revolts; rallies, labelling them as ‘liberal elites’ of the society; which started as a peaceful sitting protest to protect a park in furthering his populist propaganda.; however throughout his Istanbul that was going to be demolished to build a mall. The governing; his approach has gone into extremism even protests grew extensively and gained a dramatic traction
further. The explored topic of fake news has increased since
globally. The peaceful sitting protest soon turned violent
President Donald Trump’s inauguration.
between the people and the police when the police received orders to pepper-spray the area of the park where the peaceful sitting protests was taking place; in order to deter the people from the protest – however soon the simple
As per a survey done by Statista (2020) in 2017; 54% of people agreed that fake news in America to be a ‘significant problem’ while 23% agreed it to be a problem while only a minor one. Only 10% of the responses believe fake news to
reasoning has revealed the years of buried resentment towards the government from the left-wing; hence began the 3 month-long revolts and unease. President Erdogan
not be a problem in America; while 12% remained opinionless. Further data can be analysed in annex J to M.
chose to block all social media channels, the internet was
President Trump began promoting ‘fake news’ whenever the
even blocked for some time to prevent people from
objective was deterring from his beliefs; even if the objective
communicating with one another in threat of planning larger
was presented with appropriate sources and data to make it
revolts (Kasapoglu 2015).
a fact. An example is the day of President Trump’s inauguration day, the President multiple times claimed that
President Erdogan’s techniques of manipulation were
the crowd gathered outside was larger than any before – and
directed not at a national level in most cases of populist
although labelling the provided factual photographs in
leaders; but only towards those that supported his
comparison to President Obama’s inauguration in 2009; the
propaganda. The news stations were forbidden from showing the revolts, and the stance President Erdogan took was that ‘the elites’ and ‘the spoiled’ are revolting against the
White House press secretary Sean Spice has said he had presented ‘alternative facts’ (BBC 2017).
government and the good people of Turkey to cause chaos and distress; hence it was the blame of international sources. Labelling it “outside forces”, the President has chosen to distract the willing ignorants by scaring them with a threat from ‘the outside’ later on, and that ‘The people needed protection and unity.’ Later on, European Union has labelled the actions taken by the Turkish Government to be “disproportionate and excessive use of force by the Turkish police to break up peaceful and legitimate protests”, which benefited the populist propaganda of President Erdogan; and the
In the case of Donald Trump; the President has chosen to
President then further argued nationalism as a reason to
maximise the effects of social media. SparkToro (Fishkin
keep the media and the courts quiet. President Erdogan’s
2018) has developed a tool to identify ‘fake’ followers and
outlook and actions in social media proves one side possible
‘bot’ followers of any Twitter account. After examination of
outcome extremism could take under populism; however not
Donald Trump’s Twitter account; the tool identified that 61%
the only one.
of Donald Trump’s followers to be either fake or bots; which
As shown in the Figure 6; the use of different tools to appeal
is 11% higher than the second politician account that follows
to crowds while carrying the populism ideologies could result in ranking. in other directions. While populist leaders carry the same core ideologies; the way they tend to reach the end goal could differ. Istituto Europeo di Design / Westminster University
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Figure 7 - SparkToro Fake Followers Data 2017
President Donald Trump’s select in manipulating to maximise
Is this an impeachable offence?” to “Should the Vice
the effects of social media rather than banning it like his
President Gerald Ford pardon President Trump in the event of
counter-part is a different take on core ideologies of
an impeachment? (Gerald Ford was the 38th President of the
populism.
United States and served one term from 1973-1977; and has passed away in 2006). The reaction of the public displays
Through such techniques the President still manages to
evidence for a strong argument that traditional wisdom and
manipulate information while monopolising news networks;
wishful thinking fallacies being manipulated by populist
keeping his supporters uninformed; and informed of only one
propaganda is proving to keep the masses uneducated and
fact; that whatever the President did; it would be the correct
unaware. A correlation between voters of populism is that
decision.
they tend to be uneducated and left behind mass while globalisation took place (Spruyt et al. 2016).
“…From this day forward, a new vision will govern our land. From this moment on, it’s going to be America First. Every decision on trade, on taxes, on immigration, on foreign affairs, will be made to benefit American workers and American families. We must protect our borders from the ravages of other countries making our products, stealing our companies, and destroying our jobs. Protection will lead to great prosperity and strength. I will fight for you with every breath in my body – and I will never, ever let you down. America will start winning again, winning like never before.”
Below is an expert from the said interview.
-You heard the news that Trump was accused of breaking into the DMC’s office and stealing sensitive documents? Do you think that should be an impeachable offence? +
No.
-Why not? Donald Trump The Inaugural Address, (White House 2017)
Above is a part of Donald Trump’s inaugural address in 2017; addressing the American people.
+
I like Trump, I do not listen to the news. That is why.
Above extract from the given interview proves the manipulation of wilful ignorance by the President’s
The speech is aimed to highlight the beginning of a new era,
supporters. President Donald Trump’s election campaign and
under a new leader who will defend “his” people first. The
the presidential ruling has also followed the key teachings of
speech does not promise any concrete or tangible facts – but
populism – reacting to a nation’s fears through dividing them
builds on the belief that, from now on whatever the new
under different hierarchal statuses, and applying a common
President does, it is because it is the best for American
tone of voice and language to identify and associate between
people; promising an intangible benefit for voting him. This
different ideologies. “Making America Great Again” has been
trend resulted in interesting outcomes; such as acceptance of
a slogan that was and still is being used by Donald Trump,
wilful ignorance. In 2019, a street interview was conducted
implying that America is no longer ‘the best’ and he could be
on talk show host Jimmy Kimmel’s show and the show aimed
the hero to save it, with the support of the people. The
to present questions that were false about President Trump
common demeanour that repeats is the danger of
to get an understanding of the ideology of his voter group.
“outsiders” against a unified nation that remains to be the
The interview has presented the people with several
promise with populist leaders.
questions; examples are “What do you think of President Trump hiring men to steal classified documents from DMC? Is
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Case Study: DONALD TRUMP: Creation of a Political Brand The campaign was ruled via intensive research, data As previously argued; branding processes and touchpoints
modelling and performance maximising algorithms which
are highly used in populist leaders’ propaganda strategy. As
resulted in 10.000 different ads to be viewed billions of
so that; throughout the presidential campaign in 2016;
times. With the use of such branding and marketing
Donald Trump’s team used Cambridge Analytica; a British
elements and tools; President Trump was able to almost
political consulting firm; and the firm was then able to build a
monopolise the news media from the first day of his
27-page manual on how the campaign would move forward
campaign as shown below.
with key points (Lewis et al 2018).
Figure 8-9-10 - Election Brief - Guardian 2018
Cambridge Analytica later on shared details on the process; highlighting that one of the key parts and the initial efforts was acquiring data on social media services and channels; and filtering it through a digital marketing model as shown below.
Figure 11 - Screen-time Analysis of Election Candidates - Guardian 2017
Later on; based on the voter segmentation analysis; the team was able to masterfully apply to campaign strategies to two divergent voter types on different social media channels based on the feedback and re-create loop above. Voters who the team believed were shown ads based on an upcoming victory; while those who were swing voters were shown high-profile personas that support the campaign; celebrity endorsements (Lewis et al 2018). Moving forward; the team later on used Google ads to control and manipulate information impression; using key words people would use and adding ads to appear on top for first impression; as shown below (Lewis et al 2018).
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Social Reaction and Distrust Towards Media The rise of the recent populist ideologies has caused intense distrust amongst the people; and the rise of ‘fake news’ trends has grown significantly in the past 3 years.
Figure 12 - Internet Searches in the past 5 years including the keywords ‘fake news’ , Google Trends 2020
Below data shows the curiosity and interest over ‘fake news’
Figure 15 - Changing Formula of Populism in age of data manipulation , 2020
has grown significantly in the past 5 years; with the key date of rise being 13th of November 2016; 5 days after the general election of 2016 (UsGovernment 2020).
Above models have been created by the author to visualize the modern process of creating populist leaders and ideologies. Information that was utilised to create the chart has been present throughout the literature review.
Figure 13 - Internet Searches in the past 5 years including the keywords ‘how to spot fake news’ , Google Trends 2020
As analysed above; while the populist movements bases were on track to provide the most benefit and the most good for the majorities; throughout the years within the changing
Another interesting Google Trends Analytic is the rise in
media outlets and tools; the populist movement morphed to
searches for ‘How to spot fake news’; showing a sharp
a basic concept that leaders could take advantage of to gain
increase beginning from November 2016 (Google Trends
support.
2020).
Changing Formula of Populism
Figure 14 - Original Formula of Populism , 2020
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Discussion & Conclusion
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The dissertation has discussed the implications of using
is able to manufacture ideologies that are not fully
communication tools to further populist propaganda under
supported by factual data; and present it as correct due to
the umbrella of social sciences and relations between
the rise of social media channels. While the main aim of
furthering ideologies that could differ populist theory from
social media channels is to give a voice to everyone who
one another.
wishes to have it and provide an outlet for peer-to-peer
Populism, to this day, remains as an understudied political ideology that does not fit under the umbrella of traditional left/right wing beliefs; but rather tends to adapt and mutate into the already existing belief systems of respective leaders. Populism in its core promises unity amongst majorities that have been undervalued and oppressed by their governments
socialisation; 21st century saw a dramatic rise in the manipulation of these sites. While the use of digital channels allowed leaders to directly connect with voters; it gave result to unforeseen manipulation techniques. Use of bots that promote biased news and ideology as well as the power of being able to purchase and manipulate search engines without alerting the masses has caused cultural hegemony;
and/or its establishments that support the elite.
while the bots and algorithms allowed filter bubbles to form Populism does come with certain default ideologies that
around individuals.
although are not universally agreed on – a vast majority of While the idea behind populism is one that is generally based
populists are those that are extremists and well-
on 4 core ideologies of nationalism, unity, extremism and a
communicators.
fight against the elites, the use of such techniques has The rise of populism has seen a rise in popularity in the
allowed the theory of populism to be adapted into the minds
recent years; and the trend has evolved into a sophisticated act of manipulation of news medias, which in return causes willing ignorance amongst masses whether it be due to lack of unbiased information due to banning of certain outlets or due to Anthony Downs’ theory (1957 p207) of in
of majorities; allowing for a false perception in social comparison theory. While such tools are being utilised by leaders; populism still remains as a weak ideological ‘theory’ that does not hold its own – and can only succeed with buffering it via different executions of contemporary tools.
contemporary world due to the uneven ratio of effort in finding reliable news to its reward where masses do not believe in any political change being present or possible, masses choose to remain willingly ignorant; allowing the populist propaganda to build new ideologies according to the study done in cultural hegemony by Karl Marx in 19th century.
Authoritarian approach in populism allows for masses to be blacked-out in information fields – and creates high unease and further conflicts within nations; and creation of false enemies in support of populist propaganda allows for masses to stay fearful and obedient; due to an already existing resentment that allowed it to rise. However; a more
The modern populist propaganda vastly differs from its
contemporary approach studied in the dissertation allows for
creation; and now populist propaganda
modern tools to be used in manipulation which yields high rates of success.
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In the case of President Donald Trump; the President has chosen throughout his election campaign to manufacture an identity and marketing tools with the help of a political consultancy firm called Cambridge Analytica; utilising the social trend where misinformation that has dramatic value to be spread faster than factual news (Sounman et al. 2016) – perhaps the President for the first time created an -Election Brief- that allowed data to be analysed and content to be later produced to fit into targets such as in cases of brands with help of segmentations within target groups. The success was received when it was least expected as throughout the Presidential campaign in 2016; majority of news outlets and consulting firms predicted for a landslide win for Clinton – the careful fashioning of the campaign in support and help of populist propaganda allowed for a win on Trump’s side. The effects of social media propaganda on public opinion remains widely understudied that even expert corporations fail to predict accurately any result such tool could give birth.
The author suggests that in order to further analyse and understand the field of propaganda in digital age under populist leaders; area focused numeric data research must be conducted; followed by carefully selecting most viable participants to do focus groups with the help of a psychologist and a sociologist.
Wide a topic of immense discussion today; the precautions taken by masses lack effectivity; and such leaders of extremist natures as a result gain great success.
Figure 16-17-18 FiveThirty Forecast of 2016 Election Results Istituto Europeo di Design / Westminster University
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Bibliography Kurzman C, Anderson C, Key C, Lee Y, Moloney M, Silver A, Ryn M. (2007). Celebrity Status. Celebrity Status. 25 (4), 347-67. Lewis P, Hinder P. (2018). Leaked: Cambridge Analytica's blueprint for Trump victory. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/ uk-news/2018/mar/23/leaked-cambridge-analyticas-blueprint-for-trump-victory. Last accessed 4th Jan 2020. Loader, Brian D; Vromen, Ariadne; Xenos, Michael A (2016-04-01). "Performing for the young networked citizen? Celebrity politics, social networking and the political engagement of young people". Media, Culture & Society. 38 (3): 400–419. Lobkowicz N. (1964). Karl Marx's Attitude toward Religion. The Review of Politics. 26 (3), 319-352. Lukács, Georg (1967). History & Class Consciousness. London: Merlin Press. ISBN 978-0850361971. Manuela Caiani & Paolo Graziano (2019) Understanding varieties of populism in times of crises, West European Politics, 42:6, 1141-1158 Marshall I. Pomer (October 1984). "Upward Mobility of Low-Paid Workers: A Multivariate Model for Occupational Changers". Sociological Perspectives. 27(4): 427–442 Miller J. (1943). Origins of the American Revolution. The American Historical Review. 49 (3), 494–495. Min, J.H.J., Chang, H.J.J., Jai, T.C. et al. The effects of celebrity-brand congruence and publicity on consumer attitudes and buying behavior. Fash Text 6, 10 (2019) Mishra, Anubhav A.; Mishra, Abhinav (2014). "National vs. Local Celebrity Endorsement and Politics". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 27 (4): 409–425 Mudde, Cas (2004). ‘The Populist Zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, 39:4, 541-563. Mudde, Cas and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mueller, Jan-Werner (2016). What Is Populism? Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Omura G, Talarzyk W. Shaping public opinion: personal sources of information on a major political issue. Adv Consum Res 1985;10(1):494 – 6 Oremus, Will (April 5, 2017). "The Filter Bubble Revisited". Slate Magazine. Available: March 2,2020. Parry, Robert (2006-12-28). "The GOP's $3 Bn Propaganda Organ". The Baltimore Chronicle. Available: 2020-01-01. Passari E. (2020). The Great Recession and the Rise of Populism.Available: https://www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/ 2020/number/1/article/the-great-recession-and-the-rise-of-populism.html. Last accessed 10th Feb 2020. Paul Jordan “Nation Branding: A tool for Nationalism?” Journal Of Baltic Studies 45, no 3 (2014) 202-303 Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest(1994), pp. 23–24. Ross, Lee; Greene, David; House, Pamela (May 1977). "The 'false consensus effect': An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 13 (3): 279–301. Sami, A.-S. (2006). Business and management. Journal of Accounting, 13, 69–84. Istituto Europeo di Design / Westminster University
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