Forging Architecture from the Flames by Michelle Todd: Process, Work, and Thought

FORGING ARCHITECTURE FROM THE FLAMES: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN METALWORKING, ARCHITECTURE, AND MATERIAL CULTURE

by Michelle Ann Todd

A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of North Carolina at Charlotte in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture Charlotte 2014

Approved by:

______________________________ Professor Charles Davis, Ph.D.

______________________________ Professor Zhongjie Lin, Ph.D. ______________________________ Professor Peter Wong ______________________________ Consultant

ABSTRACT MICHELLE ANN TODD. Forging Architecture from the Flames: Relationships between Metalworking, Architecture, and Material Culture. (Under the direction of CHARLES DAVIS, PH.D., ZHONGJIE LIN, Ph.D., PETER WONG, and BRYAN SHIELDS)

Henry Glassie, an anthropologist, was the first to use the material culture to describe the objects that are created from a particular culture. Because culture is intangible, the analysis of the items produced by a culture provides the reflection of what the needs of the culture are. Glassie describes material culture to be “the inner wit at work in the world. Beginning necessarily with things, but not ending with them, the study of material culture uses objects to approach human thought and action” (pg. 41).1 Architecture is a manifestation of cultural needs and therefore, functions as material culture. As an example, metalworking can be investigated; the changes that architecture experiences in relationship to metalwork and advancing technologies reflects the changes in cultural needs.To help prove this concept of architecture as a form of material culture, a blacksmiths’ center in coordination with a blacksmiths’ gallery and community market is to be designed for Spruce Pine, North Carolina, a node for the craft. To provide a comparison of what was and what is, the buildings designed will exploit different metalwork strategies based on program, but there will be a consistency in that the details will be created with a rigor of craft that emanates from the blacksmithing community.

Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print.

iii

DEDICATION

The task of pursuing this thesis has been rigorous, pushed me to my limits, teaching me what I am capable of, but also reminding me of how I can let things get the best of me. Without my support system, I would have gotten lost in my own convolutions. I would like to thank my dad, Christopher Todd, for providing technical insight into the metalworking industry in relation to this thesis, but more importantly for being unwavering in supporting me through my academic career. He has always been there to support and listen to me, instilling the confidence in myself that I could make it. As for my mom, I wish to thank her for imparting upon me her ambition and passion to love the everyday and to make the most of who we are. People always say we are spitting images of one another and I only hope that I have nearly the impact on this world as you did. I would also like to thank Michael George who has also been by my side through all of my trial and tribulations that have come along with this process. While he may not have understood why I was stressed all the time, he listened and helped me cope with the stress, knowing that what I was doing is important. And last by not least, to all of my friends who listened to my ideas, both good and bad, thank-you for helping me figure out what I was trying to accomplish all of this time. Not only did you help me figure out what my thesis was meant to be, you helped me figure out who I was meant to be as a designer and my aspirations as a future architect.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to acknowledge Bryan Shields and his guidance throughout my thesis process. His consistent involvement in my process led me to question the significance of the steps I made and was also instrumental in providing examples of thinking and product leading me to an ultimate result that I believe proves my thesis.

Michelle Ann Todd

Cover Page Image: Todd, Michelle. “Metal Tools.” Photograph. 19 Jan 2014.

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Henry Glassie, a famous folklorist and anthropologist, was the first to use the material culture to describe the objects that are created from a particular culture. Because culture is a tangible concept, the analysis of the items produced by a culture provides the reflection of what the needs of the culture is, concretizing the society. Glassie describes material culture to be “the inner wit at work in the world. Beginning necessarily with things, but not ending with them, the study of material culture uses objects to approach human thought and action” (pg. 41).1 Architecture, on a larger scale, is a form of object created by culture. Both on the scale of the building and on the scale of the detail, architecture is a manifestation of cultural needs and functions as material culture. To trace this concept, metalworking can be utilized as an architectural feature that can be tracked over time; the changes that architecture experiences in relationship to metalwork and advancing technologies reflects the changes in cultural. To help prove that architecture is a form of material culture, three individual buildings are to be designed for a site in Spruce Pine, North Carolina. As a town rooted in craft, including a strong inclusion of blacksmithing, Spruce Pine desires to have a prominent set of buildings programmed around crafts that marks the entrance into the historic district of the town. The primary building designed for the site is a blacksmiths’ guild and will be located at the apex of the site, fronting all traffic that approaches from that di-

rection. The second building that collaborates with this program is a blacksmiths’ gallery, which showcases work produced by the guildsman. The third primary building is the community market, which is connected to the community’s need to display and sell all types of crafts. Since each of these buildings has a unique program, the structure and material assembly will reflect the program. The guild will be constructed from exposed beams and wood, an appearance that is vernacular to those types of spaces. The gallery will be of a sleek design, with slender structure and an elegant façade so that the work housed is showcased. The community market is to be constructed by materials informed by the local industries that support the town, which is mining and railway shipping. These three different approaches to structure will reveal that each program is indicative to the cultural needs of the program. To unify these buildings, there will be an overarching roof structure that covers the entire site and will merge each of these techniques to show that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. While some of these spaces will desire a more handcrafted approach, others will desire a more prefabricated and economic approach, which does not necessarily mean that craftsmanship is lost. As stated by Fritz Kuhn “Craft can be proud of its past, but must nevertheless be constantly concerned with its present and its future” and ultimately “it is not the machine itself that makes the work less good, but our inability to use the machine in the right way” (pg xii).2

Kühn, Fritz. Decorative Work in Wrought Iron and Other Metals. New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1977. Print.

Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print.

Forging Architecture from the Flames: Relationships between metalwork, architecture, and material culture

Material Culture The concept of material culture is an idea that provides tangibility to culture. The term itself was originate by folklorist Henry Glassie and he defines material culture to be: Material culture is culture made material; it is the inner wit at work in theworld. Beginning necessarily with things, but not ending with them, the study of material culture uses ob-jects to approach human thought and action (pg 41).1 It is important to note that Glassie uses the term ‘objects’ and not ‘artifacts’ when speaking of material culture. This indicates that items that represent material culture are not necessarily iconic or unique, but instead are variant from the mundane to the unique. Material culture is indicative of what the culture needed and therefore produced in order for the pedestrian activities to be carried out. Material culture can then be anticipated to vary in size, detail, and importance ranging from a trowel for farming to the materials and details implemented in the vernacular architecture. Glassie even ventures to speaks of history, a point marker in cultural evolution, as though he were describing architecture and describes it as “picked at, scraped down, patched up, and encrusted with new ornament” (pg 7).2 This lends itself to investigate architecture as a form of material culture and provide an analysis of historic architecture. Glassie has spent much of his time studying vernacular architecture and states that designers (pg 227):3 Create out of the smallness of their own experience…Before they have been burdened with knowledge about architecture their eyes have seen, their fingers have touched, their minds have inquired into

Introduction

Initially, the trade of blacksmithing introduced metalworking into architecture in the form of detail. The realization of steel through the introduction of carbon to iron introduced a new realm of possibilities to the blacksmith that transcended the abilities from detail to structure around the time of the Industrial Revolution. At this point in societies quest for advancement, metal saw a shift in how it was incorporated in architecture; it was fading from detail and surging as a structural element. The Bessemer Process made the production of steel an economic process that allowed buildings to more readily utilize steel as a structural means and with this transition, the idea of craft began to fade, just as the notion of blacksmithing as trade began to transition into an artisan craft. As it stands today, blacksmithing is craft and is utilized as a means to produce sculpture and some detail pieces for architecture. The metalwork that is seen in architecture is assembled by tradesmen that are often not nearly as versed in the knowledge of the material as a blacksmith and the lack of craft is reflected in the assembly of structure. This lack of craft is a reflection of our transition as a society and what we desire; we no longer necessarily seek the most decadent assembly of structure in detail, but are more concerned with ease, cost, and ultimate economy. This evolution of how metal is incorporated into architecture is a way to substantiate that architecture is in fact a form of material culture and does speak for our culture and how as our societies evolve, our architecture changes with it.

Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. 2. Ibid., p.7 3. Ibid., p. 227 1.

the wholeness of their scenes… Released from the hug of please and nurture, they have toddled into space, learning to dwell, to feel at home. Those first acts of occupa tion deposit a core of connection in memory. Looking through this lens, it is evident that experience and the surrounding context of a building is pinnacle to developing a connection that exposes the culture that informed the building’s detailing and material use. There are three separate contexts that categorize material culture. The first category is assimilation, which Glassie refers to as the last stage of consumption. In this context, things are created out of worry and concern. The original meanings of the objects are replaced by newer meanings that are thought to be convincing because “they are derived by culture” (pg 59)4. The second type of context is the conceptual context, also known as cultural or abstract, in which objects have associations within the minds of the creators and users. The third type of context, also described as behavioral, relates to bodies in motion and “accumulates pertinent pieces available to senses” (pg 60).5 In the study of trying to use historic material culture to inform the design of a contemporary building, the first type of context should be avoided. The reinterpretation of the material culture to meet current societal needs will be a result from not necessarily replacement, but a reinterpretation in its use. The use of the object will not be derived by culture, but instead provided by the culture and therefore remains to have a true meaning in how it is used. The second type of context, conceptual, will provide the strongest reading in use considering that as the material culture is reinterpreted, associations will be made and expressed so that the occupants can also make the connections. In the adapted use of

materials, the third context cannot be avoided; the bodies that pass through and interact with the spaces will without a doubt utilize the senses as a reaction to the surroundings.

Material Culture as Architectural Detail In architecture, not all detail is created equally. As Edward R. Ford writes in his book, The Architectural Detail, there are five different types of detail. The five types are detail as the abstraction, detail as motif, detail as an order, detail as joint, and lastly, detail as a subversive activity. “The detail as the abstraction” lends itself to the idea that there are no details in modernism. Ford utilizes the Media Center at the Lord’s Cricket Ground in London as an example and he states that “details do no exist for these architects, but detailing certainly does” (pg 20).6 Ford also affiliates questions with each type of detail and for “detail as abstraction” the associated questions become whether or not detail is a matter of diminishing the basic shapes and reducing the parts of the building (pg 24).7 In relation to “detail as motif,” the detail is seen as “a fragment in which the whole building is represented.” To elaborate on this type of detail, Ford uses the Kings College Chapel, Carlo Scarpa, and Fay Jones as examples. The questions that arise from this type of detail usage is if motific detailing is any different than architectural styling and does a building have to have a unified experience (pg 29).8 With “detail as an order,” the details are “the articulation of structure.” To elaborate on this context, Ford utilizes the Holocaust Memorial Museum by James Ingo Freed in Washington D.C. as an example. To counter this type of detail, Ford asks if whether or not details that “represent hidden structure can transcend ornamentation,” what happens if you separate representation from structure and should the exterior be indicative of the structure and in

Ford, Edward R. The Architectural Detail. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Print. 7. Ibid., p.24 8. Ibid., p.29 6.

Ibid., p. 59 Ibid., p. 60

4. 5.

Material Culture and Tectonics

terior.9 For the fourth type of detail is “the detail as joint,” Ford summarizes this system as “details are the articulation of construction.” To highlight this type of detailing, the Tribune Review Building by Louis Kahn is used as an example, and Louis Kahn has even said, “the joint is the beginning of ornament.” The key is if the articulation of the joint technically and aesthetically necessary. The question of how could a building represent a system as a whole if it is designed to articulate parts?10 For the last type of detailing, “detailing as a subversive activity,” in which, “detail [is] autonomous design.” Louis Kahn’s handrails Kimbell Art Museum and the door handles of the Saynatsalo Town Hall by Alvar Aalto contain examples that provide a context for this type of detailing. These examples help give rise to the questions if details can have a distinct order that is not associate with the building and does this inconsistency lead to incoherence? Ultimately, what is the difference between autonomous detail and misplaced and inappropriate detail (pg 45)?11 When looking at these types of detailing to see which are most applicable to this thesis and to the expression of material culture, the types that apply most are detail as detail as motif, detail as joint, as well as detailing as a subversive activity. The concept of detail as motif will be expressed through the consistent expression of material culture through the utilization of details based on programmatic needs. The concept of detail as joint will be witnessed through the use of varied construction techniques based on the different contexts of the programs and contemporary construction needs. And lastly, the use of detail as subversive activity will be seen through the implementation of minute details such as assemblies of the details that convey meaning through their stand-alone existence and do not need the entire building to express their function and significance.

A term that is not frequently used in contemporary architecture, ‘tectonics’ is described by Kenneth Frampton to be sourced by the Greek word ‘tekton,’ which means builder. Architects set out in their careers to design a better-built environment that meets the contemporary cultural needs. Gottfried Semper uses the ‘primordial hut’ to describe the four basic elements that create the built environment. These elements consist of: earthwork, the hearth, the framework/ roof, and the lightweight enclosing membrane (walls). To clarify, Frampton states that tectonics deals with the lightweight assemblies and more linear components. To supplement the explanation, Frampton provides a differentiation between representational versus ontological architecture. The ontological category consists of earthwork, frame, and the roof of a building. The hearth and infill walls are representational architecture. By providing these categories, how the material culture will be used can be categorized too. For instance, the use of doorknobs would fall more in the realm of representational while the structural detailing would lie within the ontological category.12 In addition to Frampton’s discourse on tectonics, Eduard Sekler (whom Frampton mentions in his writings) discusses the notions of structure and construction. Within Structure, Construction, and Tectonics, Sekler states that the two words should not be simply interchanged during conversation. Construction is the act of consciously putting something together while structure is “an ordered arrangement of constituent parts.”13 The introduction of utilizing material culture to inform the design of a contemporary building will provide a merger between construction and structure; the two concepts will not function as separate identities and will instead become sym-

Frampton, Kenneth. “Introduction: Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic.” Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. London: The MIT Press, 1995. 1-28. Print.

10.

Ibid. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p.45

Sekler, Eduard. “Structure Construction, Tectonics.” 8995. Web. 1 May 2013.

biotic. The material culture will inform the types of materials and assemblies that can be used to create and/or inform the structure. This, as a result, leads to the construction of the space and being conscious of how the space will be created, tectonics can be utilized that will reflect the material culture: Through tectonics the architect may make visible, in a strong state ment, that intensified kind of ex perience of reality which is the art ist’s domain…thus structure, the in tangible concept is realized through construction and given visual ex pression through tectonics (pg 92).14 Elaborating on the significance of detail and material, Adolf Loos writes about how the two can inform space. In the article, Principle of Cladding, Loos states that a designer sees the space that he wants to create in his mind first, he then utilizes material to form the space that he sees in his mind. To be truthful to the materials, Loos expresses his adamancy about not disguising materials as anything else.15 When relating this to material culture, this would mean that the object is used as it was intended, which in the case of this thesis, it would heighten the patrons awareness of the historic object and allow for interaction. In contradiction, by placing an object in a museum, it is disguising the material object and not allowing it to be used as it should.

a three-part program is designed for Spruce Pine, North Carolina; as a hub for artisans, in particular blacksmiths, Spruce Pine serves as an ideal central location for a blacksmiths’ guild, a corresponding gallery for the blacksmiths’ to display their craft, and a community market for other artisans of the community to display and vend their work as well. Each of these programmatic elements will allow for the exploitation of different metalworking techniques that speak to different material cultures in respect to metalworking. Located at the pinnacle of the community and the site within Spruce Pine, the blacksmiths’ guild is to demonstrate the craft of the guildsman by utilizing a structural system consisting of offthe-shelf materials, such as c-channels, fabricated together in order to form assemblies. This will allow for their craft to be demonstrated through the integration within the building. The blacksmiths’ gallery is constructed through a different approach and speaks to the material culture of the “white box” that is often seen utilized for museums. The structure is constructed through pre-fabricated c-channels that allow for open spans within the space, allowing for the pieces of work to be showcased. This structural strategy speaks of the current material culture of economy and industry standard and provides a comparison to the handicraft of the guildsman. The third building located on the site is the community market, which speaks to both the material culture of metalworking as well as the material culture of the community. Based on a similar structural grid as the gallery, the structure is constructed through the implementation of one-of-a-kind trusses created by railroad tracks in the attempt to utilize a material that indicates an object that is critical to the survival of the community. Considering that Spruce Pine relies on the railroad to export its minerals as its main in-

Contextualizing material culture and its relationship to architecture While Glassie referred to material culture more in a vernacular sense, the strategy of using material culture in this thesis is to use it to prove that architecture does in fact reflect cultural progressions. In order to corroborate this statement,

Ibid.

15 Loos, Adolf. “The Principle of Cladding.” Spoken into the Void: Collected Essays 1897-1900. New York: The MIT Press, 1982. 66-81. Geocities. Web. 26 June 2013. <http://www.geocities.ws/mitchellmosesstudio/loos.pdf>.

it is the providing source to the community and is the reason why the people are located within this town and are centrally located as a community of craftsman. The construction of these spans allow for open spaces that functionally provide enough space for people to display and sell their items, supporting their artisan culture. By implementing different techniques of utilizing metal in buildings, it allows for the demonstration of how the use of material indicates the needs of the culture in that building. The program speaks to what society needs in the space and the material use articulates the purpose of that space. Each program is different and therefore is articulated differently, addressing it as individual material cultures. To summarize the congruencies of these different material cultures and to speak to what is todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s material culture, the canopy that covers the entire site is devised to address that topic. Spanning the entire site, the canopy is implemented as a lightweight structure, utilizing advanced materials, contemporary and trend-leading design concepts. The apertures that appear in the canopy are introduced as means of way finding, utilizing light as a material to help guide patrons through the site. By allowing the canopy to encompass the entire site, it is incorporating everything that was into everything that is and will be, allowing these cultures to speak as a transgression of how our societies are moving to a globalized architecture.

Introduction

with them, the study of material culture uses objects to approach human thought and action…. There are three types of contexts that material culture can fall under: assimilation (which is the last stage of consumption), conceptual, and physical. In the context of assimilation, we create things out of worry and concern. The original meanings of objects are then replaced by newer meanings that we think are convincing because “they are derived from culture” (pg 59).4 In conceptual context (also known as cultural or abstract), objects have associations within the minds of the creators and users. Lastly, the physical context (also known as behavioral) relates to bodies in motion and “accumulates pertinent pieces available to senses’ (p. 60).5 These contexts breach into the built environment. Material culture is not simply limited to small objects and artifacts, but can also include vernacular architecture, which Glassie investigates and states that all designers (pg 227):6 create out of the smallness of their own experience…Before they have been burdened with knowl edge about architecture their eyes have seen, their fingers have touched, their minds have in quired into the wholeness of their scenes…Released from the hug of pleasure and nurture, they have toddled into space, learning to dwell, to feel at home. Those first acts of occupation deposit a core of connection in the memory. This connection between experience and the surroundings shows the criticality of utilizing the culture that is around a building’s site to inform the building’s detail and material use. Glassie provides the example of the thatch roofs Ballymenone, Ireland to show a strong vernacular

As cultures morph as time changes, there must be some sort of evidence of these changes. By investigating different aspects of architecture, in particular regard to material culture, architectural materials, and tectonics, it can be proven that the buildings created throughout time are objects that can provide evidence of change. The architecture created by societies is indicative of what is needed, as well as desired. However, from prior to the Industrial Revolution to current times, there has been a witnessed shift in appreciation and necessity for craftsmanship in architecture and that is why it is necessary to investigate: 1) what is material culture? 2) what is the detail? And 3) how are these formed through tectonic principles.

Details and Materials sourced from Material Culture

It is hard to define a culture, since culture in and of itself is not tangible. That is why the use of material culture becomes practical in the application of architecture and the built environment. Henry Glassie, a folklorist, describes history as one would describe a building and says that it is “picked at, scraped down, patched up, and encrusted with new ornament” (pg 7).1 History becomes important in the development of culture and ultimately the development of art and material culture. As time changes, so do the “structures of value” (p. 28)2, but figuring out a means to compare these changes is a struggle without material culture, which Glassie described as following (pg 41):3 Material culture is culture made material; it is the inner wit at work in the world. Beginning necessar ily with things, but not ending

Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. 2. Ibid., p. 28 3. Ibid., p. 41 1.

Ibid., p. 59 Ibid., p. 60 6. Ibid., p. 227 4. 5.

ment” Louis Kahn). The key is if the articulation of the joint technically and aesthetically necessary. Also, how can a building represent a system as a whole if it is designed to articulate the parts (pg 42)?11 The last type of detail is “detailing as a subversive activity” in which “the detail as autonomous design.” Examples that Ford provided included the handrails of the Kimbell Art Museum by Louis Kahn and the door handles of the Saynatsalo Town Hall by Alvar Aalto. These types of details have a disconnect from the main concept of the building, which leads to the questions that arise from this detail type. Can details have a distinct order that is not associated with the building and does this inconsistency lead to incoherence? Ultimately, what is the difference between autonomous detail and misplaced and inappropriate detail (pg 45)?12

architecture. An expression of material culture in the built environment is the expression of detail and how it differs through different architectural movements. Edward R. Ford writes of five different types of detail in his book The Architectural Detail. Each type of detail he lists, he also affiliates with questions that should be considered. The first type of detail is “the detail as the abstraction,” in which “ There are no details in Modernism.” Within this category, Ford provides the Media Center at the Lord’s Cricket Ground in London as an example and states that “details do not exist for these architects, but detailing certainly does” (pg 20).7 A key question that becomes affiliated with this detailing technique is whether or not detail is a matter of diminishing the basic shapes and reducing the parts of the building (pg 24).8 The second type of detail is “the detail as motif” in which “ a detail is a fragment in which the who building is represented.” Examples of this category are Kings College Chapel, Carlo Scarpa, and Fay Jones. Key questions associated are how is motific detailing any different than architectural styling and does a building have to have a unified experience (pg 29).9 The third type of detail is “The detail as an order” in which “details are the articulation of the structure.” Ford provides the Holocaust Memorial Museum by James Ingo Freed in Washington D.C. as an example for this type of detail. The main questions that come with this type of detail are whether or not if details that “represent hidden structure can transcend ornamentation,” what happens if you separate representation from structure and should the exterior be indicative of the structure and the interior (pg 34).10 The fourth type of detail is “the detail as joint” in which “details are the articulation of construction.” The example given for this type of detail is the Tribune Review Building by Louis Kahn (“The joint is the beginning of orna-

Details, Materials, and the Affects on Space A term that is not frequently used in architecture is ‘tectonics,’ yet Kenneth Frampton writes to explain the source of its meaning. The etymology of the word reveals that ‘tectonics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘tekton,’ which means builder. As architects, we set out to design our built environment. Through the explication of Gottfried Semper’s “primordial hut,” there is four basic elements that are listed out that make-up the built environment: earthwork, the hearth, the framework/roof, and the lightweight enclosing membrane (walls). Frampton goes on to clarify that tectonics deals with the lightweight assemblies and more linear components. An additional layer to supplement the explanation of tectonics is the differentiation of representational versus ontological architecture.

Ford, Edward R. The Architectural Detail. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Print. 8. Ibid., p. 24 9. Ibid., p. 29 10. Ibid., p. 34 7.

Ibid., p. 42 Ibid., p. 45

11. 12.

the space that he sees in his mind. Loos is also adamant in his writings about using materials as they are and not disguising them as anything else. In the instance of material culture, this would be using materials how they are used by the culture from which they are being derived (Loos, 1897).15

The earthwork, frame, and roof of a building lie under the category of ontological, while the hearth and infill walls are representation. This categorization begins to enlighten us on where the use of material culture will be beneficial. By utilizing details found in craft and objects of culture, the ontological aspects of a building can be enriched by carrying through the details that are found on a smaller scale.13 In his writings of Studies in Tectonic Culture, Frampton mentions Eduard Sekler, who also writes of tectonics in his writings Structure, Construction, and Tectonics. Sekler takes the opportunity to define the difference between structure and construction, highlighting that they are not to be used interchangeably. Construction is the act of consciously putting something together versus structure, which is “an ordered arrangement of constituent parts.” In the case of using material culture, the product will be that of a linear correspondence between construction and structure. The material culture will inform the types of materials that can form the assemblies that create the structure as well as the way in which it is assemble. This then in turn leads to construction. The conscious techniques that are used will create tectonics, which will also reflect the material culture (pg 92):14 Through tectonics the architect may make visible, in a strong statement, that intensified kind of experience of reality which is the artist’s domain…thus structure, the intangible concept is realized through construction and given visual expression through tecton ics. Adolf Loos is an exemplary example of writing about how detail and material can form space. In his writing Principle of Cladding, Loos states that a designer sees the space that he wants to create in his mind first, he then utilizes material to form Frampton, Kenneth. “Introduction: Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic.” Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. London: The MIT Press, 1995. 1-28. Print. 14 Sekler, Eduard. “Structure Construction, Tectonics.” 8995. Web. 1 May 2013.

Conclusion Architecture is progressing to toward a secular trend in which buildings lack a sense of identity that ties them to their surroundings. By observing the readings of authors such as Glassie, Ford, Frampton, and Sekler, culture can be revitalized in architecture through the use of material culture. Every site has a material culture that can be utilized to help inform the architect of how structure should be formed, how the building should be constructed, and what materials should be used to clad the building so that the end result is a building that melds with its culture.

Loos, Adolf. “The Principle of Cladding.” Spoken into the Void: Collected Essays 1897-1900. New York: The MIT Press, 1982. 66-81. Geocities. Web. 26 June 2013. <http:// www.geocities.ws/mitchellmosesstudio/loos.pdf>.

standard steel construction These buildings use conventional steel profiles found through out typical industry practices and the construction of these buildings also follows a standard. While the buildings may be aesthetic, the involvement of steel is not necessarily extraordinary, but primarily driven by efficiency and necessity. factories sky-scrapers butler-frames

[Standard Steel Construction Images] Factories: “Ford Auto Plant.” Photograph. Michigan. http://americanathebeautiful.org/the-assembly-line-prudent-or-scheme-for-worlddomination/ (10 Feb. 2014) Godin, Gary.“Buick Auto Plant.” Photograph. Flint, Michigan: 2008. http://buickcity.blogspot.com/2012/02/buick-northend-2008-2010.html (10 Feb 2014). Skyscrapers: Cahill, John W. “Duke Energy Upward.” Photograph. Charlotte, North Carolina. http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/charlotte/ duke-energy-center/1077/ (10 Feb. 2014). Gassel, Brian. “Duke Energy Center Crown Detail.” Photograph. Charlotte, North Carolina. http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/ charlotte/duke-energy-center/1077/ (10 Feb. 2014). Hambright, Harlan. “Duke Energy Interior.” Photograph Charlotte, North Carolina. http://greensource.construction.com/features/platinum_profiles/2011/february/duke-energy-center.asp(10 Feb. 2014). Butler Buildings: “Agensys.” Photograph. Santa Monica, California, c2013. http://www.structuralfocus.com/projects/commercialoffice (10 Feb. 2014). “Butler Building Skeleton.” Photograph. http://en.alphagroup.com.vn/FileDuLieu/AnhTrangChu/3-21-20138-03-13%20PM401khungketcauthep.jpg (10 Feb. 2014). “Gym Frame Detail.” Photograph. http://faculty.delhi.edu/hultendc/Gym-6.JPG (10 Feb. 2014).

standard use | factories

Ford Auto Plant

Buick Auto Plant 35

standard use | sky-scrapers

Duke Energy Upward

Duke Energy Center Crown Detail

Duke Energy Interior

standard use | butler frame buildings

Agensys

Butler Building Skeleton

Gym Frame Detail

[Utilitarian Steel Construction Images] Magney House Images: Browell, Anthony. “Magney House.” Photograph. Bingie Point, New South Wales: TOTO, 2008. From ‘The Architecture of Glenn Murcutt’ and ‘Thinking Drawing / Working Drawing.’ http://www.ozetecture.org/2012/magney-house/ (8 Feb. 2014). Simpson-Lee House Images: Browell, Anthony. “Simpson-Lee House.” Photograph. Mount Wilson, Blue Mountains, New South Wales: TOTO, 2008. From ‘The Architecture of Glenn Murcutt’ and ‘Thinking Drawing / Working Drawing.’ http://www.ozetecture.org/2012/simpsonlee-house/ (8 Feb. 2014). Fredericks/White House Images: Browell, Anthony. “Fredericks / White House.” Photograph. Jamberoo, New South Wales: TOTO, 2008. From ‘The Architecture of Glenn Murcutt’ and ‘Thinking Drawing / Working Drawing.’ http://www.ozetecture.org/2012/frederickswhite-house/ (8 Feb. 2014). 38

utilitarian steel construction Using off-the-shelf items in non-standard methods Glenn Murcutt crafts and shelters his spaces using items that are typically derived from agricultural purposes. Between the use of simple corrugated steel as the primary cladding membrane, to the innovative gutter systems, the assemblies are created using items that are not necessarily architectural in origin, but create architecture as an end product. Glenn Murcutt

Glenn Murcutt | Magney House

Glenn Murcutt | Simpson-Lee House

Glenn Murcutt | Fredericks/White House

[Industry-Informed Steel Construction Images] Studio Sitges Images: Koenig, Nikolas. “Studio Sitges.” Photographs. Sitges, Spain: c2010. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects.com/Projects/353/ Studio-Sitges-Spain- (10 Feb. 2014). Rolling Huts Images: Bies, Tim. “Rolling Huts.” Photographs. Mazama, Washington: c.2007. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects.com/Projects/825/ Rolling-Huts (10 Feb. 2014). Slaughterhouse Beach House Image: Watson, Simon. “Slaughterhouse Beach House.” Photograph. Maui, Hawaii: c2009. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects.com/ Projects/847/Slaughterhouse-Beach-House (10 Feb 2014). Shadowboxx Image: Schmidt, Jason. “Shadowboxx.” Photograph. San Juan Islands, Washington: c2010. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects.com/ Projects/972/Shadowboxx (10 Feb. 2014). The Pierre Image: Benschneider, Benjamin. “The Pierre.” Photograph. San Juan Islands, Washington: c2010. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects. com/Projects/1348/The-Pierre (10 Feb. 2014). The Montecito Residence Image: Bies, Tim. “The Montecito Residence.” Photograph. Montecito, California: c2008. http://www.olsonkundigarchitects.com/ Projects/160/Montecito-Residence (10 Feb. 2014). 44

industry-informed steel construction Using objects and materials related to industries to inform design Tom Kundig, having grown up in industrial contexts, found the beauty in machines and this transferred into his designs as an architect. The designs of Kundig feature industrial details such as wenches, wheels, cables, etc and are transferred in scale to beapplied to the scale of the project. Frequently these objects that are included in the designs provide additional function to the space and create enhanced user interaction with the built environment. Tom Kundig

Tom Kundig | Studio Sitges

Tom Kundig | Rolling Huts

Tom Kundig | Miscellaneous Projects

Slaughterhouse Beach House

Shadowboxx

The Pierre

The Montecito Residence 49

In the attempt to prove that architecture is a form of material culture, the specific aspect of metalworking is to be investigated within the practice of designing in correlation with context. The chosen site is at the southern intersection of Locust Street and Oak Avenue in Spruce Pine, North Carolina. As a community, Spruce Pine is conducive to craftsman and is centrally located to a multitude of blacksmiths. The particular apex site is a pinnacle to the entrance into the community and will allow for the development of a program that adequately demonstrates the community as a node for crafts and in particular metalworking. The programmatic elements to be developed for this site are a blacksmiths’ guild, blacksmiths’ gallery to display their craft, and a community market. By designing three individual buildings, different metalworking techniques can be utilized to display different material cultures. Since the blacksmiths’ guild will be designed to allow for them to practice their craft, the spaces will need to be open with regards to spans that allow for the movement of material. The structural system should consider the material culture of guildsman. The blacksmiths’ gallery, with its intention to house the objects produced, should be designed with an open floor plan and a minimal structure based on contemporary structural members so that the emphasis lies on the handicraft and not necessarily on the building itself. Lastly, the community market should reflect both the needs of the other craftsman of the community, but also utilize a metalworking material culture. Intended to be a centralized location for selling crafts and art, the community market (similar to the gallery) needs to have open spans to promote the interaction of space. While each of these programmatic elements is sited to demonstrate coordination, the approach to design is different depending on the use of the space, which is depended on the culture of that space. In order to summarize what today’s material culture is, a canopy is developed to span the entire site and speaks to current design aesthetic desires as well as performance.

Spruce Pine Blacksmithing center Blacksmithsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Guild

SPRUCE PINE, NORTH CAROLINA

Craftsman Market

- Workshop: at least 1,800 ft2 - Gathering space: 525 ft2 - Gallery space: 1,800 ft2 - Restrooms:2 @ 225= 450 ft2 - Offices: 4 @ 150= 600 ft2 - Storage: 500 ft2 - Mechanical: 900 ft2 - Circulation: 1,800 ft2

- Indoor shop: 2,000 ft2 - Hotel lot: 23,000 ft2 - Gallery space: 1,800 ft2 - site space not occupied by - Restrooms: 2 @ 225= 450 ft2 buildings - Offices: 2 @ 150= 300 ft2 - Mechanical: 300 ft2 - Storage: 300 ft2 - Circulation: 1,020 ft2

Total ft2= 8,375 ft2

Total ft2= 5,870 ft2 Total ft2 = 14,245 ft2

Massing study 01

Massing study 02

Spruce Pine, North Carolina has been selected as the town to embed this thesis project into. The selection of the community was made based on three factors: its proximity to blacksmithing towns, its craftsman culture, and its proximity to highways. The specific site has been selected since it acts as a node for the community and demarks the entrance into the town. The three buildings that are going to be replaced are in disrepair and do not represent the community well. The lot that is across the street from the corner is currently occupied by a run-down hotel that does not seem to serve much function for the community. By filling these sites with the proposed program, this node to the community will be strengthened.

Outdoor Market/ Festival Space

Massing study 03

Total ft2= min. 23,000 ft2

site model

site section collages

massing 01

massing 03

massing 02

massing 04

massing 01 collaged plan

massing 03 collaged plan

massing 02 collaged plan

massing 04 collaged plan

Blacksmith’s Guild and Community Market Spruce Pine, North Carolina The community of Spruce Pine, North Carolina is located in proximity to major highways that connect North and South Carolina, as well as Georgia and Tennessee. More important than convenience to the highways, Spruce Pine is rich in its appreciation for crafts and is the host for many festivals that showcase this appreciation, including a festival for blacksmithing. Spruce Pine is located near an abundance of blacksmiths as well as Penland School of Crafts. The particular site of interest within Spruce Pine was selected because it functions as a primary node for the community and helps demarkate the entrance into the community. While this site currently contains uninhabited buildings, the proposed project will include: a blacksmiths’ guild, a gallery for the guild, a craft market for the community, and a gallery for local artists to display their work.

The location of Spruce Pine is indicated by the largest blue circle. The other blue circles represent major cities within proximity to the location and the blue lines highlight the arterial highways that connect these cities. The orange circles on the map represent the location of blacksmith’s that surround the area.

The historic town of Spruce Pine has a unique shape that is defined by two major roads that bracket a linear progression of storefronts that sell mainly crafts and antiques. The town is faced by a railroad immediately to the south, as well as river. A pedestrian bridge connects the town to a park area located across the river.

The Blacksmith’s Guild, gallery, and community market are situated within Spruce Pine so that the buildings function as a node to the town, marking an entry point into the community. The axis of the pedestrian bridge was used to drive through the site create a primary order for organizing the buildings so that they correspond to this critical axis, as well as to each other. The Blacksmith’s guild serves as the more prominent building on the site, facing the apex on the community so that it greets those entering the town. The other two buildings, the market and the gallery, face the roads to help create edge conditions similar to those that are found in historic Spruce Pine.

Using Structural Intersection to Create a Pedestrian Path By setting up the program as three distinct buildings, different structural and detail strategies can be used in each of the different buildings based on the programmatic elements. The Blacksmithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guild is to be constructed out of industrial materials that are common place to the craft, indicating their culture. The Blacksmithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Gallery will be constructed and detailed with a more refined system that will not necessarily showcase the metalwork itself, but will instead, allow for the craft to speak. Lastly, the community market will be constructed using a system that relates to the material culture of the community. For instance, railroad ties and tracks may be used to derive a window assembly system. By using this found object method, it becomes apparent what is deemed culturally significant to the community. Associating different structural detailing strategies allows for it to be highlighted that architecture functions as a form of material that indicates what the community desires from its buildings and uses. The intersection of these structural systems will create a means for way-finding through the site. The intertwining of the strategies becomes a sculptural representation of the intertwining of craftsmanship and industry in the town.

Spruce Pine, North Carolina The community of Spruce Pine, North Carolina is located in proximity to major highways that connect North and South Carolina, as well as Georgia and Tennessee. More important than convenience to the highways, Spruce Pine is rich in its appreciation for crafts and is the host for many festivals that showcase this appreciation, including a festival for blacksmithing. Spruce Pine is located near an abundance of blacksmiths as well as Penland School of Crafts. The particular site of interest within Spruce Pine was selected because it functions as a primary node for the community and helps demarkate the entrance into the community. While this site currently contains uninhabited buildings, the proposed project will include: a blacksmiths’ guild, a gallery for the guild, a craft market for the community, and a gallery for local artists to display their work.

Spruce Pine Blacksmiths’ Guild & Community Market michelle todd | spring 2014 | peter wong & zhongjie lin

The primary building designed for the site is a blacksmiths’ guild and will be located at the apex of the site, fronting all traffic that approaches from that direction. The second building that collaborates with this program is a blacksmiths’ gallery, which showcases work produced by the guildsman. The third primary building is the community market, which is connected to the community’s need to display and sell all types of crafts. Since each of these buildings has a unique program, the structure and material assembly will reflect the program.

The guild will be constructed from exposed beams and wood, an appearance that is vernacular to those types of spaces. The gallery will be of a sleek design, with slender structure and an elegant façade so that the work housed is showcased. The community market is to be constructed by materials informed by the local industries that support the town, which is mining and railway shipping. These three different approaches to structure will reveal that each program is indicative to the cultural needs of the program. To unify these buildings, there will be an overarching roof structure that covers the entire site and will merge each of these techniques to show that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. While some of these spaces will desire a more handcrafted approach, others will desire a more prefabricated and economic approach, which does not necessarily mean that craftsmanship is lost. As stated by Fritz Kuhn “Craft can be proud of its past, but must nevertheless be constantly concerned with its present and its future” and ultimately “it is not the machine itself that makes the work less good, but our inability to use the machine in the right way” (pg xii).2

1. Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. 2. Kühn, Fritz. Decorative Work in Wrought Iron and Other Metals. New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1977. Print.

|gallery structure|

-constructed on contemporary metal elements that reflect standar construction practices, but with attention to detail. - used to frame the blacksmithsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; craft rather than exploit the structure.

|market structure|

- constructed from industry informed elements such as railroad ties in the attempt to exploit the industries that support the communities ulture. - structure becomes a feature of the building and is an organizational system that reveals itself.

|guild structure|

|canopy structure|

-structure is developed to help articulate the craft of blacksmiths through the utilization of structure.

- the canopy serves as an articulation of the current material culture, which exhibits our desire for updated technology that displays a sense of elegance and lightness in presence.

- constructed from off-theshelf items, such as c-channels that can be compounded and joined by the blacksmiths

-constructed out of leading-edge materials with a heightened attention to detail through the performance and perforation.

Oak Ave & Locust Street Intersection 86

Plaza View 87

Path between Guild and Market

Path between Gallery and Market 88

2nd Floor overlooking Guildsmen workspace 89

Caldwell, Michael. Strange Details. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2007. Print. Ford, Edward R. The Architectural Detail. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Print. Frascari, Marco. “The Tell-the-Tale Detail.” VIA 7: the Building of Architecture (1984): 23- 37. Web. 1 May 2013 Frampton, Kenneth. “Introduction: Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic.” Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. London: The MIT Press, 1995. 1-28. Print. Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. Kühn, Fritz. Decorative Work in Wrought Iron and Other Metals. New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1977. Print. Loos, Adolf. “The Principle of Cladding.” Spoken into the Void: Collected Essays 1897-1900. New York: The MIT Press, 1982. 66-81. Geocities. Web. 26 June 2013. <http://www.geocities.ws/mitchellmosesstudio/loos.pdf>. Sekler, Eduard. “Structure Construction, Tectonics.” 89-95. Web. 1 May 2013. Spoerl, Joseph. “A Brief History of Iron and Steel Production.” . http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/ dbanach/h-carnegie-steel.htm (accessed January 14, 2014).

101

Abstract 1. 2.

Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. Kühn, Fritz. Decorative Work in Wrought Iron and Other Metals. New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1977. Print.

Discourse Narrative Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. Ibid., p.7 3. Ibid., p. 227 4. Ibid., p. 59 5. Ibid., p. 60 6. Ford, Edward R. The Architectural Detail. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Print. 7. Ibid., p.24 8. Ibid., p.29 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p.45 12 Frampton, Kenneth. “Introduction: Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic.” Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. London: The MIT Press, 1995. 1-28. Print. 13 Sekler, Eduard. “Structure Construction, Tectonics.” 89-95. Web. 1 May 2013. 14 Ibid. 15 Loos, Adolf. “The Principle of Cladding.” Spoken into the Void: Collected Essays 1897-1900. New York: The MIT Press, 1982. 66-81. Geocities. Web. 26 June 2013. <http://www.geocities.ws/mitchellmosesstudio/loos.pdf>. 1. 2.

Literature Review Narrative Glassie, Henry. Material Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Print. Ibid., p. 28 3. Ibid., p. 41 4. Ibid., p. 59 5. Ibid., p. 60 6. Ibid., p. 227 7. Ford, Edward R. The Architectural Detail. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011. Print. 8. Ibid., p. 24 9. Ibid., p. 29 10. Ibid., p. 34 11. Ibid., p. 42 12. Ibid., p. 45 13. Frampton, Kenneth. “Introduction: Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic.” Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. London: The MIT Press, 1995. 1-28. Print. 14. Sekler, Eduard. “Structure Construction, Tectonics.” 89-95. Web. 1 May 2013. 15. Loos, Adolf. “The Principle of Cladding.” Spoken into the Void: Collected Essays 1897-1900. New York: The MIT Press, 1982. 66-81. Geocities. Web. 26 June 2013. <http://www.geocities.ws/mitchellmosesstudio/loos.pdf>. 1. 2.

Appendices Spoerl, Joseph. “A Brief History of Iron and Steel Production.” . http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/h-carnegie-steel. htm (accessed January 14, 2014).

103

105

The Evolution of Metalworking

- after several days of heating, the wrought iron absorbs more carbon. - to distribute carbon evenly, the material is bro- ken up, rebundled in charcoal powder, and re heated - results in [blister steel] which is heated again and brought to a forge to be hammered to give it a consistent texture. - 1740s: Benjamin Hunstman discovered that blister steel could be melted in clay crucibles and further refined by the addition of a specific flux that removed fine particles of slag that cementation cannot remove. - results in [crucilble steel], which was high in quality, but also expensive. -1784: pig iron was refined using a [puddling furnace], developed by Henry Cort - required stirring of molten metal, kept separate from the fire, through an aperture by a skilled craftsman called a [puddler] - exposed the metal evenly to the heat and combustion gases in the furnace so the carbon could be oxidized out. - as the carbon decreases, the melting point increase, resulting in semi-solid bits of iron to appear in the liquid. - the solids would be gathered by the puddler and worked as a single mass with a forge hammer - the hot wrought iron was then ran through rollers to form flat iron sheets or rails (rolling mills) - slitting mills cut wrought iron into narrow strips to make nails. -1856: Henry Bessemer designed the [converter] -pear-shaped receptacle with holes in the bottom to allow for the injection of compressed air. - converted was filled with molten pig iron, blew compressed air through the metal, and the iron was emptied of the carbon and silicon in minutes. - process allowed metal to remain molten instead of freezing up with a blast of cold air. - Robert Mushet discovered that the air blast removed too much carbon and left too much oxygen behind in the molten metal. - necessary to add a com pound of iron, carbon, and manganese called [spiegeleisen] - manganese removes the oxygen in the form of manganese oxide, which passes into the slag, and the

2,000 BCE: The Production of Iron

-iron replaced bronze because of its strength and durability when alloyed with carbon -became critical in the development of tools, which was necessary for the progression of civili- zation. - [smelting]: extraction of iron from iron ore, oxygen is released, combines with carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide. - results in [slag]: pure iron inter-mixed with charcoal - blacksmiths would hammer the smelted iron to remove the slag and cinders to compact the metallic particles. - the result was [wrought iron], which was the most commonly produced metal throughout the Iron Age

Late Middle Ages

-use of [cast iron] - iron is introduced to high temperatures and as it absorbs carbon, the melting point of the iron lowers - high carbon content makes metal hard and brittle - cannot be forged at any temperature - introduction of the [blast furnace] - combustion was intensified by a blast of air pumped through layers of coal, flux, and ore. - molten iron ran from the furnace to a sand trough that fed smaller lateral troughs (resembling suckling pigs), and produced cast iron (called pig iron) - allows for metal to be introduced directly into molds at furnace base or re-melting from pig iron to make castings - casting is also called [founding] and is done in a [foundry] - figured out how to make wrought iron from pig iron - oxidized excess carbon out of pig iron in a charcoal furnace called a [finery]

Mid-1800s

- 1700s: discovery of [coke] (coal-cake) - coal baked to remove impurities and could be subsituted for charcoal in smelting. - charcoal deforestation was becoming a problem in Western Europe and Britain. -[steel]: harder than wrought iron, but not as brittle as cast - holds a sharper edge than iron - resists shock and tension better - [cementation process]: bars of wrought iron are packed in powdered charcoal in tightly covered stone boxes and heated 106

carbon remains, converting iron into steel. - Bessemer process does not remove phosphorous - phosphorous makes steel brittle - process could only be done with phosphorous free ore. - this ore was scarce and expensive - found primarily in Wales, Sweden, and upper Michigan. - 1876: Sidney Gilchrist Thomas: discovered that by adding chemically basic materials like limestone, phosphorous is pulled from the pig iron to the slag, which floats to the top and can be skimmed off the result in phosphorous-free steel. - called the [Bessemer Basic Process] or [Thomas basic process] - allowed for the mining of iron ore in vast locations that could be used on the process - resulted in cheap steel and increased production - in 1867, 460,000 tons of wrought iron rails were made and sold at $83/ton. 2550 tons of Bessemer Steel rails were made at a price of $170/ ton. - in 1884, iron rails were virtually no longer made and steel rails were produced at 1,500,000 tons per year and at $32 per ton. - Carnegie lowered production costs and steel dropped to $14 per ton - 1860s: [Open hearth furnace] developed by Karl Wilhelm Siemens - iron is converted into steel in a broad, shallow open-hearth furnace [Siemens Gas Furnace] by adding wrought iron or iron oxide to pig iron until the carbon is reduced by dilution and oxidation. - exhaust gases preheated the air and gas before combustion to al low for very high temperatures - also utilized basic chemicals like limestone - takes hours, unlike minutes of Bessemer process - allows for lab testing and precision of specs to cus- tomerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs - creates larger batches of steel and could use scrap metal.

- process replaced the Bessemer process by 1900 -1960: Open Hearth Process was replaced by the basic oxygen process - modification of the Bessemer Process - use of an electric-arc furnace to produce steel from scrap.

Spoerl, Joseph. â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Brief History of Iron and Steel Production.â&#x20AC;? . http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/hcarnegie-steel.htm (accessed January 14, 2014). 107