Meteorite Times Magazine
Contents
Featured Articles Accretion Desk by Martin Horejsi Jim's Fragments by Jim Tobin Micro Visions by John Kashuba Mitch's Universe by Mitch Noda MeteoriteWriting by Michael Kelly
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The Caldwell Meteorite: Not just any old L imp-Melt! Martin Horejsi
Although an L-impact melt sounds like a delicious sandwich I’d buy, it’s actually a relatively new meteorite class defined as "An ordinary chondrite from the L group that has experienced impact melting." Seems simple enough, but of the 31 entries for L-imp melt in the Meteoritical Bulletin Database, there are a total of two outside the hot deserts of Africa and the cold deserts of Antarctica. One of the two is named Muckera 007, found in 1991 in Austrailia as a single 14g fragment, and Caldwell, Kansas USA, a 12.9kg stone found in 1961. Another thing Muckera 007 and Caldwell have in common is they are the only two L-imp melt meteorites to be found prior to the year 2000. Actually, this is not likely correct, since the class of L-imp melt is relatively new in the meteorite literature so there could be plenty of historic finds matching the L-imp melt description but have yet to be formally reclassified.
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Caldwell is the oldest and largest of the classified L-imp melt stones, and not by a little. Regarding size, or TKW, only three other L-imp melts exceed a kilogram (one barely at 1280g), and the largest of those three is a rough third of the TKW of Caldwell. And the second oldest Limp melt is about in the middle of time between today and back when Caldwell was found in 1961. And six of the 31 L-imp melt specimens, about one-fifth, were discovered in 2010 or after, with the most recent, Dominion Range 18623 Antarctica, in 2018. By definition, Melt-by-impact is a geologic situation where the collision of two or more bodies collide with sufficient force to melt rock which then flows and pools in or on the bodies finally solidifying into highly collectable and beautiful presentations of the violence of the solar system (I added that last part myself). Or in other words (those of the Meteoritical Bulletin again), “An L chondrite that has experienced impact melting.”
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If there are L-imp melts, then it follows that there should be H-imp melts. And there are. However, that list of only 13 includes 12 from Antarctica and one from Libya, and all but one were discovered in 2000 or more recently. The notable exception, Queen Alexandra Range 99396, was discovered, as its name indicates, in 1999. Hardly a historic entry compared to Caldwell’s 40-year head start.
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While my collecting tastes lean strongly towards historic witnessed falls, locating materials to add to my collection is exceedingly hard these days. Either the offered specimen is exceedingly small, or exceedingly expensive, or exceedingly both. Often exceedingly the latter. But hey, as they say, a chondrule is a chondrule. And Caldwell is packed full of them. As a type-4 ordinary chondrite, in Lunar and Planetary Institute speak: “Designates chondrites that are characterized by abundant chondrules, and have been metamorphosed under conditions sufficient to homogenize olivine compositions and recrystallize fine-grained matrix. Some of the low-Ca pyroxene grains may be monoclinic and exhibit polysynthetic twinning. Primary igneous chondrule glass is absent.” Or in other words, there should be many obvious chondrules and quite round at that in a cut surface. Caldwell delivers!
Often a dark matrix with flashy features such as melt veins and metal blebs can quickly overshadow beautiful but subtile features that are also important players in this 4.6B year old geologic game. Caldwell is like entering a darkened theater. At first, you see very little, but as
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your eyesight and attitude adjust, there is suddenly a treasure trove of circular chondrules in size from pinpoints to pin heads to BBs and larger.
A high contrast close up of Caldwell that reveals the densely packed quality chondrules abundant in this type 4 chondrite. The more you look, the more you will see.
A spherical tree in the forest: The 41g slice of Caldwell presented here came from a recent offering by Blaine Reed. When a new list from Blaine comes out, I quickly scan it for historic witnessed falls. No old joy on this list, but a USA impact melt breccia caught my eye. And the 1961 date caught my other eye. Plus the 41g size was large enough to show the action, not just be a souvenir of the impact. As I studied the image in Blaine’s email listing, I could see much beyond the extensive melt rivers crossing the base of this slice. It reminded me of the Snake River flowing across the southern plain of Idaho making a huge smile connecting Yellowstone National Park with a possible location where a meteorite struck in prehistoric Oregon creating the hotspot and inland volcanoes leading to Yellowstone's current address. With that river metaphor in mind, I could quickly see more and more tributaries feeding the melt river, and a closer look revealed braided
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flows, lakes, and creek branching. The comparison to a river watershed is likely backwards with flow into smaller areas, not consolidating into ever larger flows. At that moment, I emailed Blaine with my interest. Studying the image further, I ignored the melted areas and concentrated on the matrix. It soon became obvious that the many small mottled regions were really chondrules and chondrule features. Suddenly my map of Idaho had dozens of small lakes and round areas that on a satellite picture of Idaho would be irrigated farmland, but here, they were early children of our solar system. In person and under magnification, Caldwell is a stadium crowded with bobbing chondrule heads. The contrast between matrix and chondrules, and even between chondrules themselves makes this a specimen where the high-wow of the melt-flows overshadow what would be an already eye-friendly slice. And as a metaphor for 2024, I am imagining that a cosmic tragedy that left behind melted rock within stones that would crash to earth yet are now valuable things of beauty. If conflict between small bodies of the solar system can create such joy and curiosity, perhaps conflict already here on earth can eventually lead to something good in the long run. Like gravity between asteroids, the fights over space lead to change, and change can be painful. But we all are here today through our ancestors surviving the conflicts of the past. So as the dust settles on the arrival of 2024, I am going to consider the big picture that got us where we are, and hope the conflicts that lay ahead are ultimately productive in avoiding larger conflicts later. I know that’s a big ask, but then again, Caldwell never asked to be the metaphor of an internet article published 63 years after someone dug it from the dirt long after it crash landed onto one of the few dry spots on a planet mostly covered in saltwater. Until next time….
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Finding Meteorites The Short Story James Tobin I have hunted meteorites since I was a preteen and though I did not know what I was looking for in the earliest years I got every book I could find at the library and took every opportunity to hunt. My parents were building houses out in Bullhead City, Arizona when only a couple of hundred people lived there, and I was too young to really help with the construction work, so I walked all day looking for meteorites. I sent some of my pieces of basalt to H.H. Nininger and got nice letters back that they were not meteorites. I also got nice flyers and brochures that gave me some more practical information. Eventually I found my first meteorite. It took fifty years for me to know that I had found them because they were mixed into iron shale that I picked up on a hike around Meteor Crater when I was about 14. I still have all the stuff I picked up and was going through it about two years ago just for fun and as I looked at the iron shale pieces the much older and more knowledgeable me recognized that two pieces were actual meteorite fragments. On a visit to the old ruin of Nininger’s Museum near the crater in the 1990s I found eight small pieces of meteorite with my magnet stick outside the ruin on the west side. In a box of iron shale that was given to me by a friend many years ago I found two more Canyon Diablos in his batch of old collected pieces. But all the rest of my meteorite finds have been hunting the hard way, walking miles and miles with my eyes to the ground.
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It was a few decades after my childhood that I got into meteorite hunting seriously. I have been to many locations and found meteorites at most if I returned to hunt enough times. As the new year rolls around every year I have a hope that this year I will get to make a few trips to the desert and do some serious hunting again. It has been three years since I have been out with a group of hunters to. I stopped last June at Holbrook as I made my way east on a driving trip to Kansas. I found 5 pieces of meteorite that day in just a few hours. But that is the only hunting since about 2020. I have joined the local gem and mineral society, and they want me to give a talk on meteorite hunting. I have suggested a few local places the club can go and try our luck. Several dozen locations where meteorites have been recovered are within a couple of hours drive from where I live now. So it is just a matter of getting out there and putting in the time. It occurred to me as I thought about what to write in this January new year’s article that I have never counted up the meteorites I have found in my life. They are mostly on shelves in Riker cases or glass displays. I totaled them up as best as I could. There may be a few that I failed to count; it was 206 meteorites. That’s not a bad number for someone who has only been able to get out one, two, or at the most three times a year. I have hunted places that were easy to hunt, and I have hunted places that were rugged and difficult. I have been unsuccessful at a few places. Some of my best memories are from the hours of solitude hiking and looking hopefully for the next space rock that would either be seen ahead of me or set off my metal detector being buried and invisible. I have had immediate luck on a few occasions where within minutes I had found a meteorite. I have hunted for weeks of total days and found nothing or nearly nothing other times. For example, it took at least three weeks of full days of hunting over several years before I found a tiny little sliver of Franconia meteorite on the southside of the interstate. We finally decided that the whole area had been so well grid hunted by others that nothing was left. We had no four wheel drive vehicle at the time and had been trying to avoid the long hike from where we would have to park the motorhome to get up on the north side of the Franconia strewnfield. We finally did the hike and that day I found some pieces of Franconia iron, but a stone still eluded me. Paul found one or two Franconia stones that day. Later I would find two or three Franconia stones on each day trip and that was delightful finally. But I had been skunked there for several years. If it had not been for the dark skies and the astronomy at night, I think I would have given up on Franconia. Glad I did not give up for I have eleven nice stones now and about 30 of the little bits of H metal. I took a trip with a friend up to Yelland Dry Lake. It was once covered in meteorite fragments from stones that had fallen apart and spread across the lakebed. By the time I took the trip it was pretty cleaned out. We arrived in the afternoon with the intent of hunting there a couple of whole days and staying in town. We barely got out on the lakebed when the clouds began to get very dark and ominous. I hurried across the lake in the direction I was told the most remaining pieces were to be found. It was one of those occasions where I fortunately had immediate success. I found one piece and a few minutes later I found a bigger piece which was quite nice . It was a corner piece with an exterior surface weighing 25 grams. I never got to the good spot on the lakebed. The lightning and thunder started, and the clouds were rolling right up the valley into the lake. The lightning was striking the mountain nearby and we were running for the cars as the rain began to fall harder and harder. The wind was roaring. It poured all night and there was not chance we were getting back on the lake. It would be days or weeks before it dried out. So we headed off to another location in the morning. As we drove the roads were all flooded on
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their sides, and it had been a tremendous storm. I knew in the early evening that Yelland was out. I was grateful for the two stones I had found so fast.
We did some fossil hunting down at the Hancock Summit Alamo Breccia site and then made our way to Stewart Valley Dry Lake by the afternoon. We had a few hours of hunting before it got dark. I had been there before for a few hours at the end of another multiple site hunting trip. I found a few pieces of Stewart Valley that day and everyone on the aborted Yelland trip had a good time with the fossils and breccia and finding bits of Stewart Valley. I returned on my own later to Stewart Valley and found in a whole day of hunting a nice batch of pieces some with areas of old fusion crust remaining and some that were nice size. I have never really worried about whether it was fragments of old meteorite or mostly intact complete stones or fresh or ancient. It has always been the fact that it was meteorite that made the hunting and finding special. In whatever form it was great. There are several day lakes I have hunted on where I have never found a single bit of meteorite. Rachel Dry Lake and the larger lake up the road have both been hunted three times and I have found nothing. I hunted Bristol Dry Lake as a kid. My father always drove out to “The River” as he called it, by the old road using the cutoff through 29 Palms. We would pass Bristol Dry Lake as we approached Amboy. I saw the vast open area and thought even as a kid that such a place would be great to hunt for meteorites. But as a child I did not realize that it was a salt lake and had been mined for a long time. It was constantly being stirred up by equipment. Of course I found nothing in the few hours my parents gave me to search. But it was my first
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hunt on a dry lakebed. I have hunted a big number of dry lakes now and found meteorites on about half of them, I guess. Paul and I took our second or third trip out to Broadwell Dry Lake to try it again. We hunted hard and knew others had been there too. We found nothing and as far as I know no one else has either. Which is a little strange, it is a big lake and I still believe that there must be meteorites on or around it. I have written about this before. We took a break to explore some old mining sites on a nearby mountain. There I found Old Dominion Mine meteorite. Though I was not sure it was a meteorite out in the desert. I had seen no metal grains or chondrules on the little spot I ground off. I still brought it home and later tested it better. The following day we headed home and stopped at El Mirage Dry Lake and hunted there for the day. I found nothing on El Mirage. But Paul was victorious and found the first meteorite ever recovered on that lake. So that was a successful trip for both of us. A trip where we both made new cold finds where meteorites had never been found before. Over the years I have been most successful finding meteorites at Holbrook, Arizona. I guess it is not surprising since tens of thousands of stones originally fell on that relatively small area. They are getting harder to find but I have never been skunked there yet. Many of the stones are small and on one trip I deliberately took one day to hunt for just tiny ones. I found many meteorites weighing just a few to a couple dozen milligrams each. They are fascinating. Covered in fusion crust and with very tiny rust spots on some. They are exact miniatures of their larger cousins. I even found a few individual chondrules that day. That was fun hunting. In all the days I have spent hunting at Holbrook I have never found a large stone. My biggest is about a five or six gram meteorite. But I have found dozens of meteorites there and will likely go back again to search for more meteorites.
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The last few years with all the things going on which have kept me home, I have not done much hunting. But just before the COVID thing I was traveling farther to more isolated places to hunt. A nice 122 gram stone was found at Jungo Dry Lake. Many pieces of meteorite were found at Tungsten Mountain. For me nothing beats being the first human to touch a space rock. I spent my childhood digging up bottles in ghost town dumps, fossil hunting, and metal detecting for relics and gold. For a brief time as a young adult I did a bit of archeology and that was more digging. None of those digging activities, as much fun as they are, is quite as rewarding for me as finding meteorites. My list of places I have hunted for meteorites is quite long now. I hope to add a few more this coming year. Maybe I will be successful, maybe I will find something unusual or a bigger stone. You never know but the chase is most of the fun for me. The time to wander and think and be where it is quiet and peaceful, where there are few demands on my time. Those are special occasions for me. Whether it is meteorite hunting, or reading or whatever else you love to do, I wish for everyone in my audience to have a safe, peaceful, and happy new year.
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Cedar (Texas) H4 John Kashuba This thin section was one of a hoard that was deaccessioned by Arizona State University in 2014. My notes from then say “Very large sample. Interesting and busy TS. (Is TS curved/cupped?)” This week I looked closer and found that the glass cover slip is partially detached from the base glass slide, lifting up – and has brought the stone sample up with it! It is still busy and interesting. Here are some photos, maybe the last ever from this slide, all photos after the first two are in cross polarized light.
Thin section with large sample.
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The cover slip has lifted the cemented sample from the glass slide.
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A variety of textures in this 3 mm wide view.
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A barred olivine chondrule within a larger chondrule. Field of view is 3 mm wide.
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FOV = 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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Porphyritic pyroxene chondrule. FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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Radial pyroxene chondrule. FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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FOV= 3 mm.
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Enlarged view of above chondrule. FOV = 0.6 mm.
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Bent bars. FOV = 1.0 mm.
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Barred olivine chondrule 0.4 mm in diameter.
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Granular olivine chondrule 0.35 mm in diameter.
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Barred olivine chondrule 0.2 mm top to bottom.
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Barred olivine chondrule 0.2 mm in diameter.
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Barred olivine chondrule 0.2 mm in diameter.
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Barred olivine chondrule 0.2 mm in diameter.
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George F. Kunz and Tiffany and Co. Mitch Noda George Frederick Kunz (1856 – 1932), was arguably the world’s foremost gemologist and mineralogist to ever live. At the age of 23, he was hired by iconic Tiffany and Co. in 1879 as its chief gemologist, and became a vice president from 1907 until his death in 1932 at the age of 75. Kunz was America’s first gemologist. He was also, an avid meteorite collector.
Kunz portrait with Kunz signature in the background. Source: The Tricottet Collection.
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Kunz was born in New York City, on September 29, 1856, and was interested in minerals at a very young age. In 1865, at the age of ten, Kunz went to the P.T. Barnum museum in New York to see the various oddities, and Mr. Bailey’s mineral collection. Kunz was hooked and wanted to start his own collection. Kunz collected minerals wherever he could find them, often at bridge and railroad construction sites or trades with other collectors, including overseas dealers. He would take his specimens around colleges and universities for them to use when studying. By his teens, he had amassed a collection of over 4,000 specimens which he sold to the University of Minnesota for $400 ($8,000 in 2023 dollars). Kunz later wrote, that the sale wasn’t “so much for the money but to mark myself in the eyes of the world as a real collector.” Kunz also sold his other collections to the Polytechnic Institute in Indiana, a third collection to Amherst College and a fourth collection to the State Museum in Albany. One collection of his which was a personal favorite was a collection of meteorites. He did attend college, Cooper Union, in New York, but did not graduate. Instead he taught himself mineralogy by reading everything available about minerals to complement his already proficient field research, and met influential people. At the age of 23, Kunz landed a job with the prestigious jewelry luxury house renowned the world over, Tiffany and Co. with its signature blue box. Kunz visited mines, as well as, cutting facilities. He also added to his knowledge of American gems by his activities on behalf of the U.S. Geological Survey, as a special agent. At the age of 51 years old, his knowledge and enthusiasm propelled him into a vice president position at Tiffany’s. In 1902, he gained much notoriety for identifying a new gem variety of mineral Spodumene which was named “Kunzite” in his honor. In 1877, Charles Tiffany purchased the Tiffany Yellow Diamond. Kunz studied the 287 carat diamond for a year, before deciding on the shape and number of facets. He supervised the cutting of the world’s largest yellow diamond at the time that became the famous Tiffany Yellow Diamond. It was cut down to a 128.5 carat cushion shape which has 82 facets – 24 more than a traditional round brilliant – to maximize its brilliance which large diamonds of comparable brilliance were not fashioned until well into the 20th century. The Tiffany Yellow Diamond has been displayed at the Chicago World’s Fair and Smithsonian Museum. The Smithsonian gem curator, stated that the Tiffany Yellow Diamond was the largest diamond on display in the U.S. and that the infamous Hope Diamond at the Smithsonian is only 45.5 carats, which is about one-third the mass of the Tiffany Yellow Diamond. In 1961, it was worn by Audrey Hepburn in publicity photos for the classic Academy Award winning movie Breakfast at Tiffany’s. Subsequently, it was worn by Lady Gaga at the 91st Academy Awards, and Beyonce in a Tiffany campaign in 2021. The diamond has only been worn by four women. The Tiffany Yellow Diamond is permanently housed at Tiffany’s flagship store on 5th Avenue, in Manhattan, New York City. In 1837, Tiffany & Young was founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and his partner John B. Young, in Brooklyn, Connecticut, as a stationary and fine goods store, however, it did not sell real jewelry. In 1848, Young purchased some of the crown jewels of the French monarchy when it was overthrown. In 1853, Charles Tiffany took sole control of the entity, changing its name to Tiffany and Co. and emphasized jewelry. In 1886, Charles Tiffany invented the most iconic diamond engagement ring which still dominates today. The setting glorified a solitaire diamond by using six prongs to lift the diamond above the band to allow maximum light to pass through it and maximum sparkle. Prior to the Tiffany setting, most diamonds were set much lower on the ring or embedded within the band, so only the crown or top of the diamond was visible.
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In the 1870’s, jewelers focused mainly on the “big four” gems – diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds. Kunz was more interested in semiprecious gemstones, as he later wrote, the “sea-green depths of tourmaline, the watery-blue of aquamarine, the red blood-cups of garnet, the misty nebula of moonstone.” In 1875, at the age of 19, Kunz convinced Tiffany to purchase a fine specimen of green tourmaline and cut it into gems and fashion an experimental line of jewelry. The collection sold out quickly to Tiffany’s surprise. Charles Tiffany hired Kunz in 1879 at the age of 23 as Tiffany’s chief gemologist. Kunz introduced the world to colored semiprecious gemstones at Tiffany’s which were extremely popular and transformed the jewelry industry. Kunz would travel the world in search of exceptional color and quality gemstones and pearls, which he would sometimes name after this associates and clients, calling one rare find, tiffanyite, after Charles L. Tiffany, and another morganite, after wealthy financier and philanthropist J.P. Morgan (J.P. Morgan Chase bank), and Tiffany’s best customer. Kunz assembled J.P. Morgan’s first gem collections with over 1,000 specimens, and in 1889, the collection was exhibited at the World’s fair in Paris and won two golden awards. Kunz built a second even finer collection for Morgan. These collections were donated to the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Kunz wrote over 300 articles and books. Over ninety years after his death, his books are still in print today. After his passing, his personal collection of books and articles were sold the United States Geological Survey for one dollar. In 2012, a rare photographic album dated 1922 was discovered among Kunz’s donation, and the album contained 81 photos of the Russian Crown Jewels, and pre-dates the official catalog by the Soviet government by three years. Researchers have identified four pieces of jewelry that were documented in 1922 by Kunz that were not included in the official Soviet catalog and a presumed missing.
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1913 First edition copy of George Kunz’s “The Curious Lore of Precious Stones.”
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George Kunz’s signed note to Mrs. William H. Crocker, owner of Crocker bank which was acquired by Wells Fargo. Kunz wrote, “For Mrs William H Crocker with the sincere regards of the author George F. Kunz, 29 May 1919. New York see plate opposite 170." Kunz was referring to page 170.
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No 4 “The upper stone belongs to Mrs William H Crocker Burlingame California George F. Kunz 29 May 1919.”
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The page out of the book “The Curious Lore of Precious Stones states, “4. Upper: blue-white Tiffanyite diamond. 14.86 carats; Bagagem Mine, Brazil. Lower: purple-black diamond, 13.35 carats; Brazil.” This is what dreams are made of – a blue box from Tiffany’s with this spectacular piece of diamond jewelry inside of it.
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An image of number 4, the breath taking 14.86 carat “Tiffanyite” diamond and 13.35 carat purple-black diamond jewelry piece belonging to a thrilled Mrs. Crocker.
Besides being vice president for Tiffany and Co., Kunz was special agent for the U.S. Geological survey, and president of the New York Mineralogical Club, the oldest mineral club in the United States, and founded by George F. Kunz. He was also an honorary research curator of precious gems at the American Museum of Natural History for 14 years. Kunz has been awarded many honorary degrees from American and European universities, including Ivy League, Columbia University. Kunz collected meteorites from 1885 through 1891. Kunz would trade or sell meteorites with Clarence S. Bement, whose large mineral and meteorite collection was donated to the AMNH.
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In 1905, the Kunz meteorite collection was purchased for the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) in New York by J.P. Morgan. Kunz’s meteorite collection added 186 new falls and finds to the AMNH collection. Kunz also wrote books and articles on meteorites. He had a fascination for meteorites and wrote about the following meteorites: Winnebago County (Iowa) meteorite (Forest City); Brenham, Kiowa County, Kansas; Carroll County (Eagle Station), Kentucky meteorite; Ferguson, Hayward County, North Carolina meteorite; Bridgewater, Burke County, North Carolina meteorite; Summit, Blount County, Alabama; and Glorieta Mountain, Santa Fe County, New Mexico. In 16 May 1890, Kunz wrote an article in Science, volume 15, no. 380, pp. 304-305, about the Winnebago County, Iowa (Forest City) meteorite. In it, he mentions that the meteor passed over the state of Iowa on 2 May (1890), it was a cloudless sky and the meteorite was very noticeable. He remarks, there was an exciting ball game going on, and many witnesses who saw it did not make careful observations of it as they would have otherwise have done. Therefore, it was difficult to tell whether the meteor was accompanied by sound or not. Some farmers reported to hear a hissing sound. Because of the many exaggerated reports, it was difficult to obtain facts, thus Kunz desired to only make a preliminary statement in the article.
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A 6.5 gram dark fusion crusted individual Forest City specimen with Monnig number, George F. Kunz collection label and other labels evidencing its rich provenance.
In his book, “ON FIVE NEW AMERICAN METEORITES,” Kunz writes about the Winnebago County, Iowa (Forest City) meteorite. Kunz must have interviewed more witnesses, since he recounts, “. . . it was accompanied by a noise likened to that of heavy cannoning or of thunder, and many people rushed to their doors, thinking it was the rumbling of an earthquake. He observed, “The meteorite is a typical chondrite, apparently of the type of Parnallite group of Meunier, which fell February 28, 1857, at Parnallee, India.” Kunz makes a comparison to another famous meteorite, when he says, “The Crust is rather thin, opaque black, not shining, and, under the microscope, is very scorious, resembling the Knyahinya, Hungary, and the West Liberty, Iowa, meteoric stones. Kunz comments, “The stone is porous, and when it is placed in
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water to ascertain its specific gravity, there is a considerable ebullition of air. The specific gravity, on a fifteen gram piece, was found to be 3.638.
Forest City individual displaying Monnig number and George F. Kunz collection label. I have never seen, in my approximately 20 years of collecting, a rare George F. Kunz collection label before or after I have acquired this specimen.
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The other side of the Forest City meteorite with George F. Kunz collection label.
The legacy of George Kunz shall live on through Tiffany and Co., the AMNH museum’s meteorite collection, and through his many books and articles.
References
George F. Kunz Bibliography – GIA George Frederick Kunz – Wikipedia Tiffany Legacy Gemstones – Tiffany International Kunz, George F. – American Numismatic Society American Travels of a Gem Collector, part 1 – Pala International
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Who is George Frederick Kunz? – Rock & Gem Magazine The Last Collection of the First Gemologist, George F. Kunz – University of Delaware George Frederick Kunz Papers, circa 1880 – 1932 - Smithsonian Institution Archives The Tiffany & Co. Timeline – tiffany.com The World of Tiffany – Tiffany & Co. George F. Kunz – American Museum of Natural History
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Returned Sample Identification of Organic Compounds from Asteroid Ryugu by Gregory T. Shanos The Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) launched a spacecraft named Hayabusa2 to study asteroid 162173 Ryugu on December 3, 2014. Hayabusa2 arrived at Ryugu on June 27, 2018 then successfully orbited, mapped and sampled the asteroid. On Dec. 6, 2020, the Hayabusa2 returned to earth and released a capsule containing a sample of the asteroid. I published an article entitled: Initial Sample Return Analysis from Asteroid Ryugu in the March 2022 issue of Meteorite-Times. Ryugu is classified as a C-type carbonaceous asteroid. (See figure 1) A total of 5.424 ±0.217 grams was collected from Ryugu and kept as physically and chemically pristine as possible, handled only in a vacuum of pure nitrogen. (See figure 2) Initial analysis of the samples indicated the presence of carbon-hydrogen (CH) bonds typical of organic molecules. Hydroxyl (OH) was also identified which indicated the presence of water. Think of water (H2O as H-OH). (See References 1 & 4) A recent paper by Hiroshi Naraoka et. al., published in the Feb 24, 2023 issue of Science has a more complete analysis of the organic compound inventory to date. (Reference 3) Organic refers to carbon that is covalently bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur (CHONS). Two samples were used in the study. The main analysis was performed on an aggregate sample designated (A0106) consisting of grains less than 1 mm in diameter with a total weight of 38.4 mg. The A0106 sample has typical mineralogy for Ryugu consisting mainly of hydrous silicate minerals, including serpentine and saponite, with other associated minerals such as dolomite, pyrrhotite, and magnetite which indicate extensive aqueous alteration. The second sample consisted of a single one millimeter sized grain designated (A0080) and was used to determine the spatial distribution of organic compounds on its surface. (See figure 3) Organic compounds were analyzed using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Liquid chromatography is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify each component in a mixture. Mass spectrometers measure the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of one or more molecules present in a sample and determine their chemical structures. A total of 15 amino acids were detected and quantitated. (See figure 4) The concentrations of each amino acid ranged from 0.01 to 5.6 nmol/g. There were α-, β-, γ-, and δ-amino acids detected, spanning a concentration range of 0.014 – 4.7 nmol/g. Protein amino acids included glycine (Gly), D,L-α-alanine (D,L-α-Ala), and D,L-valine (D,L-Val). Non-protein amino acids included β-alanine (βAla), D,L-α-amino-butyric acid (D,L-α-ABA), and D,L-βamino-isobutyric acid (D,L-β-AIB). Several nonprotein C5 amino acids were also detected, including D,L norvaline (D,L-Nva), D,L-isovaline (D,L-Iva), δ-amino-n-valeric acid (δ-AVA), 3-amino-2,2- dimethyl butyric acid (3-A-2,2-DMBA), D,L-3-amino2ethylpropanoic acid (D,L-3-A-2-EPA), and D, L-γamino-n-propanoic acid (D,L-γ-APA). The proteinogenic amino acids exhibit chirality- right (D) and left( L) handed forms. Biological organisms utilize only the L-amino acids. The A0106 Ryugu extract exhibited a racemic mixture of approximately equal D and L forms or enantiomers of amino acids which is indicative of a nonbiological origin. Many of the nonproteinogenic amino acids identified in the Ryugu extract are rare or nonexistent in terrestrial biology. The presence of a racemic mixture in all identified amino acids indicates that the returned Ryugu samples are pristine and free of contamination. (Reference 3, Figure 4)
Aliphatic (straight chain) amines and carboxylic acids were identified in the A0106 Ryugu samples. (See figure 4) Aliphatic amines detected were methylamine (CH3NH2) which was the most abundant, followed by ethylamine (C2H5NH2) , isopropyl amine [(CH3)2CHNH2], and n-propylamine (C3H7NH2). These amines are likely present as salts in the grains, because the free amines are highly volatile and reactive. Ammonium and amine salts are known to be the major reservoir of nitrogen on the dwarf planet Ceres and in comets. (Reference 3, Figure 4) Monocarboxylic acids in the Ryugu samples included only formic acid HCOOH (5.7 mmol/g ) and acetic acid CH3COOH (9.5 mmol/g ) at the detection limits of the instrumentation. (See figure 4) The concentrations were high with low molecular weight diversity indicating low temperature hydrothermal processing on Ryugu’s parent body. This trend is also observed in highly aqueously altered carbonaceous chondrites such as Orgueil and Ivuna. (Reference 3, Figures 5 & 6) Aromatic hydrocarbons were detected at below parts per million abundances, which included alkylbenzenes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (See figure 4) The highest abundance PAHs were fluoranthene and pyrene (which contain four benzene rings) followed by chrysene/triphenylene (also four rings) and methylated fluoranthene and pyrene. Smaller PAHs containing two rings (naphthalene) and three rings (phenanthrene and anthracene) were detected at lower abundances. Fluoranthene and pyrene are structural isomers (both have the formula C16H 10) that are present in roughly equal amounts in CM chondrites. In the Ryugu sample fluoranthene is substantially less abundant than pyrene. In the CI meteorite Ivuna, both fluoranthene and pyrene are below the detection limits, although phenanthrene and anthracene are abundant. The difference in proportions of PAHs between Ryugu and carbonaceous chondrites could be due to different aqueous alteration effects on different parent bodies. (Reference 3, Figure 4) The Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrum in the water extract of the A0106 grain has its strongest absorption band at 1000 cm–1 (10 mm) due to silicates (Si-O bonds). (See figure 3) Other bands are present at 750 to 1650 cm–1 (13.3 to 6.1 mm). Peaks at these wavelengths have often been observed in the interstellar medium and have been assigned to large polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The broad peak at 1400 cm–1 (7.14 mm) could also have a contribution from carbonates. The lack of the aromatic C–H stretching bands at 3030 cm–1 (3.30 mm) suggests that the PAHs present in the Ryugu water extract are highly depleted in hydrogen. The FTIR spectrum of the Ryugu sample is unlike those of carbonaceous chondrites. It is similar to astronomical observations of interstellar and presolar polyaromatic hydrocarbons that were incorporated into Ryugu’s parent body during its accretion, and then survived the subsequent aqueous alteration. (Reference 3, Figure 4) Several classes of alkylated N-containing heterocyclic molecules were identified. (See figure 4) These alkylated N-heterocycles included pyridine, piperidine, pyrimidine, imidazole, or pyrrole rings with various amounts of alkylation. N-heterocyclic compounds can be synthesized through a reaction pathway using ammonia and formaldehyde which were abundant in the interstellar medium and the protosolar nebula. Therefore the Ryugu organic material might have inherited these characteristics from a molecular cloud environment. (Reference 3)
The diversity of Soluble Organic Material (SOM) in the Ryugu sample A0106 is as high as previously found for carbonaceous chondrites, and includes poly-sulfur-bearing species. By contrast, the diversity of low-molecular-weight compounds, including aliphatic amines and carboxylic acids, was lower in the Ryugu sample than previously measured in the Murchison meteorite. The total Soluble Organic Material concentration in the A0106 sample was less than that of Murchison and closer to those of the CI chondrites Ivuna and Orgueil. (See figure 5 & 6). The Ryugu organic matter seems to have been affected by aqueous alteration, which produced aromatic hydrocarbons. The SOM detected in the A0106 and A0080 samples indicates that Ryugu’s surface materials host organic molecules despite the harsh environment caused by solar heating, ultraviolet and cosmic-ray irradiation, as well as being in the vacuum of space. The uppermost surface grains on Ryugu protect organic molecules, unlike meteorites, for which atmospheric ablation during Earth entry removes or modifies analogous near-surface material. Organic compounds on asteroids can be ejected from the surface by impacts or other causes dispersing them through the Solar System as meteoroids or interplanetary dust particles. Therefore, organic material on C-type asteroids could be a source of organic compounds delivered to earth. (Reference 3) NASA launched a similar sample return mission called OSIRIS-REx to asteroid Bennu on September 8, 2016. The spacecraft arrived at Bennu on December 3, 2018 and began mapping and analyzing the surface of Bennu. The spacecraft detected an infrared absorption at 3.4 µm (3.2 to 3.6 µm) on the surface of the asteroid. This absorption band is indicative of organic carbon, resulting from aliphatic (C-H), methylene (-CH2), and methyl (-CH3) symmetric and asymmetric stretching. (Reference 4) The samples were then collected on October 20, 2020 using the Touch and Go apparatus. OSIRISRex departed Bennu on March 10, 2021 for return to earth. The sample return capsule safely touched down on September 24, 2023. NASA’s curation team stated that they have removed and collected 70.28 grams (2.48 ounces) of Bennu material from the capsule so far and it hasn't been fully opened yet. After multiple attempts at removal, the team discovered 2 of the 35 fasteners on the TAGSAM head could not be removed with the current tools approved for use in the OSIRIS-REx arsenal. At the time this article was published, NASA was currently working to develop and implement new approaches to extract the material inside the head, while continuing to keep the sample safe and pristine. The contents inside are estimated to weigh between 120 grams (4.2 oz) to 250 grams (8.8 oz). Preliminary analysis of the Bennu samples indicate the presence of water that is bonded to phyllosilicate clay, serpentine and sulfide minerals. Bennu contains a total of 4.7% carbon. The Bennu samples have a higher carbon content than previously analyzed carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The identification of organic compound inventory in the Bennu samples is currently under investigation. (Reference 5) In conclusion, both the Hayabusa 2 and OSIRIS-Rex sample return missions to the carbonaceous asteroids Ryugu and Bennu respectively were a complete success. The samples returned will give scientists insight into the formation of the solar system and the origins of life on earth.
Figure 1: Asteroid 162173 Ryugu photographed from a distance of approximately 12 miles (19 kilometers). Ryugu is a rather small asteroid measuring 0.87 km (0.54 miles) x 0.92 km (0.57miles) x 1.13 km (0.70 miles). The mass of Ryugu is estimated to be about 450 million tons with a volume of 0.377 ± 0.005 km and density of 1.19 ± 0.03 g/cm. Image credit: JAXA, University of Tokyo, Kochi University, Rikkyo University, Nagoya University, Chiba Institute of Technology, Meiji University, University of Aizu
Figure 2: The Ryugu samples totaling 5.424 ±0.217 g were separated into six separate containers. Optical microscopic images of bulk samples from Chambers A and C. Subunit samples (a) (b) (c) are those from the Chamber A while (d) (e) (f) are those from the Chamber C. The specimen weights for Chamber Aa are 0.79g, Ab 1.15g and Ac 1.16g. Weights for Chamber Cd are 0.56g, Ce 0.44g and Cf 0.51g. Container inner diameters are 21mm (0.827 inches). Both chamber samples are an aggregation of black millimeter-sized pebbles and sub-millimeter fine powder similar in size and composition. In total, more than five thousand particles of >100 µm are recognized in these images. Each chamber measures 25mm in diameter. From Yada et al 2021 (Reference 2)
Figure 3: Spatial distribution of CHN compounds on the surface of Ryugu grain A0080. (A and B) Optical images before sample preparation (A) and after embedding in an alloy (B). White arrow in (A) indicates the grain surface embedded in (B). Maps of organic molecule distribution for the CnH2n-6N+ series (n =14, 15) (C) and CnH2n-8N+ series (n =16, 17) (D) molecules. White outlines indicate the boundary between the A0080 grain and the surrounding metal. Scale bars, 500 mm. Credit: Hiroshi Naraoka 2023 (Reference 3)
Figure 4: Soluble organic molecules detected in surface samples of asteroid Ryugu. Chemical structural models are shown for example molecules from several classes identified in the Ryugu samples. Gray balls are carbon, white are hydrogen, red are oxygen, and blue are nitrogen. Clockwise from top: amines (represented by ethylamine), nitrogen containing heterocycles (pyridine), a photograph of the sample vials for analysis, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (pyrene), carboxylic acids (acetic acid), and amino acids (b-alanine). The central hexagon shows a photograph of the Ryugu sample in the sample collector of the Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The background image shows Ryugu in a photograph taken by Hayabusa2 (Reference 3) CREDIT: JAXA, UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO, KOCHI UNIVERSITY, RIKKYO UNIVERSITY, NAGOYA UNIVERSITY, CHIBA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, MEIJI UNIVERSITY, UNIV of AIST, NASA, Dan Gallagher
Figure 5: Fragment of ORGUEIL a CI carbonaceous chondrite from the authors personal collection. Orgueil fell on May 14, 1864 in Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne 4353’ N., 123’ E. A total of twenty stones totaling 14 kg were collected. The fragment weights 0.14 grams and measures 8mm x 3mm x 3mm.
Figure 6: Fragment of IVUNA a CI carbonaceous chondrite from the authors personal collection. Ivuna fell on December 16, 1938 in Tanzania, Africa 0825’ S., 3226’ E. A total of 705 grams were collected. The fragment weights 0.43 grams and measures 12mm x 8mm x 5mm.
The CI carbonaceous chondrites Orgueil (above) and Ivuna (below) are the closest meteoritic analogs to the Ryugu samples.
Figure 7: A view of the outside of the OSIRIS-REx sample collector. Sample material from asteroid Bennu can be seen on the middle right. Scientists have found evidence of both carbon and water in initial analysis of this material. The bulk of the sample is located inside. Note the similarity in appearance of the Bennu & Ryugu samples. (Image credit: NASA/Erika Blumenfeld & Joseph Aebersold)
References:
1) Shanos G.T. Initial Sample Return Analysis from Asteroid Ryugu March 1, 2022 (https://www.meteorite-times.com/2022/03/01/) pp. 51-55
2) Yada T., Masanao A., Tatsuaki O. et. al Preliminary analysis of the Hayabusa2 samples returned from C-type asteroid Ryugu. Nature Astronomy Letters 20 Dec 2021 open source https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-021-01550-6 3) Hiroshi Naraoka, Yoshinori Takano , Jason P. Dworkin et. al. Soluble organic molecules in samples of the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu Science 379, (pp. 10) February 24, 2023 4) H. H. Kaplan , A. A. Simon , V. E. Hamilton , M. S. Composition of organics on asteroid (101955) Bennu Astronomy & Astrophysics vol 653, Letter to the Editor (2021) pp 1-11
5) Lauretta, D, Glavin, D, McCovin, F. et. al. Revealing the OSIRIS-REx Asteroid Sample (Official NASA Broadcast in 4K) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oFvIuSpACQA
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Once a few decades ago this opening was a framed window in the wall of H. H. Nininger's Home and Museum building. From this window he must have many times pondered the mysteries of Meteor Crater seen in the distance. Photo by © 2010 James Tobin