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ART, ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE
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ART, ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE American in Transition
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editor: miguel angel martinez designer and art director: mianma gugeti (miguel) writers: tabitha ostermann miguel angel martinez alicia delgado font family: helvetica neue lt std, bodoni bq helvetica neue lt std univers lt std serifa sd
special thanks: matthew gaynor for helping me understand the basics and advanced rules of graphic design. again. pedro juan martinez, my borther, for looking over countless papers and helping me realize why I can write a paper, I just can’t conclude or open one. philip burton for helping me along the way through any graphic design project I had, and for originally teaching me the basics of swedish design. The High Life
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ARCHITECTURE
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Straight Up Interna- tional: A look into the international architec- tural movement. The High Life
DESIGN
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Warped Between Art And Design: An argument on the similarities of American Art and Design. The Art or The Design?.
Motion and colour are two factors that play a large role in everyday life, and this book does nothing that makes our readers forget that fact.
CULTURE AND PUBLIC
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Throught the Glowing Box: The Beginning of the Television in America The Spot Light
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Works, Research and CitationsThe High Life
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A phenomenon that spread across not
The International style
just the United States, but quickly across
was to be as simple as
the entire world, captivated architects and
possible. The only
artists of the first half of the 20th Century.
visible ornament, which
The phenomenon came from the core
was minimal at most,
ideas behind what we know as Modernism.
was not actually con-
Architects were freeing themselves from
sidered ornament, but
any type of ornament as well as freeing
instead the structural
themselves from the previous art and
composure of the actual
architectural movements. Ornament in
building.
any case of architecture was seen as very unnecessary and definitely not used within this movement. This style of course was called the Internationalstyle. International style developed out of the late 1920’s and mostly revolved around architecture. The ideas of Modernism that the International style was built on began just
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of their buildings. If it wasn’t necessary, it did not need to be there in the artists’ eyes. Modernity was a new idea and it can be referred to many different artistic fields, not just architecture. Although most modern characteristics were not very influential until after World War II, the International style’s roots began as far back as the late 1920’s. (Hitchcock, 4) As time progressed, the style became much more popular and especially before World War II but never really took off widespread across the country until shortly after the war. Advancements in technology and the use of new materials catapulted the Modern movement forward. Use of these new materials was revolutionized and is what defined this period in United States architectural history. Characteristics of this modern era were carried throughout the years with the development of the International style.
The basic characteristics behind
this style of architecture during the first half of the 20th Century were the simplified forms. Architects not only designed with more simplified forms, but they also got rid
after the Second World War it became the leading style within corporate and bureaucratic buildings.
It is believed that the origins of
Modernism came about because of political and social revolution. This revolution has changed the look of Modernism across the world. A machine aesthetic is the inspiration of the Modern Movement. Down to the most basic stripping away of any unnecessary ornament from the interior as well as the structure. (Massey, 100, 2001) Most see the development of Modern architecture as The Seagram Building viewed from ground lelvel
of any sort of ornament within the designs
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the advancement of new technologies and processes to allow these new materials and substances to be used. The main new materials that were used during the origins of International style were iron, steel, and glass. They were seen as innovative materials for an architectural revolution.
New modern materials meant
that they had to develop new ways of using them. The newer materials were essentially made to create a lighter, more spacious and especially more functional space. (Massey, 101, 2001) They couldn’t simply be used like brick or wood. Of course these new developments with technology drove the United States towards the Industrial Revolution before the stirrings of the International style. Driven by the newly established mass production ability, Modernists were inspired by the ideas of standardization and rationalization. (Massey, 101, 2001) A precursor to the International style that developed from these new ideas and materials was the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton in 1851. It was a very early example of construction with glass and steel, but not as highly developed as the architects in the Modern
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Movement. This type of construction really had never been seen before, but was sure to be used as an example. A pre-existing glass and steel construction spurred the architects of the early 20th Century to refine this style. It was indeed timed way before the actual Modern Movement, but here we can see the first stirrings of these ideas.
By the 1920’s, almost all of the
most influential modern architects had already begun their work and established their reputations. Some of the most commonly recognized architects would be Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, Frank The Crystal Palace was a building, built in Hyde Park, London, England, made from cast-iron and glass, to house the Great Exhibition. The building was developed
with a style that hadn’t been seen before, and because if it’s bare structural nature, it was recieved quite well and accepted as a modern form of architecture.
Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, Irving Gill, Eliel Saarinen, Richard Neutra, and the list goes on. Both Gropius and Mies were architects that came from Germany, where they were directors of the Bauhaus. Later on in the 1930’s Mies left Germany and moved to the United States. He came to Chicago. Many other architects from the Bauhaus fled Germany during World War II and established themselves in the United States, later even reopening the Bauhaus school. Another famous modern architect would be Frank Lloyd Wright. Although Wright was a
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Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water is a nature infused building, built in Pittsburgh, on top of a waterfall.
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it through the setting the building was placed in or the strong architectural compositions that in a sense copied nature, Frank Lloyd Wright developed his style around organic architecture and not really following the same characteristics that other Modern architects were using. Throughout the next couple of decades, these architects showed the potential to make history in their architecture.
One of the most important hap-
penings in the history of International style would have to be the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture that was held in MOMA in 1932. (Hitchcock, 8) Philip Johnson curated this exhibition. At this event, Philip Johnson and his friend Henry-Russell Hitchcock began analyzing the styles and trends of the current modern characteristics that were being displayed great influence on the lives of Mies and Gro-
in architecture around the United States.
pius, he defined himself not the same as the
They saw all of these characteristics com-
European modernists, but created a ide-
ing together in the architecture being built
als of his own. He incorporated the ideas
and decided that because they were similar,
of modernism with his strong affinity with
they classified these modern characteristics
organic architecture. Everything that Wright
into a style of its own. They created the
built often had some references to nature. Be
term International style. They believed that
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this style was not just a political movement but an aesthetic style in its own that would define history of modern architecture. This exhibition single handedly put International style on the map.
Built in 1929, Richard Neutra’s
Lovell House was built for the physician Phillip Lovell. It is often referred to as the Lovell Health House. This building was the turning point in Neutra’s career. Often being called the first steel frame house that was built in the United States, the Lovell House also shows off a lot of the newly developed architectural explorations of materials. The Lovell House was included in the Museum of Modern Architecture’s exhibition because of its standards in International style. The building was very geometric and meant to promote hygiene. The cleanliness of the windows and white frame definitely helped the success of this institution. Neutra showed of his minimalistic architectural side, obviously being influenced by Irving Gill. The inside of the Lovell House shows Neutra’s interest with the ideas of Cubism. The building just
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looks clean and healthy from the outside. This was one of the goals of the architects. Cleanliness meant that things would also get done more efficiently. It was all about the setting. The exterior and interior of these buildings were meant to inspire and influence the mood of the people within.
International style did not neces-
sarily influence the designs of the Modern home in the United States, but was more geared towards corporate and institutional buildings. Architects wanted to break free from the likes of previous Art Noveau ornamented construction by stripping away nearly all ornamented designs from the buildings, even the structures within. The main elements were simply steel and ABOVE: The Richard
Neutra’s Lovell House
iron for the structure and glass and steel mainly for the façade. The floors were made of concrete. Floor plans were design
LEFT PAGE: The Lovell’s
based on the functionality of the business
House model for construction purposes.
that would be held in the building. It was all based on functionality. The through process behind that was because during the whole Modern Movement, people needed to get things done more efficiently. So these architects began developing these buildings
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ABOVE: The Farns-
worth House from the frontside. RIGHT PAGE:
The Lever Building on a cloudless day.
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The Farnsworth House from the backside
so that people could get their jobs done at the highest level of efficiency. The floor plans were mostly open floor plans with minimal support so that it would not clutter up any of the open spaces. The Modern architects focused on logical ways of expressing their style. (Prudon, 21, 2008) These Modern thinkers set a new style for history.
Bibliography Hitchcock, Henry R., and Philip Johnson. The International Style. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Massey, Anne. Interior Design of the 20th Century. New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2001. Prudon, Theodroe H.M. Preservation of Modern Architecture. 1st ed. New Jersey: Wiley, 2008. Weston, Richard. Modernism. Phaidon P, 2001.
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Although International style did
horizontally on the exterior of the house, the
not influence the American home for the
Farnsworth House is one masterpiece from
main part, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe built
Mies’ lifetime. Mies found a way to express
the Farnsworth House between 1945-51.
the International style within a home even
The Farnsworth House was meant to be
though most architects around were making
a weekend retreat sort of setting, being
corporate buildings and skyscrapers.
placed in an urban backdrop. The layout
The Seagram building from viewed from street level.
of the house includes just one major room
with only little sections portioned off by
pop up everywhere. Most of them were
Skyscrapers were beginning to
furniture or moveable walls that did not go
being designed within the constraints of the
to the ceiling. The house is built of mainly
International style. Some examples of these
steel and glass, with a complete open space
would be the Lever House and the Seagram
inside. The complete “clean” aesthetic of
Building. SOM, Skidmore, Owings, and
the Farnsworth house is a great representa-
Merrill designed the Lever House, which
tion of International style. From the floor to
is located in New York City. It was built in
ceiling glass to the two distinct beams laid
1951-1952 for the famous British soap company of the Lever Brothers. The building was the American headquarters for them. Its form is basically represented as a glass box. When seeing this skyscraper, the viewer can instantly see the characteristics of the International style. It consists of heat-resistant glass and stainless steel curtain-wall. (Massey, 98, 2001) It is absolutely beautiful to look at, almost as if the
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Philip Johnson’s masterpiece work, the Glass House.
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construction is flawless. The Lever House
was made of steel and glass windows were
was built the way it was to reduce the cost
hung from these frames. Although Mies
of keeping the building maintained. The
wanted the structure to show no matter
windows were nonfunctional so that less
what, the city required the steel to be cov-
dirt from the city could get into the building.
ered with concrete for safety purposes. In
Modern architects were always thinking
case of fires, the heat would not immedi-
about the International style’s clean look.
ately compromise the steel frame so they
That is why most institutions were being
had to cover it with concrete. So instead
built in the same type of style. The look of
of having the actual steel framework show-
glass and steel often came off as cleaner.
ing, Mies developed an idea to put bronze
The structures were less cluttered with
beams over the concrete to suggest the
unnecessary functions so that the institu-
structure. Mies thought that these beams
tion could run more precisely. It seemed
were essential to the feel behind the build-
as if the architects thought of everything.
ing. If he had built it without having those “fake” beams, the building would not be the
Mies van der Rohe built the Sea-
gram Building in 1958. It was built in collaboration with Philip Johnson. The Seagram Building is the most representational of International style being the finest example of functional aesthetics. It is the perfect example of corporate modernism. Mies showed off all of his talents when he built the Seagram Building. His most basic belief for architecture was that the structure should be seen. If it is a masterpiece, all of its components should be shown off and understood. The Seagram Building’s frame
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The rules to building a structure, whether a residental, commericial or other still follow in the international and modern style. LEFT PAGE:
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Chicago’s own RelianceBuilding (Hotel Burnham) which was rebuilt in 1999, under the international style guidelines.
are deceived all because of Mies’ Modernistic ideas. It was pure International style. Another example of a Modern home would have to be Philip Johnson’s Glass House, which was built in 1949. Johnson built the Glass House for his own use. Built in the same way and with the same ideas as Mies’ Farnsworth House, the Glass House had a steel frame and glass walls. It was built out of basic geometry and minimal structure. A viewer can see the only obstructing structure within the Glass House is held within the center of the building. Johnson explains that the enclosed center holds all electrical wiring as well as plumbing pipes. The enclosing structure also hides the bathroom facilities. Johnson thought about every single detail. The Glass House is built in a certain spot, relating to the nature around. One can see that Johnson wanted the glass to play a
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Although International style was
mostly represented in the corporate world, the United States was a front-runner with this revolutionary style. Some homes were developed from this style, but many more skyscrapers and corporate buildings were popping up in all the major cities. Interna-
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big role in this building and that’s exactly how
tional style was a phenomenon to say the
the architects of International style thought.
least. Springing out of the Modern move-
Glass was a major player in the construction
ment, architects began developing plans for
of all of these buildings because of its allure.
no ornament and basic geometric forms for
One can see how reflections from the glass
the new buildings. (Weston, 25, 2001) New
make the house even more beautiful. There
technologies and new materials drove these
is basically no ornament or excess within
innovative architects to create this new style.
the Glass House at all. All the rooms are just
It was becoming a whole new world of mini-
one big one, showcasing the open plan of
malism and functionality through the eyes of
most International style buildings. Johnson
such architects as Frank Lloyd Wright, Rich-
soon found out though that he could not live
ard Neutra, and Mies van der Rohe. Many
in the Glass House so he had a guest house
architects made up the community that
made not too far from it. He could spend
strove to innovate the Modern Movement.
his days in the Glass House and his nights
The Modern Movement combined with
in privacy. Being exposed in the spacious
International style definitely inspired and
room of the Glass House would definitely
influenced the whole United States during
not suffice for most American homeowners.
post World War II. The Modern Movement
This is why most Modern architecture was
with International Style was the turning point
geared towards the corporate world, not
in this new Modern world for architecture
really being accepted by the public.
and art in general.
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The United Nations Headquarters located in New York City’s Turtle Bay.
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WARPED BETWEEN ART AND DESIGN Art and Design
The Art or The Design?
For a substantial portion of the country’s
history, art in the United States essentially boiled down to
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European art created by Americans; there was no distinct as twins, sharing the same components and ideals as they difference between the two styles. As Europe stood at the developed. Ideas used for military gain and ideas formed to forefront of new technologies and movements, most artistic deal with a lack of resources from the war movement would influences originated there. However, as the country entered then be adapted for civilian usage as well as for personal the second world war, the design and art world would change expression and experimentation, though art and design. forever. No longer would America’s artistic inspiration come primarily from overseas. Due to the war movement, new methods of construction and assembly began to emerge. This began to form the American style as we know it; the world of art and design would be blurred. They appeared
Right: Charles and Ray Eame’s famous lounge chair, and possibly the most recognizable icon of the American Modernist.
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its own style in the design world. Though the depression had slowed down economic gain in the country, through the Century of Progress Exposition (a commemoration for the 100th anniversary of the incorporation of the City of Chicago) and the help of Roosevelt’s private and public construction projects, the downward spiral of the United States’ image began to rise and people became more optimistic. While the Century of Progress Exposition During and after the Second World War, displayed, as world fairs had previously, the latest advancedesign had evolved significantly. With the rise of mass ments in transportation and consumer product designs production, the increasing numbers of industrial designers to an international audience, it was also showing exactly and diversity of products, the United States was gaining how advanced the nation had become on the world stage.
(p75, first paragraph;design chronicles Gantz). Soon after the fair, there was an increased demand for industrial deArt and Design
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Charles and Ray Eames’s wood Splints hanging and against the wall.
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signers and where they had previously pulled their work directly from Europe’s textbooks, the influence they needed
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was suddenly presenting itself in their home country. ing into the culture, and began rebuilding it, without the Emerging with its own technology, The influence of European ideals. The new style’s influences United States stopped looking overseas for influence to its were coming from the depression, the war and the design and thus began creating its own style with the help increases in mass production. of many designers, including Charles and Ray Eames, Eero Saarinen, George Nelson and more (http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive.woa/wa/ movement?id=178). Since the style was fairly new and being created solely by Americans, with the intent of helping other Americans, the style was slowly integrat-
Charles and Ray Eames’s wood Splints in detailed views.
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The American style could have tech-
nically been renamed the war/postwar style, since most
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designs and artistic expression was centered around Charles and Ray Eames had worked with the military and the war, whether it was for propaganda, documentary, or government on many forms of plywood formations. They advancements in war technology, such as The Willys Comwere learning how to bend and cut the wood so that it could pany’s/Ford’s Jeep and the Eames’ experimental wood create usable forms that were ergonomic at first, and later splints (The American Design Adventure; pg 20 & 27). also beautiful, but finally easy to reproduce without using too much energy. They, and a team of sculptures, artists, graphic designers, a metalworker, military personnel, and such, had designed one of America’s most notable and recognizable pieces of plywood furniture known as the DCM, the Dining Chair Metal (The Eames Lounge Chair: An Icon of Modern design pg. 49 50). This design, along with experimental
Henry Moore’s two piece reclining figure statues.
childrens’ chairs and molds, led to an even greater set of designers were still able to create meaningful, beautiful and designs that included low chairs and lounge chairs. The most practical products for everyday use with whichever materiwell-known of the chairs is the Eames Lounge Chair and als they were able to scrounge up. Industrial Designers such Ottoman. This chair was both a powerful design and a work as Dave Chapman, who had designed a series of wartime of art, and its experimental stages, the designed chairs substitute glasswares and coffee pots for the Club Aluminum before this one, were just as sculptural as they were practical. Products company, and Corning, known for the Pyrex cooking vessels, which resembled kitchen pans and Tupperware, Most of the materials needed to construct but made out of glass, were considered very popular. While the designs that were being commissioned at the time by Dave Capman’s work was not shown in the Museum of Modthe U.S. military were being taken from, bought from, or ern Art’s 1942 exhibition, “The Useful Objects of Wartime,” donated by U.S. citizens. This made some forms of art more
difficult to construct, and even harder for designers to construct certain types of products because many materials were in low supply. However, even with that limitation, American
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art pieces in folk, popular and decorative genres (Drawing Previous Page: Jackson Pollocks #6 painting. A true view of action painting and the evolution of American Art.
This Page: An assortment of Coconut chairs by George Nelson.
on America’s Past pg4). There were guidelines and goals to the project. The project had to collect works that were not already studied, and that might be lost. It had to gather a body of traditional information that would lead to development of American design. It had to make the source records available and accessible to artists, designers, manufacturers, libraries, etc. Finally, it had to employ painters, graphic artist, photographers, and commercial artists who might not
otherwise find work. (“purposes of the project,“ in NGA/GA Corning’s works are in one permanent collection. While glass Index Manual 1938 pg. 1) After concluding the purpose of was one of the most prominent items that was easily accessithe project, there was further expansion as to what was recble to artists and designers, as it was not critically needed by ognized as good in American and European design. This the military, mediums such as ceramics, paper and plywood form of information study and collection had already been were also commonly used.(The American Deign Adventure pg.11-13).
American art had changed drastically during
the second World War as well, partly due to a lack of personal identity. Between 1935 and 1942 the Index of American Design had studied and collected thousands of American
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done in Europe; The Europeans had collections of cultural One of the major movements to come out of art, such as decorative, folk and applied arts, and had already America at the time was postmodernism, which was develprinted them in books, for examination by their workers and oped to be contradictory to modernist design and art. Action students. This was all done as a means of inspiration and a painters, abstract expressionist, Northwest School artists renewed sense of native tradition, but not as a source for imiand American scene painters also evolved from postmodern tation. This quality attracted American manufacturers to the ideals. Modernist works were meant to be forward looking, European design market while consequently neglecting their medium specific, progressive, cutting-edge and revolutionary. own heritage and native talent (NGA/GA Index manual 1938 pg. 2). This caused an uproar from American society and thus pushed the movement to record and study American heritage and art to stimulate the minds of young American designers toward their own style instead of Europes’.
William de Koonigs 1955 painting “Gotham News�
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A Close-up view of George Nelson’s Marshmellow sofa.
Postmodern works, on the other hand, used both high and low culture through the use of industrial materials and pop org/wiki/Postmodern_art ) This opened an almost countless culture imagery in an extension of the manner that modernamount of possibilities for artists at the time, such as Willem ist art did (Maria DiBattista and Lucy McDiarmid, High and de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Low Moderns: literature and culture, 1889-1939, Oxford UniHofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, and Ad Reinhardt, versity Press, 1996, pp6-7.). who have also clearly opened the gates to a whole new era of Jackson Pollock was one of the greatest art, design and ways of thinking. influences at the beginning of the American postmodern Action painters followed the same idea movement, developing an art form known as abstract expresprocess as abstract expressionists, as it was the movement sionism. Pollock had understood that creating the work was and culture of creating art that encompassed their work, just as important as the final product. Being more liberal with instead of just the final piece. Action painters did not want the his work, he took the idea of painting to a higher level with final product to be the only representation of their work of art, his technique of moving away from the easel and moving toward rawness of the art, with unstretched canvases and almost any material as his medium to paint; he had gone beyond any prior boundaries before him. (http://en.wikipedia. Art and Design
Eames experimental chair forms, designed in order to understand plywood techniques and formations
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because the frozen movements was which their works portrayed, were just as important as the motion which invoked the actual piece of art. In one case the final product was considered more of a kind of residue, as critiqued by Harold Rosenberg (Rosenberg, Harold. “The American Action Painters.” poetrymagazines.org.uk. Retrieved on 2008).
American style created new principles and rules to follow; Prior to WWII design and Art in America they were simple and related to both art or design equally, crewas recognized as simply a version or interpretation of ating close similarities between the two. With the exception European movements and designs, which made the “Ameriof products made specifically for canvases, the differences can Style” seem to be nothing more than a copy of the between art and design were nearly indistinguishable, as European style in America. However, due to the war, and some works could have been considered either, depending America’s strong involvement, the country was developing on the form they were displayed in. Something as simple as and accessing materials and technologies that were not an experimental chair formation could have been confused directly available to them before the war. The birth of the for a work of art instead of a seating product. Using designs
influenced by European sources was frowned upon, but it the Eames’s organic bent plywood chairs and sculptures and was acceptable as long as it wasn’t a means to replicate Dave Chapman’s strange coffeepot shapes created a sense work, and made with materials that were available, as the of designed art. Though the chairs were quite experimental, war made most mediums inaccessible. With only these two the sculptures made of bent plywood by Ray Eames showed main criteria, art and design tended to blend ideas that would that the manner of art used to create these pieces was a powotherwise have been trapped in separate worlds. Works like erful influence to the final works of furniture that were then Art and Design
designed. The form of the human body also played a role that helped designers and artists design products and art. Ergonomics had become a basis for design, as the movement of the body had done for art. The coffeepots designed by Dave
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Chapman may have been very experimental, in the way the easily have been shown as an exhibition piece. More works arms of the pot were connected to the glass and how the user that would blur that line were designs in the “Contemporary would then interact to hold and pour the pot. If the objects American Industrial Art” exhibition, such as the Tea and were not identified as coffeepots and simply showed at a galCoffee Urn and Tray by Elial Sarinen, which without clarifilery, though easily recognizable as a pot, the artistic nature cation of what it was, could simply be taken for a spherical of them may have eluded many viewers. The same applied sculpture on top a flat rectangular base. The cocktail shaker to the experimental chairs that were drawn by Ray Eames by Willim Archibal Welden and the pitcher by Russel Wright and then executed by the Eames team. These chair models were very sculptural in nature, but were initially designed to fit the ergonomics of peoples’ bodies and to be easily and inexpensively reproducible. The closest example of a design by the Eames that smoothly blended furniture and art was the “La Chaise“ lounge chair. Fluid and expressive, it was made to comfort the human body and to relax in, and it could
La Chaise lounge chair designed by the Eames which resembles that of a chair, but also looks more of a fluid sculpture on wooden and metal stands than it does a seating structure.
America had quickly identified itself in the design
and art world, and with that identity came the basic rules to uphold what made the identity true. Those rules referenced both design and art at the same time, creating a question of whether the design world was merely usable art products, or if art itself was simply products and experimentations on a pedestal. With
the increasing number of products and art pieces that came out, as well, though made and designed to be industrially reprothe concepts would begin to drift away from one another and duced, were very representative of pieces of works of art that look drastically different, but the underlying rules and concepts seemed to have as much to do with how they worked on didn’t change and even with the small difference in their facade the design as the final product. The final works themselves the product of the works were still the same. displayed a sense of abstract movement like paintings from abstract and action artists (American Modern pg. 107-109). Art and Design
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“It is with a feeling of humbleness that I come to this moment of announcing the birth in this country of a new art so important in its implications that it is bound to affect all society.” – David Sarnoff, April 20, 1939 (Von Schilling, 2003, p. 5)
Ten days before the 1939 New York World’s Fair, David Sarnoff announced the American debut of the television in front of the RCA Pavilion Building. His proclamation introduced America to the device that would drastically reshape mass communication. Television was inevitably the next step after the radio. “The key to both radio and TV was the same: learning to use the electromagnetic spectrum, a basic feature of the universe, to send invisible electrical signals through the air” (Von Schilling, 2003, p. 1). Electrical experimentation had initiated in the 1920’s. However, it was in the 1930’s that television was introduced to a marveled yet hesitant public. In the next several years, technical modification, governmental deputes, and unsuccessful telecasting continued to delay complete public approval.
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A close-up view of the lines of resolution on a TV screen. The image portrays a profile view of a persons face.
Television
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By the 1950’s, Americans began to purchase televisions sets for their homes. The steady, rising popularity of the television gave birth to the television industry with leading companies rushing to rank high in the marketplace. The main challenge was to win over the American audience in two ways: Through creating a successful color transmission and providing quality programming. After defeating minor competitors and creating alliances with manufactures and companies, RCA and CBS became fierce rivals in the race to publicly transmit in color and gain the attention of the America audience with significant programming.
THIS PAGE: The Nipkow disk system that used a circular plate with holes punched into it to display an image. OPPOSITE PAGE:
television set using one of the original tube monitors and systems.
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The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) became the leading force pushing forth television to mainstream America. RCA had been tremendously successful in the radio industry and was owner of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), the first major broadcast network in United States. David Sarnoff, President of RCA, was determined to hold the same place in the slowly emerging television industry. In 1932, RCA bought off two of its competitors. The Spot Life
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RCA’s New system for tvs, that used a set of scanning beams over spinning disks.
The Jenkins Television Corporation (JTC) had been the first American company to transmit a few hours of programs in 1927. The projected motion images had low resolutions and the picture image was only two-inch squares. JTC used a spinning disk system (also know as Nipkow disk system) that “featured a set of small holes, evenly spaced apart, that spiraled in toward the disk’s center. With the disk spinning rapidly, light that was reflected off an object on one side of the disk, would travel through each hole and recreate, on the other side, an image of the object” (Von Schilling, 2003, p. 3). This
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process had disadvantages. There were limitations on how many holes could be punched on the disks. This meant that the image had a limitation in size and color definition. Also, the immensity of light needed for capturing images created unbearable conditions for actors and crewmembers on the set. The major restrictions caused JTC to collapse and became part of De Forest Radio Company. Both companies were then purchased by RCA. RCA laboratories created a superior all-electronic system. The system replaced the spinning disks with scanning beams. The system required a monochromatic receiver that would receive signals that caused “an electron gun to fire a beam of electrons, deflected and focused by magnetic or electrostatic plates, at a screen that glowed according to the intensity of the beam” (Fisher, 1996, p. 322). Electron-based beams induced images created clearer and larger images than the Jenkins’s images. Television sets were FCC approved and manufactured by RCA and allied companies, General Electric and Philco among others. The public responded with fascination and excitement. Sales grew slowly and RCA was able to commercialize black and white televisions after the World War II. At
“an electron gun to fire a beam of electrons, deflected and focused by magnetic or electrostatic plates, at a screen that glowed according to the intensity of the beam.” The Spot Life
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the same time, CBS was already experimenting with color televisions and was ready to complete with RCA in the race to win the marketplace and the ultimately the acceptance of the Federal Communication Commissions (FCC), National Television Standards Committee (NTSC), and the American audience. Columbia Broadcasting Systems (CBS) was a strong force among radio networks. Bill Paley, owner and president of CBS, and Sarnoff were known as rivals and friends. By 1930’s, Paley had “not joined in the race to produce television, aside from buying a RCA experimental system and carrying on some limited tests (Fisher, 1996, p. 305).” Peter Goldmark, CBS television engineer, encouraged Paley to finance television research. Paley 064
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and Goldmark quickly purchased and supervised the construction of the CBS transmitter/studio space they bought on the top of the Chrysler Building in New York. This immediately created tension between Sarnoff and Paley, for RCA had their own transmitter in the Empire State Building. Goldmark, singularly, focused on a color system since RCA’s electronic system was victorious and their cameras were the best in the field. (CBS had equipped their new studio with RCA cameras.) Goldmark worked on a “sequential color system” that used color-filtered wheels that spun. A spinning wheel would be located on the back of the lens of camera tube. The wheel had three sets of filters that were red, green, and blue. The wheel and scanning electron beam would coordinate and scan the image six times exposing it to filters which were set in fields of red, blue green, red, blue, green. Finally, six images would interlace to create a color image. “It was a hybrid, neither all mechanical nor all electronic, taking an electronic and using mechanical wheels to “insert” a color signal” (Fisher, 1996, p. 305). The CBS system was successful and on January 9th 1941, from the CBS laboratory, the FCC witnessed the fashion model, Patti Painter apply lipstick and talk on a color television.
Sequental color stream system view and mechanics
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A stock of RCA tri color television tubes organized and ready to ship.
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The FCC had one major concern about CBS color system: its major component was mechanical, very similar to the Jenkins system. The FCC were hesitant about the system and the NTSC “kept open to the question of color television, realizing that while it was not now ready for commercial utilization, its future potential required other testing, and that it must coexist with monochrome television” (Abramson, 1987, p. 268). RCA was at the early stages of creating a system that would not require mechanical components. Sarnoff claimed that the CBS color system was a step backwards in television technology. RCA worked vigorously to create a system better adaptable to already circulating black and white televisions. In 1950, the FCC finally approved the commercialization of the CBS color system to the public. CBS would offer color adaptors or receivers for the all-electronic television sets. The FCC’s approval outraged Sarnoff, who had been considered defeated as the “King of Radio City.” “A debate ensued, with RCA, Farnworth, and Philco forming alliance against CBS color, while RCA’s natural enemy Zenith backed CBS” (Fisher, 1996, p. 302). Sarnoff created a war between RCA and CBS. RCA had many allies in television manufacturing industry. Therefore, it was clear that CBS would have to manufacture their own receivers. It purchased Hytron Radio and Electronic Corporation and Air King and began to produce color receivers. While in the process of purchasing and producing receivers, RCA finalized the legal aspects of unveiling its color camera, RCA Tri-Color Tube.
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RCA promoted “a system of all-electronic high definition color television operating within the 6 megacyle channels employed for black and white telecasting and transmitting color programs capable of reception in black and white on all existing home television sets with no modifications� (Sarnoff, RCA Color Television 1954 p. 5). RCA had already developed its color system in 1946. The system had been originally demonstrated to the FCC in 1940 but was said to be in an experimental stages. It took RCA several years to sophisticate it so that the system would be compatible with the already existing black and white television sets. The color system worked like the monochromatic system. However, its receivers have three electron guns that were individually connected to signals that communicated with one of the primary colors: red, green, or blue. Thousands of dot-comprised triangles made from phosphor chemical or crystals were on the glowing screens. The chemical would glow a color when the electron beams triggered it. The beam 068
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LEFT: An acress modeling the RCA color tube. RIGHT: The intro to Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color.
traced pictures to create motion and constant change value to adjust to the next scan or picture. The crystals had storage capabilities that would anticipate full image/frame rather than single lines. “Using the new storage principle, it was claimed that there were many advantages to the system. No interlacing would be necessary. There could be considerable savings in bandwidth; or conversely a much higher definition would be possible” (Abramson, 1987, p. 258). Sarnoff had victoriously won the battle of the color wars. By 1953, the FCC changed its mind and retracted its approval of the CBS color system and accepted the RCA system. Also, NTSC’s national television standards favored the RCA system. NTSC instantly adopted the system and paid RCA a large sum of royalty charges for using and promoting its system. RCA also received royalties from manufacturers that produces televisions with the color system.
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“I Love Lucy was an enormous hit [on TV] and remained on [with the top ratings] for several years afterwards.”
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Sarnoff might have been successful in the color war but he still needed to sell televisions and most importantly gain sponsorship for NBC programming. Color television was not selling in the marketplace. By 1955 Sarnoff promptly cut prices and spent millions of dollars in marketing and improving the color television sets by stabilizing color, enlarging the screen, and created easy to use controls. By 1960, the American public began to purchase more television sets. Sarnoff and Paley found themselves again in battle to win the hearts of the American audience. Sarnoff reacted instantaneously after the rise of television sales and acquired a Walt Disney show and changed its name to Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color. NBC gained the young audience with the Disney show and The Puppet Playtime Show also known as Howdy Dowdy. A backlash came from parents after studies showed that school grades were dropping due to excess television. NBC was blamed for inadequate programming and their lack of educational programming. The Network created a television series, Watch the World. The series was intended to education children and work along with school curriculums. The show was a respectable hit. NBC might have charmed and educated young audiences but CBS gain their parents’ attention. Paley was quoted saying, “I always thought his (Sarnoff) strengths lay in the more technical and physical aspects of radio and television while mine lay in understanding talent, programming, and what went on the air” (Fisher, 1996, p. 319). CBS brought over popular personalities, such as Jack Benny and Bing Crosby, from NBC radio and 071
transformed them into television stars. Though NBC had an instant hit with the Milton Berle Show, The Ed Sullivan (CBS) won top ratings along side shows like Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts, The $64,000 Question, and Alfred Hitchcock Presents (all CBS classics). NBC received a critical blow after airing Amos ’N’ Andy. The comedy portrayed two Caucasian actors as African Americans. The actors were face painted with heavy dark make-up. The characters were portrayed as lazy, foolish, and ill spoken individuals that avoided work. American civil rights group, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NACCP) took NBC and the show’s sponsor Blatz Blewing to court. The show lasted two seasons after Blatz Blewing extracted sponsorship. Amos ’N’ Andy episodes were aired through syndication after the controversy. (Making this network show the first series to go into syndication.) NBC was extensively criticized for making profit through syndication. The show had never been aired on television since 1965. NBC produced popular smash hits shows like Dragnet and Your Show of Shows. However, the CBS had a weapon that ended the battle of ratings: I Love Lucy. In Alfred Hitchcock hosting his show, “Alfred Hitchcock Presents”
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Two scenes from the racial comedy Amos ‘N’ Andy Show.
1952, I Love Lucy was an enormous hit and remained on the top for several years afterwards. The show created two of the first TV stars and American pop icons, Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball. Arnaz and Ball signed the first two-year television contract that included an 8 million dollar paycheck and granted the two actresses ownership of all the show’s episodes. The battle of the color television made CBS and RCA/ NBC rivals of both television technology and programming. The FCC approved the commercialization of the CBS color system in 1950. The color system was based on a mechanical and electronic system. That consisted of a spinning wheel that had three sets of filters. The filtered images would interlace and created a color image. The process worked but three years later RCA introduced its all-electronic color system. The system used three electron guns that connected with primary colors. Thousands of dot-comprised triangles made from phosphor chemical or crystals were mounted on a glowing screen, which illuminated a color when it was triggered by the electron beams. This process was technically
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more advanced and compatible with the black and white system that was already being sold and used. The FCC approved the RCA system and color television became available to the American public. RCA had gain superior advantage in the marketplace through creating the FCC approved color television. RCA had also influenced NTSC’s national television standards. Therefore, gaining royalties from NTSC and manufacturers that made televisions with the all-electronic system. The color war had taken years to end but the rating battle was short-lived. By 1952, CBS had considerable ratings. In 1953, the color television became popular and available. CBS’s variety shows, comedies, and game shows dominated audiences. CBS stayed at the top of all rating charts for the rest of 1950’s with shows like I Love Lucy, The $64,000 Question, and Alfred Hitchcock Presents. NBC also had numerous hit shows like Dragnet, Your Show of Shows, and Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color but always fell behind CBS in audience polls and ratings. NBC also suffered backlash and harsh media criticism for not providing enough educational pro073
gramming for children and for being racially insensitive towards African Americans and civil rights groups. NBC had successfully brought color to the television in an affordable price to every home. On the other hand, CBS had captivated the American audience with its programming and TV stars. Bill Paley was quoted saying “From the earliest day of radio…when (Sarnoff) he was the ‘grand old man and I was ‘that bright young kid’ we were friends, confidants, and fierce competitors all at the same time” (Fisher, 1996, p. 304). Both Networks become powerhouses in the television industry. David Sarnoff and Bill Paley became legends of the television world. They created high standards for technical sufficiency in television technology and set the bar for quality programming and entertainment. By the 1960, television had become an integral part of the household.
“From the earliest day of radio…when (Sarnoff) was the ‘grand old man and I was ‘that bright young kid’ we were friends, confidants, and fierce competitors all at the same time” – Bill Paley
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The International Style Hitchcock, Henry R., and Philip Johnson. The International Style. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Massey, Anne. Interior Design of the 20th Century. New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2001. Prudon, Theodroe H.M. Preservation of Modern Architecture. 1st ed. New Jersey: Wiley, 2008. Weston, Richard. Modernism. Phaidon P, 2001.
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Art and Design Gantz C. Design Chronicles: significant mass-produced designs of the 20th century. Atglen (PA): Schiffer Publishing, Ltd.; 2005. 75 p. Post-War American Design. [discussion list on the Internet]. n.d.; [cited 2008 Feb. 16]. [about 3 paragraphs]. Available from: http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive. woa/wa/movement?id=178 Pulos A J. The American Design Adventure. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press; 1988. 11-13, 20, 27 p. Eidelberg M, Hine T, Kirkham P, Hanks D A, Peatross C F. The Eames Lounge Chair : an icon of modern design. Grand Rapids (MI): Grand Rapids Art Museum ; London ; New York : In association with Merill; 2006. 49-50 p. Chotner D, Clayton V, Doss E, Stillinger E. Drawing on America’s past : folk art, modernism, and the Index of American Design. Washington (DC): National Gallery of Art : University of North Carolina Press; 2002. 4 p. Purposes of the Project. Washington (DC): National Gallery of Art; n.d. The following form is an Index Manual and I do not know what form of citation it would be considered as. DiBattista M, McDiarmid L. High and Low Moderns: literature and culture, 1889-1939. New York City (NY): Oxford University Press; 1996. 6-7 p. Wikipedia.Postmodern Art. [discussion list on the Internet]. n.d.; [cited 2009 Feb. 16]. [about 1 paragraphs]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_art Rosenberg H. “The American Action Painters.” [news] The London Magazine [serial on the Internet]. 1961 July [cited 2009 Feb.];1(4):1. Available from: http://www.poetrymagazines. org.uk/magazine/record.asp?id=9798 Stewart J. American Modern. New York City (NY): Harry N. Abrams, Inc. in association with the American Federation of Arts; 2000. 107-109 p.
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Television Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1880 to 1941. North Carolina: McFarland and Company, Inc., Publishers. 1987. Comstock, George. The Evolution of American Television. California: Sage Publications. 1987. Fisher, David E and Fisher, Marshall Jon. Tube: The Invention of Television, Washington DC: Counterpoint. 1996. Sarnoff, David and Anonymous Contributors. RCA Color Television. New York: Department of Information. 1953. Von Schilling, James. The Magic Window America Television, 1939-1953. New York: The Haworth Press. 2003.
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