Contextual and Historical Background

The neighborhood in Oklahoma City, now known as John F. Kennedy (JFK), was originally founded prior to statehood The neighborhood (not formally known as JFK until the late 1960s) grew alongside its western neighbor Deep Deuce, which was a thriving business center throughout the 20th century. Deep Deuce provided a space for Black-owned businesses to operate and grow during municipal segregation. Prior to segregation in Oklahoma City, the area was a prime location for wealthy, white businessmen and families because of its proximity to the railways. As environmental quality declined from the growth of heavy industry and railway traffic, urban renewal initiatives in the 1950s began removing many homes and businesses near the industrial facilities as a concerted effort to displace the residents in favor of industrial sprawl; thus, the neighborhood began to lose desirability throughout the decades marked by these changes

In the early 1900s, poor environmental conditions led white residents to abandon the space and relocate to the north and western sides of town. In 1907, when Oklahoma officially became a state in the Union, the first Jim Crow Oklahoma state laws were passed. Subsequent municipal ordinances imposing residential segregation on Black OKC residents were also passed. These Jim Crow laws restricted Black residents to flood-prone spaces known as the modern-day JFK. The restrictions placed on Black residents remained until the Civil Rights Act passed in 1964.

Throughout the twentieth century, as oil and gas zoning were enacted near present-day JFK, the residents felt the impact of heavy industry in and around their neighborhoods. For residents, oil booms in the 1930s helped develop economic stability but came at the cost of environmental health and legal issues. Oil rigs were constructed within residential spaces throughout JFK. With oil came more industry and industrial zoning was codified by the City of Oklahoma City around the segregated neighborhoods. The issues caused by this new oil industry persisted well into the late twentieth century, leading to several Superfund sites within a mile of the JFK Neighborhood by the turn of the century. Today the neighborhood faces a plethora of issues resulting from industrial zoning nearby. Loud explosions from the Derichebourg Recycling plant are associated with structural damage to residents’ homes and disturbances to their daily lives. Zinc releases from the nearby Citgo petroleum refinery surpass 7 lbs. a year, raising concerns over air quality and public health (EPA TRI Toxics Tracker). According to residents, white particle substances possibly from Haskell Lemon Construction Co. or other surrounding industries cover cars, plants, outdoor furniture with visible dust and likely make it difficult for residents to breathe. A recent fire at Hite Plastics cause concern for the health and welfare of the neighbors as well due to the plastic fumes that spread across the neighborhood during the fire. Noise pollution from the Union Pacific railroad, surrounding construction companies, and industrial recycling facilities decreases property values and is a general disturbance to the neighborhood. Overall, there are many issues that face the JFK Neighborhood, but according to resident testimony, the most poignant of these issues has been the magnitude of explosions and excessive seismic vibrations produced by the industrial vehicle recycling plant, Derichebourg Recycling USA.

Area and Landscape Characterization

Oklahoma City’s JFK Neighborhood is situated just north of the North Canadian River between its southern and northern boundary of 4th street and 8th street and its eastern and western boundary of Martin Luther King Ave. and Lincoln Blvd.

Prominent entities and facilities sharing street boundaries with the JFK Neighborhood include:

• The Historic Jewel Theatre

• Booker T. Washington Park

• Fredrick Douglass High School (current local high school)

• James E. Stewart Golf Course/ First Tee of Metropolitan Oklahoma City

• Douglass Park

• OU Medical Center/Health Science Center

• Harrison Walnut Neighborhood Association

• Culbertson East Highland Neighborhood Association

There are several well-known entities or facilities within the JFK Neighborhood:

• Page Woodson Apartment Complex (https://www.pagewoodsonokc.com/ )

• Historic Douglass High School (now The Auditorium at the Douglasshttps://auditoriumatdouglass.com/ )

• Gateway Learning Center (nursery)

• Historic Paul Laurence Dunbar Elementary School (now Dunbar Commons – Senior Apartments)

• Residential Housing

• Culture Coffee/ Bistro 46 (Black-Owned Businesses)

• Toby Keith’s OK Kids Korral (Family Facility for Child Cancer Patients)

• Embassy Suites Hotel

Directly to the JFK Neighborhood’s southern border is an industrial belt consisting of multiple I-3 and I-2 districts, for heavy and moderate industry (City of OKC, Zoning Map). To the southeast and southwest are even more of these industrial districts. Directly above the northeast corner of the neighborhood sit even more I-3 and I-2 districts (City of OKC, Zoning Map). I-3 districts are designated as “Heavy Industrial Districts.” These districts are intended for “industrial uses that may generate relatively high levels of noise, vibrations, smoke, dust, odor or light,” and they are “incompatible with residential uses;” for these reasons, it is “desirable that they be located downwind, and as far away as possible, from residential and most commercial uses” (City of OKC, Heavy Industrial District). I-2 districts are designated “Moderate Industrial Districts.” I-2 districts are intended for “light manufacturing, assembly and fabrication, and for warehousing, wholesale and service uses” (City of OKC, Moderate Industrial District). These districts need rail access, which is provided by the Union Pacific railway that runs through the center of the industrial districts, less than a half mile south of the neighborhood. Geologically, the subsurface of JFK is unique from most of the surrounding land. While most of Oklahoma City’s Eastside sits atop the Hennessey and Garber geologic units, the JFK Neighborhood is atop mostly floodplain sediments (Cederstrand, 1997). The North Canadian River flows just south of the neighborhood, making the JFK Neighborhood a historic floodplain. OKC’s historic city reservoir, now known as Lake Overholser, is fed by this same river. In 1923 there was a flood in which the earthen portion of the reservoir’s dam broke releasing a 25 foot “surging torrent” of water downstream and through the city (Oklahoman, 2015). This flood caused millions in damage and the death of five residents. The damage caused by this massive flood, and others like it, caused the city to reengineer the river's course for safety purposes. Today the river has been diverted even further south of the JFK Neighborhood, leaving the current annual flood risk for the neighborhood at less than 0.2% (FEMA.gov).

Subsurface Vibrational Concerns

Long-term residents of the JFK Neighborhood have conveyed concerns about noise and air pollution created by frequent explosions at the Derichebourg Recycling Facility, a multinational industrial scrap metal recycling facility located in the area. Undrained gasoline in gas tanks of scrapped vehicles, or chemicals remaining in refrigerators during the crushing process, cause extremely high decibel explosions that locals have compared to ‘a car crashing into their homes.’ These explosions can occur any time of day without warning and have interfered with the daily lives of residents in several ways. In a recent interview conducted by the Environmental Studies Capstone class of 2023, Diane McDaniel, secretary of the JFK Neighborhood Association and a long-time resident stated, “Now sometimes the boom can be so loud that it actually shakes the windows, and sometimes they’re so sudden…you might be baking a cake or talking on the phone and just out of nowhere, BOOM, I mean it's loud!”

Sustained excessive vibrations can cause negative psychological responses in humans as well as cause structural damage over time. Reported issues that arise from consistent vibrational activity onto structures include cracks in dry wall, foundational movement, and even complete deterioration of structures Derichebourg Recycling USA, responsible for these explosions, constructed a cost-intensive 30 ft. wall to act as a sound barrier, in between their facility and the JFK Neighborhood in an attempt to buffer the noise disturbance (Lackmeyer, 2021). However, this has not helped regarding the subsurface vibrations which travel below ground shaking JFK residents’ home and damaging their foundations. The explosions have decreased in frequency but still are occurring, and JFK residents have reported that they are just as loud and shake their homes and property structures tremendously when they occur.

Extreme damage may result in buildings failing to meet many local municipal building codes. The three historic buildings in the JFK Neighborhood listed on the National Register of Historic Places,1 The Historic Douglass High School (now The Auditorium at the Douglass), Historic Paul Laurence Dunbar Elementary School (now Dunbar Commons – Senior Apartments), and the Historic Jewel Theatre have more than likely had their structural integrity compromised and foundations impacted by the Derichebourg Facility explosions. Buildings or infrastructure all respond differently to vibrational activity and common sources of vibrational nuisances can be sourced from roadway and railway traffic, and or construction and blasting

1 State Historic Preservation Office’s Map of Nationally registered Historic Places https://okshpo.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Embed/index.html?webmap=abda0e849b874bb29587f7c22f653517&extent=105.8129,31.5635,-

89.586,39.2271&home=true&zoom=true&previewImage=false&scale=true&search=true&searchextent=true&legen d=true&basemap_gallery=true&disable_scroll=true&theme=light (Zoom in to view the three National Register

Historic Places in the JFK Neighborhood); also view the Oklahoma Properties Listed in the National Register (Oklahoma's National Register Handbook) – see Oklahoma County, listed in alphabetical order activity. It is well-established in previous research that blasts such as the ones from the nearby recycling facility are some of the most damaging. For example, “Blasting energy is much bigger than energy of other sources of construction vibrations. Blasting energy is hundreds of times greater than energy of other sources of construction vibrations” (Svinkin, 2008).

Aside from the mental and emotional effects of these traumatic explosions, the residents have also noticed structural damage occurring in their homes. We are compelled to examine the link between the damage to residential structures and the subsurface vibrations associated with the explosions shifting the soil beneath their homes. Such vibrations have been known to cause foundational damage to even the sturdiest of structures. This occurs when generated vibrations transmit directly to the structure, through the supporting points of the foundation, then causing displacement of the soils beneath the structure (CEP Forensic, 2021). This can result in fractures along the foundation of a structure, the walls, even the ceiling, and can be extremely detrimental to the property and difficult to repair. Repairs can cost anywhere from $5,000 to $20,000 and the repair process can be disruptive to the homeowner’s daily lives, as well as a financial burden not caused by the property owner.

The idea that human-induced subsurface vibrations can alter soil stability is well studied and should be considered when cracked drywall and foundational shifts in recently built homes is commonly reported in the JFK Neighborhood. Structural evidence, as well as personal accounts of buildings shaking after the onset of industrial explosions, support the high probability that there is a causal link between industrial activity and damage of personal property. The soil composition of an area could help determine if these factors are linked through proper monitoring that measures the peak particle velocity (PPV) during industrial explosion events.

To fully understand the scale of these effects an understanding of soil characteristics and the proper measurement of subsurface vibrations must be considered. PPV can be determined by measuring the movement of soil substrates underneath the exposed surface of an area as energy moves throughout it. Each time a blast or vibration occurs this subsurface movement takes place which causes settling thus repeated exposure to such an event only exacerbates the movement of the soil and will tend to loosen and even liquify it under such conditions. “The ground vibration created by a blast may cause damage to structures and their foundations. Structures/foundations are prone to settlement because of a blast, like other types of dynamic or seismic loads” (Kumar et al., 2014). Measuring the PPV in such an event can help determine the exact effect that is taking place. “The most common approach suggested for estimating the attenuation of particle velocity on the ground is to scale the distance (scaled distance, SD). This approach makes it possible to estimate the PPV when the amount of explosive charge or the distance or both are altered” (Ak

& Konuk, 2008).

Until the last decade, construction, or renewal of buildings in the JFK Neighborhood was not frequent. Therefore, there are structures that remain in the area that are of historic status and protected by the National Historical Preservation Act. It is likely that these structures ware more vulnerable to obtaining damage from vibrations and may have obtained some damage over the last several decades. Although some may be attributed to shifting of the earth and other natural causes, we cannot rule out the potential of damage to these historical landmarks from the industrial explosions. We recommend further examination of the National Historic Preservation Act for legal protections for buildings registered under the National Register of Historic Places. Accounts from residents with houses built within the last decade support the possibility that some damage might have occurred across many structures in the JFK: “I’ve got cracks all over my house that have come up because of these booms. They shake the house, and if the house is shaking, damage is almost certainly being done to the foundation” (Redus, Rodney 2023).

Construction, explosions, blasting, excavating, drilling, and driving are all frequent causes of subsurface vibrations and can all cause direct vibrational damage to nearby structures (Yala, 2023). The damage thresholds have been studied by a variety of entities. A United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) study concluded that humans could perceive vibrations as low as 0.28 mm/sec and were considered severe at 7.65 mm/sec (Yala, 2023). Interestingly, this same study conducted an evaluation on residential structures near a construction site and found that the vibration level threshold that can result in damage to older homes is 12.7 mm/sec, and 19.05 mm/sec for newer homes.

Sites and activities that generate subsurface vibrations and inevitably cause structural damage to nearby homes, will offer compensation if the damage is attributed to such activities

There are many steps to the process to confirm that the damage to the home was caused by industrial activity. Inspections, photos, reports, and forms must be completed and filed in order to begin the process. If subsurface vibrations are confirmed as the cause of these damages, then a claim can be made to the entity’s insurance company, since most such activities are insured by law (Making, 2023). However, large contractor insurers may dispute the claim. A possible alternative is to file a claim with the homeowner’s insurance company.

The Significance of Soil and its Response to Vibrations

While there is a low risk of flooding in the neighborhood, JFK still resides on floodplain soils that may not have the same shrink-swell properties of the surrounding prairie grassland soils. Based on SSURGO data, there are 8 different soil series within the neighborhood’s boundaries (Soil Survey Staff). These are primarily floodplain soils in the southern and eastern portions of the neighborhood, with paleo terraces, backslopes, and hillslopes in the other parts of JFK. To investigate the properties of the neighborhood’s soil, residents volunteered to let us sample from 5 locations to investigate soil texture and visible properties. Knowledge of soil textures could provide information about how vibrations from the blasts produced by the Derichebourg Recycling Facility might travel through the subsurface.

Soil structure and function is often overlooked as a critical variable that supports quality of life. It serves as a key component of life on Earth and is the foundation of modern infrastructure. Most soil is comprised of particles and aggregates that include clay, silt, sand, and organic matter. The varying proportion of these particle sizes (clay, silt, sand) determine soil texture and provide an understanding of how soil serves society and the built environment.

Examining soil properties will also aid in understanding how well soil supports the infrastructure that is built upon it. Near surface seismic waves, such as the ones produced from explosions at the recycling facility, are propagated through soils and energy is transferred differently through varying soil types. Infrastructure such as family homes and nearby facilities are often the subject of the stress produced by this energy transfer. “Vibration is a frequent problem in buildings. Common internal sources are machinery, HVAC systems, elevators, and the activities of occupants. External sources include earthquakes, wind, blasting and construction operations, and road and rail traffic” (Hunaidi, 2000). For this reason, we sampled various residential sites within the JFK Neighborhood to characterize the soil (Table 1).

Table 1: Table of soil sample locations and expected soil traits. (“SoilWeb: An Online Soil Survey Browser | California Soil Resource Lab”)

The following tables show the findings from field sampling of JFK residences on May 2nd, 2023:

Our findings indicate that the soils within the margins of the JFK have highly variable physical properties. We recommend that any structural damage is examined by experts in structural engineering to establish the link between subsurface vibrations and structural damage or instability in the JFK Neighborhood. We also recommend continuous monitoring to understand how the blasts are transferring energy through the subsurface and affecting soil stability. These monitoring strategies are outlined in detail in the “Monitoring Strategies” section of this report.

Ecological Considerations Attributed to Industrial Explosions

It is well-documented that loud explosive noise and the subsequent ground vibrations have a negative effect on wildlife and domestic animals (Borda-de-Água et al. 2017; Erbe et al. 2020; Manci 1988; Pepper et al. 2003). Such research has been conducted in areas where flight operations take place, and the environment is subjected to frequent low flying aircraft noise and even sonic booms emitting from military aircraft operations. High decibel noise incidents thrust onto any environment where wildlife or pets may exist affect a plethora of factors including social, reproductive, spatial awareness, even psychological effects. Mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles all have unique negative responses individually as a species. The auditory systems of each of those animal groups are different thus the response of each will differ. Also, the source and direction of the loud noises play a role in the animal’s response. Animals rely on their auditory system to communicate for reproduction, protect themselves from predators and even move about the environment, for example how bats use echo location to fly in low light conditions. According to Manci (1988), “A sudden or unfamiliar sound is believed to act as an alarm, activating the sympathetic nervous system. The short - term physiological stress reactions, referred to as ‘fight - or - flight,’ are similar for many animal species including humans.” A major consideration of this fact is the ability of any animal to move freely to or from an area where they are being subjected to noise and vibration. Domesticated animals such as household pets are often constrained to a limited area and thus can succumb to even worse psychological effects of loud noise and vibration. Aquatic species such as fish or amphibians are also subject to being confined to an area with no realistic ability to leave an environment that can result in many changes. Sound unquestionably influences the activities of most anurans (i.e., frogs and toads) and plays a significant role in the reproductive behavior of many species (Manci, 1988; Zaffaroni-Caorsi et al., 2023). Birds are a unique case because they can move about their environment more freely than most other animals, and their response is often to leave an area entirely, which clearly indicates a drop in biodiversity of that area. A loss of biodiversity in an area subjected to manmade noise is also an indicator of environmental degradation, as well as an environmental injustice, insofar as this occurs more frequently near communities exposed to nearby industrial activity.

Beyond aircraft noise, railway ecology can give a better insight to how animals respond to ground vibrations due to the terrestrial nature of railroads and their use. According to Bordade-Água et al. (2017), “noise, light, and vibration due to railways have been observed to reduce the abundance and richness of some insects, amphibians, and birds, and to cause avoidance behavior on predators.” Ground vibrations are reverberated through solids, such as soil, and when animals are subjected to vibrations, adverse effects will compound and affect not only the physical nature of an environment but also the psychological makeup of the species that inhabit that area (See Table 1). This is yet again another example of how biodiversity is lowered due to manmade activity.

Biodiversity is a spatial measurement of all the wildlife and their supporting structures in an area. Typically, industrial zones and residential areas are not to be near one another and for this reason different standards are set. “In residential land-use zones, citizens are typically required to maintain yards with grass less than a specified height, whereas conservation areas or industrial areas would not be subject to such bylaws” (Horn, 2010). This difference in maintenance standards calls into question what precedence should take priority the ecological health of a residential zone or the industrial predominance of land use, where less biodiversity is present. Due to the Derichebourg Recycling Facility’s frequent explosions in previous decades (JFK Neighborhood Association, 2021), there is more than likely a lack of biodiversity in the JFK Neighborhood, compromising the quality of life for the residents.

Survey of Policy and Guidelines

There are several laws and ordinances in OKC designed to regulate noise pollution. Loud explosions, and other abrupt sounds, such as the ones caused by the Derichebourg Recycling Facility, are considered excessive noise by the city and are prohibited in certain areas. The majority of the JFK Neighborhood fall under R-1, R-2, and R-3 residential classifications. Areas under these residential classifications have limits of 65 dBA during the day and 60 dBA at night; much lower than the amount of sound created by the recycling plant booms (Oklahoma City, Code of Ordinances, § 34-12. - Table of sound level limits). While the city has these general restrictions on noise pollution, there are no regulations for structural damage caused to homes and buildings due to the excessive subsurface vibration caused by the explosions. While the regulations for structural vibrations are absent in Oklahoma, there are several places around the world who implement them, and plenty more experts who recommend implementing them. However, while research exists proving the need for regulations on structural vibrational damage, there is still somewhat of a debate over what an acceptable level of vibrations should be. This is mainly because nature and severity of structural vibration damage changes depending on the type of soil, distance of blasts, age and importance of buildings, and many other factors (Konon and Schuring, 1983). This has made it especially hard to come up with effective policy solutions, for what many politicians see as a niche issue.

As of today, there are no federal regulations on blast vibration standards in the US, and from our inquiry, we are aware of four states (North Carolina, New Hampshire, Florida, and Vermont) that explicitly regulate blast vibrations at the state level. As we examine ordinances across different states, it is evident how interpretation and implementation of these regulations can drastically differ. Florida limits vibrations from construction blasting to 8.19 mm/sec (Florida Department of Transportation, Florida Charter, Section 108). However, New Hampshire limits them to 32.77 mm/sec, and only limits older homes to 8.19 mm/sec (New Hampshire Department of Transportation, 2017). Vermont and North Carolina on the other hand do not have official standards. Vermont simply requires construction sites to adhere to the same vibrational standards as mines (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 2017). North Carolina limits usage of different vibration causing machinery to cut back on vibrations (UpCodes, 2018, North Carolina Building Code, Chapter 16).

This variation in regulation standards and methods is also present on the international stage. Germany prevents damaged buildings from being exposed to vibration levels above 4 mm/sec and prevents historic buildings from being exposed to levels above 2 mm/sec. Switzerland only regulates structural vibration damage on historic buildings and prohibits them from being exposed to more than 3 mm/sec (Konon and Schuring, 1983).

This variation in acceptable levels of vibration exposure is also present in the countless expert recommendations. Some claim that even 2 mm/sec should be avoided, while other studies have shown that vibrations of up to 250 mm/sec cause no damage to buildings or structures

(Norén-Cosgriff et al., 2020). This is mainly due to the wide variety of variables considered when trying to measure structural vibration damage; some studies looked at buildings made of different materials or of different ages or performed blast tests in different soil types and at different distances. While these different variables can be understood experimentally, it is often difficult to translate them into effective policy. Especially when structural vibration damage is a relatively newly studied problem and is often not one of the primary issues on the minds of policymakers.

Monitoring Strategies

In order to monitor the subsurface vibrations from the Derichebourg explosions, we would need to establish accelerometers in buildings within JFK. Accelerometers measure the vibrations in different structures, which would allow us to see the effects that the Derichebourg explosions have on the buildings in JFK. Because of the unpredictable timing of the booms, we would need these accelerometers running at all of the times that the plant is in operation. However, it would be challenging for residents to be able to constantly monitor their accelerometers throughout the day, we would first reach out to businesses or other facilities in the neighborhood, as it is more likely that people will be there to monitor throughout Derichebourg Recycling Facility’s operating hours. Even with facilities operating during daytime hours being more able to monitor their accelerometers, we would still want to establish multiple sites of measurement to establish more reliable results, or in case one site has technical difficulties. This raises another issue of cost. Most accelerometers are fairly expensive and could exceed project budgets. Fortunately, PhyPhox, a free mobile app available for iOS and Android is capable of using the inner sensors in smartphones to act as an accelerometer. By utilizing

PhyPhox, anyone with a phone in JFK Neighborhood would be capable of potentially collecting vibrational data during an explosion event.

What is PhyPhox and How Well Would It Work?

Smartphones have a variety of different internal sensors that allow them to function.

PhyPhox utilizes these sensors to be able to provide various kinds of data, allowing the phone to act as various measurement devices, such as a magnetometer, gyroscope, barometer, and most importantly an accelerometer. All the user needs to do is place their phone on a flat surface and make sure it remains unmoved while it collects its data. Apps like PhyPhox are not new, many specialists and scientists have been considering whether these apps can be used to collect research grade data. Most agree that data collecting apps, including PhyPhox, are fairly accurate, however there are some concerns about how they should be applied in research projects (Staacks, et al., 2018).

Many have pointed out that even though these data collecting apps are surprisingly accurate, different phones have different kinds of sensors, or sensors with varying levels of degradation and use. This can create some discrepancies in the data, especially when using multiple phones, such as we plan to do (Odenwald, 2019). Thus, many experts recommend comparing each individual phone’s measurements to an actual accelerometer, in order to account for the margin of error for each phone.

Another issue that many have raised is the ability of a group of loosely related volunteers to provide accurate measurements. While citizen science is a growing field, allowing more and more people to help provide accurate data, this is a legitimate concern (Odenwald, 2019).

Another concern is that the residents and facilities in the JFK Neighborhood have other responsibilities to take care of rather than constantly monitoring an accelerometer to make sure that it is running smoothly. To remedy this, one approach would be to give each volunteer a spare phone to swap out with their primary one, so that this phone could be constantly plugged in in a place where it could monitor potential explosions.

Materials and Methods

For this experiment we would ideally use 12 smartphones with 6 chargers, divided up among 6 different buildings. The business owners or residents would place one of the phones on a flat surface, preferably the ground, with PhyPhox’s accelerometer running from 7:00 AM to 7:00 PM, the operating hours of the Derichebourg Recycling plant. The volunteers would be expected to monitor the phones to the best of their ability. The backup phones would be provided in case of overheating, charger malfunctions, or general bugs. While so many smartphones and data plans could get pricey, by relying on used phones and older phones, we expect this to still be more cost effective than purchasing actual accelerometers.

However, we would need to buy at least one accelerometer to compare the smartphones to, in order to standardize the data should an explosion be recorded. By using these methods, we hope to record the “booms’” vibrational impact on structures. While the overall goal is to be able to consistently record multiple instances of explosions, even one accelerometer reading during an explosion event would help our case for the JFK Neighborhood invaluably. The JFK Neighborhood is a residential area in close proximity to industrial hazards, such as the Derichebourg industrial recycling facility explosions. This is one way to measure the seismic level of the explosions and that it exceeds safe standards for residences and the residents of the JFK Neighborhood.

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