6.4. Challenges and Gaps CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 249

The NAIP of Rwanda is notable in its commitment to the significant role of women in food production, correcting unequal access to land and credit and the importance of supporting women’s rural organisations.1953 Initiatives such as One Cow per Poor Family reflect the government’s commitment to supporting female farmers.1954 In 2010, Rwanda adopted the Agriculture Gender Strategy to guide the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, its agencies and development partners on gender-sensitive programming and interventions to transform the agriculture sector.1955 To address the challenges associated with achieving equality and equity in agriculture, the Strategy includes strategic objectives to, among others, enhance gender responsiveness in the delivery of agricultural services, promote equal participation in decision-making and develop capacities to enable gender-sensitive programming. It also includes mechanisms for the implementation and allocation of resources and the grounding of decisions on gender-disaggregated indicators.1956

In terms of addressing food security, both Djibouti and Republic of Congo have adopted institutional reforms. Djibouti’s Social Assistance Programme, established in 2016, assists the most vulnerable families with food aid and women with income-generating activities.1957 In Republic of Congo, the Parliament launched the Alliance for Food and Nutritional Security (APSCAN) with the support of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).1958 The mission of APSCAN includes promoting multi-sectoral approaches to fight hunger and malnutrition; developing an appropriate legislative framework for food and nutrition security; educating policy-makers and populations; and ensuring funding to sectors related to food and nutrition security.1959

To address the unmet needs of women, in particular rural women, in terms of banking, the Zimbabwe Women’s Microfinance Bank was launched in 2018. The Bank offers funding, among others, to women engaged in agricultural businesses.1960 Some countries have established funds specifically earmarked to help women purchase land. In South Africa, the 2018/19 One Household, One Hectare Land Reform programme supported 932 female-headed households, representing 41.4% of those households subsidised.1961 In Zambia in 2014, the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Environmental Protection increased its quota for land reserved for women from 30% to 40%; men and women compete for the remaining 60% of available land.1962 The Integrated Programme for the Empowerment of Women in Burkina Faso 2016–2020 provides women with resources such as fertilisers, seeds and production and processing equipment.1963

6.4. Challenges and Gaps

From the trends identified, some key gaps and contestations have been observed. The first concerns the right to food and the right to land. While the right to food is guaranteed in most constitutions, not all contain such provisions. The revised Constitution of Malawi does not recognise the right to food although under Article 30 (the right to development) it establishes that the State shall take all necessary measures for the full realisation of this right and provides for the “equality of opportunity for all in their access to food.”1964 Gambia and Libya have not adopted their respective draft constitutions, both of which include provisions on the right to food.

Although in many countries women’s rights to access land are enshrined in law or constitutionally guaranteed, gender gaps in ownership persist and female landowners remain a minority. Approximately 80% of land in Africa is held under customary tenure systems, which often exclude women from ownership and control over land.1965 Insecure rights and land tenure leave women, especially widows and single women, vulnerable to discrimination through social practices and norms when it comes to inheritance and ownership of land and other resources. Moreover, weak implementation of existing laws and competing legal systems present obstacles to women’s land rights. Modern law on equal ownership rights of land is often not enforced. Rather, customary law tends to favour men and male children. This limits women and girls in exercising their right to land and denies them the equal inheritance of land and resources such as ploughs and livestock.1966 Insecure rights to land, property and resources contribute to poverty and food insecurity for women and girls.1967

Second, while nearly all countries have adopted NAIPs, an audit of these revealed that only a few integrate gender in their activities. Many NAIPs do not use gender-disaggregated data or include the effective participation of women’s

organisations and groups in developing national plans.1968 Moreover, NAIPs often do not account for gender-based constraints such as unequal access to infrastructure, markets and services, or the responsibilities and time constraints of women, such as unpaid care and collecting water.1969 Concerning the Malabo Declaration, 43 countries have joined the CAADP process, and 39 countries have developed national agriculture and food security investment plans.1970 However, the CAADP reviews of 2017 and 2019 reveal that few countries are on track in meeting the commitments regarding women’s participation in agriculture, food security and nutrition, and public expenditure in agriculture.

Third, women’s access to agricultural technologies, seeds, credit, finance and other resources remains a particular challenge for female smallholder farmers, while the gender gap persists. Women are also limited in their access to markets beyond the local market, as inadequate infrastructure makes transportation difficult. As a result, women earn less because prices at the local market are lower than in urban areas.1971 Women also face economic barriers. Women have a more difficult time obtaining loans, lack property to use as collateral and, if approved for a loan, often pay higher interest rates. Married women often need their husband’s approval to apply for credit.1972 Women are frequently excluded from extension services in the areas of agriculture and agribusiness. In Malawi, only 14% of women report having access to extension services as a result of a tendency among (male) workers to approach male rather than female farmers, focusing on cash crops, which are primarily produced by men.1973

Fourth, while many laws, policies and strategies were adopted during the AWD, women often remain marginalised in the development of mechanisms and strategies concerning agriculture and food security. As a result, women do not have equal access to and participation in decision-making.

Finally, despite various national, regional and continental commitments on gender equality, food security and agriculture, a critical contestation relates to the unequal burden of unpaid care work. Unpaid care work such as cooking, collecting water and firewood and care of children and family members often goes unrecognised, despite its importance and necessity. As a result, women have longer workdays than men. These unequal responsibilities present a significant barrier to women’s economic empowerment, prevent them from taking part in meetings related to agriculture, reduce the time they can put into farming and income-generating activities and contribute to poverty and food insecurity.1974 Unpaid care work, coupled with discrimination and weak implementation of legal frameworks, prevent women from enjoying their human rights, attaining economic empowerment and reaching their full potential. It also negatively impacts the attainment of gender equality and can contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes, where men are seen as leaders and breadwinners and women more suited to caring for the family.1975