Soak It Up, Philly! by UArts Design for Social Impact MDes / Master of Industrial Design

Soak It Up, Philly! Engaging Residents to Achieve Widespread Change

Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith SERVICE DESIGN

Soak It Up, Philly!

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes Northern Liberties

Preddy & Smith

Green City, Clean Waters

CW Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

CW Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

CW Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

GC GC Green CW Homes

GC Green CW Homes

Green City, Clean Waters

CW Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control Northern Liberties

Green City, Clean Waters

CW Green City, Clean Waters

The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control

Green City, Clean Waters

Northern Liberties

CW Green City, Clean Waters

The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control

CW Green City, Clean Waters

GC Green CW Homes The City of Philadelphia’s Program for Combined Sewer Overflow Control

Donovan Preddy Michael Smith

Soak It Up, Philly: Engaging Residents to Achieve Widespread Change Published by

211 South Broad Street, 5th Floor Philadelphia, PA 19102 Copyright ÂŠ 2011

Copyright © 2011 by Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith Illustrations copyright © 2011 by Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith Photography credits: Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith All photography created by © 2011 Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith unless otherwise noted. All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced–mechanically, electronically, or by any other means, including photocopying–without written permission of the publisher. Cover design by Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith Book design by Donovan Preddy & Michael Smith Masters of Industrial Design at The University of the Arts 212 South Broad Street, 5th Floor Philadelphia, PA 19102 First printing June 2011

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for degree of Master of Industrial Design at The University of the Arts, Philadelphia, PA by Donovan Preddy and Michael Smith

Approved by,

committee chair slavko milekic M.D., Ph.D.

advisor adam levine

director jonas milder

Abstract This project began simply by looking at human behavior and the various ways of changing that behavior. To give ourselves a context, we decided to research issues pertaining to fresh water supply, initially focusing on the consumptive behaviors of the residents of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. From our research, we learned that the consumption rates in this city were surprisingly efficient, especially when compared to the country as a whole. To better inform our efforts, we spoke to a local historian who works with the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water department. According to this person, the largest problem facing Philadelphiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s potable water has to do with the way storm water is managed. Like many cities in Northeast United States, stormwater and sewage are carried together to processing plants via a Combined Sewer System. During heavy rains, the sewers get overworked with both storm water and human sewage which overflow into the Schuykill and Delaware rivers. Per a mandate handed down from the Environmental Protection Agency, the Philadelphia Water Department has devised a strategy to deal with these polluting events. They call this program Green City, Clean Waters. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s an ambitious program that will face numerous obstacles along the way. Some of these obstacles will lie within their power to control, such as making improvements to sidewalks and streets. Other obstacles will be more difficult to address, the most complicated of which is inspiring the participation of local residents. The situation is further complicated by the fact that this government agency will be increasing the cost to remove stormwater in order to fund this program.

Interestingly, based on our research, we have found no incentive for residents to participate in the Green City, Clean Waters program. We have addressed this part of the larger problem through this project. In looking at the part of Green City, Clean Waters that focuses on residents, we have isolated an opportunity to increase the degree to which this population will support the plan and actively participate. We have divided this strategy into five components: A Simple First Step, An Incentive To Act, A Motivating Interface, Public Awareness Events and Strategic Partnerships. The first step of our plan provides a simple first step to allow residents to easily begin participating in the program. We modified the overall concept of retaining water to create a basic potted plant kit that becomes a symbol of involvement and promotes growth of the cause. The next component provides an incentive for residents by offsetting the stormwater removal charges when residents purchase qualifying products. These efforts will then be supported by an online interface that aims to motivate a continued participation. We also sketched up several potential ways for the Philadelphia Water Department to reach out to a greater audience using local landmarks and creative advertising. Finally, we propose a list of possible partnerships that could help promote the message of this program based on a shared need for clean waterways. While we have not had the opportunity to test these concepts, we do lay the groundwork for how this project could continue. Looking back on our process, we realized several key oversights which led to misguided direction and ineffective actions. Reflecting on this process and understanding where this project went astray has left us with an acute awareness of what can happen in the absence of a well-defined problem.

Dedication Donovan: First and foremost, Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d like thank my family and especially my parents for their constant support throughout this process. Without it I may not have made it this far. Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d also like to thank Hope Coleman for planting the seed of change in my head that led me to this program, and Louis Cook and Doug Bucci for convincing me it was a good idea. Mike: Thanks to my family for the encouragement and support, my friends and loved ones in St. Louis for checking in on me, and my talented and thoughtful classmates here in Philadelphia for keeping me levelheaded. You are all amazing.

Thesis Committee Committee Chair Slavko Milekic, M.D., Ph.D.

Associate Professor Cognitive Science & Digital Interface Design Department of Art and Museum Education and Art Therapy University of the Arts

Committee Member Adam Levine Historical Consultant Philadelphia Water Department

Acknowledgements Thanks to: Slavko Milekic for guiding us through this entire process, Neil Kleinman, Sherry Lefevre and Jonas Milder for keeping us on our toes, Adam Levine for putting us on the right path, and Tiffany Groll for elaborating on the PWDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s outreach strategy.

Table of Contents 010 014 024 052 074 114 128 154

Preface: Our Role As Designers Chapter 1: Introducing Chapter 2: Observing Chapter 3: Discovering Chapter 4: Researching Chapter 5: Developing Chapter 6: Proposing Chapter 7: Reflecting

161 Appendix 171 References

Preface: Our Role As Designers

Our Role As Designers The core of industrial design can be described as a creative response to the needs and problems of a group of individuals. Traditionally, this response has taken the form of physical products which have evolved over time to meet the changing needs of our society. In recent years, however, the scope of industrial design has expanded beyond product design to also include the design of services for new types organizations. While there is still room for the design of beautiful, thoughtful products, contemporary industrial designers are beginning to embrace the idea that a designed "response" may not take the form of a physical object. Fundamentally, understanding the needs of a given group of users through human-centered design research is the key to generating truly effective outcomes, regardless of its form. As designers, we work with our clients to discover and understand their underlying needs which they may, or may not, be consciously aware of. This observational data is then synthesized by mapping relevant processes and identifying patterns which we present to the client in a visual manner to spark thought, dialogue and participation. By doing this, we not only uncover new opportunities in which design can help to solve problems but also create a sense of ownership on the part of the client. The knowledge and understanding acquired through this type of active research is used to shape a variety of tentative solutions. We edit and further refine these solutions through rapid prototyping and iteration. By the end of this process, we generate an array of outcomes for the client to use which include strategic goals, actionable ideas and comprehensive plans.

Process:

Learn Research Interview Observe

Synthesize Map complex data Identify patterns Realize opportunities

Imagine

Propose

Ideate approaches Explore possibilities Mock-up concepts

Strategic goals Actionable ideas Comprehensive plans

Prototype

Present

Rapidly test concepts Gather feedback Iterate designs

Design information Visualize scenarios Communicate context

Refine

Respond to feedback Address design criteria Further develop concepts

1: Introducing

The Context of Water The full degree to which humans, and Americans in particular, are connected to water is hard to comprehend. In fact, finding a part of life that does not rely on water is practically impossible. For instance, it is an essential component of nourishment since humans can live for about a month without food, but only a week or so without water. Since around 3/4 of the surface of the planet is covered by the substance, it also serves as a means of connection between the many cultures of this planet. While most of us have probably heard about these types of connections, they do not represent the ways in which we connect to water in our everyday life. For most of us, it exists as an endless supply of convenience and comfort. It cools our drinks, waters our lawns, cleans us in the morning, cooks our food at night and removes our bodily waste. Essentially we, as Americans, interact with water in countless ways without really having to think about them. Because of our dependency on clean water, weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve built sophisticated public systems that provide the supply and removal of all of our water-related needs. These systems also exist almost entirely out of sight which can hide the ways our actions affect our hydrologic (water) cycle. The short-term effects may seem negligible; the local reservoirs may drop an inch or two or there may be a few pieces of trash floating down the nearby river. However, when looking at the issue from a long-term perspective, it is apparent that we are significantly impacting the very environment we depend on so heavily.

Total Water Use Per Capita by Country (m3/year)

We use about two to three times as much [water] as other developed nations.

Municipal Water Withdrawal Per Capita (gallons/inhab/day) 250.00

200.00

USA: 153.44 gal/day 150.00

100.00

Right Chart: Food and Agriculture Organization. AQUASTAT. 15 February 2011 <http://www.fao.org/nr/ water/aquastat/data/query/ index.html?lang=en>.

50.00

0.00

Somalia Rwanda Uganda Haiti Cambodia Burkina Faso Lesotho Ghana Fiji Viet Nam Guinea-Bissau Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Lao People's Democratic Republic Zambia Nicaragua Tunisia Sri Lanka Algeria Antigua and Barbuda China Mauritania Azerbaijan Malaysia Finland Philippines Myanmar Denmark Saint Lucia Switzerland Chile Russian Federation Belgium Mexico Uzbekistan Spain Argentina Italy Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Kuwait Iceland United States of America Armenia

Top Chart: ChartsBin Statistics Collector Team 2010. Total Water Use per capita by Country. 21 April 2010 <http://chartsbin.com/ view/u8u>.

If the current drought continues, mandatory water rationing may be imposed in many areas. - Association of California Water Agencies1

1. Association of California Water Agencies. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Fact Sheet.â&#x20AC;? September 2007. California Water Crisis. 21 April 2011 <Association of California Water Agencies>.

There is a 50% chance Lake Mead, which supplies 90% of Las Vegasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water, will be dry by 2021. - Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego2 2. Wilson, Alex. On the Path to Passive Survivability. 14 October 2008. 21 April 2011 <http:// www.buildinggreen. com/live/index. cfm/2008/10/14/Onthe-Path-to-PassiveSurvivability>.

A Starting Point There is no shortage of design opportunities in the context of supplying humankind with fresh water, both on a global scale as well as a more local scale. One issue in particular that surfaces quite often is the issue of consumption, specifically that most humans use too much of it. This project began by assuming that such over consumption was relevant to the city of Philadelphia and therefore became the context for this project. Despite the fact that there are numerous parties who play a role in the water system (i.e., government, businesses, etc.), it was the residents of Philadelphia that served as the most accessible user group. Based on these decisions, we set out to better understand the relationship residents had with their water supply and what pressing issues existed in Philadelphia. In tandem, we began to look at concepts and models of behavior change. Our premise was that a focus on small efforts, projected over a large scale, could become an effective strategy to tackle difficult issues like excessive water consumption. Even though an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior may not seem to produce significant effects, when this behavior is multiplied by a large number of participants or projected over a period of time, the cumulative effect can be massive.

The Hypothesis: If behavior change research and design methods are applied to local water issues, then an effective strategy will be developed that will guide residents to act more sustainably within their hydrologic system.

The Design Challenge: Through design research and methodology, understand how residents of Philadelphia interact with water, what water issues exist in Philadelphia, and how design can play a role to positively affect the local community as well as humankindâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationship with water on a larger scale.

2: Observing Real People A Prompted Dialogue The Retail Experience Reflections 25

Observing: Real People Our research began by interviewing residents to find out how aware they were of their water usage. Were they concerned with reducing their usage? Did they try to make their houses more efficient when installing new fixtures? What role did their contractors and designers play in this decision process? These were the types of questions we sought answers to based on our initial assumption that over-consumption was a serious problem. This is a typical direction for water-related design projects, and one we would eventually find out was not as serious as we presumed.

Morris Potter Resident Morris Potter graciously allowed us to interview her in her beautiful, villa-like home seated in an upscale neighborhood in Media, PA. As we approached the front door, we were cheerfully greeted by Morris who ushered us in to the cozy kitchen adjacent to the entrance. Sitting down at the kitchen table, we began getting to know Morris, a 66-year-old mother of two. She is independently wealthy and spends most of her time at home entertaining friends and gardening. She also volunteers as the Chair of the Rose Valley Historical Society to keep busy. She is married but lives separately from her husband. The only other

resident in her spacious home is her cat, but she is rarely alone. Her husband comes to visit often and she invites friends over multiple times a week to enjoy wine and socialize. Her daughters Morgan, 33, and Felicia, 28, also visit fairly often. Taking a look around her kitchen, we observed that Morris takes steps to conserve resources to a much greater extent than the average resident might. Pieces of used foil, plastic wrap, and egg shells were laying out to dry next to the sink because she had washed them all recently. She showed us a reused jar full of crushed egg shells which she used to fertilize her garden. Next to the

Top: Morris at her kitchen table with her jar of crushed egg shells in front.

refrigerator, a number of containers were used to separate trash from recycling as well as compost. Her kitchen was lit by compact fluorescent light bulbs and outfitted with energy star appliances. Morris herself was comfortably dressed in a sweater as she admitted to keeping the house a little cool to save energy. The only lights on in the twostory, three-bedroom house were the ones in the kitchen. When asked about how she uses water, Morris happily showed us a few of her routines. Although she frequently uses her dishwasher for her dishes, some of the tougher cleaning jobs are done in the sink. In these instances, she uses a separate dish to hold soapy water that she uses to get the lather. Another water saving technique she uses is in her shower. Rather than a traditional shower head, she uses a military-style fixture that has a cut-off valve so she isn’t running water while soaping up. Morris also showed us her water bill to point out when she fixed her leaky toilet. The bar graph of monthly usages dips considerably after she corrected this problem. Most striking was her inability to guess the amount of water she used in a month. Her guess of around 750 gallons of water per month was a far cry from the 2200 gallons she actually used that month. Where all that water was being used, she hadn’t a clue. Morris’ intensely-conservative mindset was instilled in her by her parents, who grew up during the Great Depression. Saving resources was second-nature because it was a part of how she had been raised. However, conservation was not Morris’ only interest. We asked her about a new purchase, in this 28

case a new stove and hood, and it wasn’t the efficiency of the unit that caught her eye. As it turned out, her focus was more on function and availability than anything else. Morris never shops online; spending the time to research prices is too much work that she doesn’t see a value in. When she needs something, she simply heads out to a store, talks to the salesman and picks something out. We asked her if she based any of her decisions while shopping on things like ecofriendliness but she couldn’t recall seeing anything at the store that spoke of such a factor. It wasn’t that she wasn’t interested or concerned but more so that it was never shown or offered to her. AWARENESS Estimated she used 750 gallons of water per month; actually used 2200 gallons. Unaware of usage rates per activity. MOTIVATION Conservative mind-set instilled by her parents, who grew up during the Great Depression. Believes that resources are finite and should be used wisely. TAKE-AWAYS • Despite her conservation efforts, Morris still used more water per day compared to the national average. • There was a huge discrepancy between her estimated usage and her actual usage. • She used the visual component of her water bill to gauge the efficacy of her conserving efforts. • Her shopping experience did little to inform her of eco-friendly options.

Opposite Top: Spike in water bill due to leaky toilet. Opposite Bottom Right: Note for house guests regarding leaky toilet. Opposite Bottom Left: Morris with her Earth-friendly dish soap.

The Cattermoles Residents John and Meghan Cattermole live in a narrow multi-story home in Wilmington, DE with their three children, Regan, 6, Ian, 4, and Gavin, 1. As we entered the kitchen, John offered us a coffee while Meghan moved the children upstairs so we could talk. Aside from working as a custom jewelry designer, John is actively involved in his church, attending a menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fraternity and Pioneer Club every week. Heâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 35 and is interested in political economics and listening to music. John usually makes purchasing decisions based on price, functionality and aesthetics. We asked him about recent purchases in an attempt to learn about his 30

values and behaviors and he pointed out the new ceiling lights installed in the kitchen. Although John knew that he wanted recessed lighting, he trusted the contractor to make most of the decisions on the type of bulb, the installation locations, etc. Having a contractor he could trust was important since he had little time to research things like lighting fixtures. He liked that his decisions on the matter were reduced to choosing between black, white or polished metal. John also recently purchased an LG refrigerator. Although he usually tries to spend as little money as possible on such purchases, he decided to spend a bit more

Top: Meghan and John discussing water bills. Opposite: Their LG refrigerator and newly installed ceiling lights.

on the refrigerator because he associated the LG brand with aesthetically pleasing, highend products. He felt there was an implicit value that came in the brand’s products and it was worth the higher price. From purchases we moved on to consumption awareness. We wanted to see if John and Meghan knew how much water particular tasks (such as flushing a toilet or running a faucet) used. They could only guess. They estimated they used anywhere from one cup to one gallon for brushing their teeth and 15 to 30 gallons for taking a shower. Due to the sheer range of their guesses, we had learned that their awareness of their usage was limited, to say the least. Next we had them both guess as to how much water their household uses in a month and, after struggling to wrap their head around such a calculation, admitted that it would only be a rough estimation. John guessed 400 gallons this month, while Meghan guessed around 15,000 gallons. Interestingly, we were all a bit surprised that their bill did not actually reveal the amount consumed. In fact, they weren’t sure that they even paid for water or if the city provided it. The bill did little to clear up this confusion. Although they did not often try to comprehend their water bill, the Cattermoles regularly read and responded to their energy and gas bill. This bill, issued by a utility company called Connective, provided them with usage history bar graphs that were easy to understand. The graphs helped connect the Cattermoles’ actions to financial costs, which encouraged them to make efforts to use less energy. 32

John and Meghan went on to describe a few examples of their efforts. During the summer, they do their best to use the air conditioner less often, and Meghan hangs clothes out back to air dry. John installed a motion sensor light switch in the bathroom because the kids kept leaving the light on. They even have a digital thermostat that Meghan had programmed to adjust the temperature throughout the day to save energy (since then, it has been reprogrammed by workers from Connective and she has not figured out how to get it back the way she liked it). Interestingly, during this discussion of energy conservation Meghan stepped away to shut off some lights that were not being used. Had the conversation alone triggered a response? AWARENESS John guessed that his family used 400 gallons of water this month, while Meghan guessed 15,000 gallons. Their bill did not reveal the amount consumed, however after a call to the provider and a bit of math we found out it was around 10,000 gallons. MOTIVATION Motivated by price, convenience, and functionality. TAKE-AWAYS • The Cattermoles preferred to rely on the knowledge of their contractor to reduce their decision-making process. • They perceived a value beyond the cost that informed their decisions. • Visually clear information had a noticeable impact on their electricity usage. • The simplicity of recycling made it easy to participate.

Opposite Top Left: The water bill with no graphical explanations. Opposite Top Right: The electric bill showing heavy use during summer months. Opposite Bottom: Meghan discussing their electronic thermostat seen to the right of John’s head.

Kristen Suzda Architect We were looking for an ecologically-minded architect and Kristen Suzda is exactly that. She helps to run a summer camp in her spare time. Her and her husband are constantly looking for ways to reduce their eco-footprint. They subscribe to the mantra, “If it’s yellow, let it mellow. If it’s brown, flush it down.” They have low-flow everything. Much of her interest in a reductionist lifestyle stems from the time she spent living in Santa Fe, where resources like water were much more scarce than they are here in Philadelphia. Interestingly, when we asked her about WaterSense products, she couldn’t say what the flow-rate standards were. She knew 34

they were more efficient but struggled to say exactly how much better they were. The customers she deals with, which run the gamut from wealthy to middle-income, come to her with a limited understanding of what products and systems exist which could lower their consumption. For example, many shower heads come with a kill-switch on the spout itself so the user can stop using water while lathering up. If you remember, Morris Potter uses one of these. Most people she deals with don’t know what this is for. In fact, they rely heavily on her knowledge of what is available in the market. It’s rare that her customers will have done any “homework”

Top: Kristen at a conference table in her office.

before beginning a project with her. She also feels restricted by the overwhelming amount of building codes she has to navigate. A particular faucet may meet state standards but not city standards. This is frustrating to Kristen.

AWARENESS Kristen was aware of eco-friendly fixtures like those certified by WaterSense but could not accurately state their specific flow rates. Most of her knowledge on such matters deals with LEED-certified products and measures.

One bright spot in the matter has been the LEED Certification developed by the U.S. Green Building Council. There is a growing awareness of this rating system and its role in creating effective, earth-conscious buildings. Unfortunately, doing the “right thing” often comes at a cost—one which many a goodnatured resident finds too expensive. This is especially true for larger projects like schools and office buildings which feel the pinch when buying larger quantities of fixtures like dualflush toilets.

MOTIVATION Along with her husband, she exhibits behavior that speaks of a value system that focuses on minimizing her impact on the ecosystem. This is largely due to the lifestyle her family lived while she was growing up in Santa Fe.

One of her greatest struggles is convincing her customers of the value of investing in these types of purchases. It’s hard to persuade most people by comparing longterm savings to the short-term reality of the bill; usually the high initial cost turns customers off. Because of the success of the LEED certification system, she believes in the ability of a top-down approach to human behavior modification.

TAKE-AWAYS • Her motivation to conserve resources is largely due to her upbringing. • The clients she works for typically rely on her for her knowledge when making decisions. • Many eco-friendly products fail to be adopted due to their price. • Communicating a value beyond the cost of eco-products is often the toughest part of her job.

Jeff Urofsky Plumber Jeff Urofsky, 49, has been plumbing in Philadelphia for over 30 years. Aside from plumbing, he enjoys attending and watching sporting events, salt water fishing, and is a self-professed movie buff. As he took a break from his job to meet us at nearby restaurant, we could instantly tell that Jeff was an honest man who took pride in his work. Dressed in a warm hooded sweatshirt, and old baseball cap, and wearing glasses low on his nose, he leaned forward on the bar to share with us his experience working with the residents of Philadelphia. Jeff mostly deals with medium- to high-end residential homes as well as some small 36

scale commercial projects. Unlike Kristen, his clients make all the big decisions such as which fixtures to buy and where they should go. Many go so far as to purchase the fixtures themselves so all he has to do is install them (which is fine by him). Jeff doesn’t typically care what fixtures his clients choose, as long as they are satisfied; he’ll happily support his clients’ decisions, telling them, “If you like it, I love it!” He also notes that 95% of the time, the wife, rather than the husband, makes the decision when it comes to buying fixtures. Not surprisingly, the main factors that motivate the purchasing decisions of his customers are look and price. Of course,

Top: Jeff at the bar of a restaurant he has done plumbing work for in the past.

nearly all of his customers want to buy fixtures that will last forever but according to Jeff, all fixtures will need repair eventually. In fact, because Philadelphia has such “hard” water (this refers to the high calcium content), fixtures may need repair sooner than later, so he sees the value of investment in high quality products.

AWARENESS Products that are marketed as being ecofriendly are not ones he is especially aware of. He doesn’t really see the demand from his customers so he spends little time becoming knowledgeable on the subject. He does know that flow rates have been reduced due to government mandates.

We wanted to see if the values of his clients had been shifting in recent years, perhaps towards a greener mentality. As it turns out, in the past 30 years or so, Jeff has noticed a few trends in plumbing fixtures. He is seeing more and more plastic components replacing metal ones in fixtures. This may make these fixtures less expensive to produce, but they need to be repaired or replaced sooner as a result. He also noted that the flow rates of toilets and other fixtures have been reduced over the years as a result of federal conservation laws. However, rarely do his clients consider these factors when discussing new purchases.

MOTIVATION When the decision of which fixture to install is up to him, Jeff always goes with brands with a reputation for function. Jeff believes that the fixtures he installs speak of him, which is why he has come to rely on a set of manufacturers he can trust. For him, function is paramount. TAKE-AWAYS • He typically plays a passive role in the decision-making process. • There is little discussion of flow rates and other such matters when he talks to his customers.

Observing: A Prompted Dialogue From the deep interviews we had begun to establish that residents were generally unaware of the amount of water they used in a month. Were these isolated incidents or was this lack of awareness a more widespread issue? More data was needed to better understand the situation. We designed a visual questionnaire to learn more about typical water usage behavior among residents. To make estimating easier, and hopefully more accurate, questions of usage were limited to individual appliances and the span of usage was reduced from a month to a day. To account for scenarios which occur less frequently, such as the washing of clothes, we divided the estimated weekly usage by the number of days in a week for a daily usage. To engage a wider audience, we took our questionnaire to Rittenhouse Square in Center City Philadelphia.

The Questionnaire User Estimate

U.S. Average

HOW MUCH WATER DO YOU USE?

ACTIVITY

YOUR ESTIMATE (GALLONS PER DAY)

U.S. AVERAGE (GALLONS PER DAY)

ACTIVITY

Toilet

18.5

Shower

11.6

Faucet

10.9

Bath

1.2

Dishwasher

Clotheswasher

Outdoors

28.7

Leaks

9.5

gal/day

“I don’t know how many gallons the dishwasher uses, I was just guesstimating.”

Resident A

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate vs U.S. Average Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

“I don’t know how much it takes to run a dishwasher.”

Resident B

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate vs U.S. Average Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

"Now, how much is a gallon?"

Resident C

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate vs U.S. Average Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

“How much does a flush take?”

Resident D

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate vs U.S. Average Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

“How much does it take to flush a toilet, like a gallon or something?”

Resident E

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate vs U.S. Average Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

Results

Gallons Used Per Day By Activity - User Estimate (A B C D E) vs U.S. Average

Toilet Shower Faucet Bath Dishwasher Clotheswasher Outdoors Leaks 0 (gal/day)

Reflections From our research we found that the residents of Philadelphia lack a general awareness of the amount of water used in activities such as using a dishwasher, flushing a toilet, and using a faucet. Several residents had difficulty imagining the size of a single gallon of water which made estimating larger

quantities, like the capacity of a standard bath tub, similarly difficult. There was an interest amongst several interviewees to reduce their water use, but few were able to provide a reason this would be necessary beyond the feeling that it would be a "good thing to do.â&#x20AC;?

Observing: The Retail Experience Most of the people we talked to had little idea as to the flow rates and overall usage of their water fixtures. Was this because they had filtered out that information after they purchased their fixtures or because that information was never given to them in the first place? In what ways do retail environments inform the decision-making process of shoppers? Was there a hierarchy to the information displayed? To answer these questions, we visited the plumbing aisle of the local Home Depot hardware store.

Home Depot Christopher Columbus Boulevard In observing the retail environment, we were interested in both the type of information displayed as well as the manner in which that information was presented. Do these stores care about the sustainability of water consumption? Do they make sustainable options clear for residents that do care about their environment? Are these fixtures accessible in terms of price or options? How does the retail environment frame these options? As we studied the displays, we noticed a small designation on some of the faucet placards which read “WaterSense - Meets EPA Criteria.” Promotional materials displayed 48

around the aisle claimed that WaterSense products save at least 20% on overall water consumption. The seal was also printed on the backs of some of the faucet boxes with some additional information. This seal meant that the associated product had a reduced flow rate compared to standard fixtures. The retail displays do show the WaterSense logo on individual faucet placards, but they’re small and easy to overlook unless the customer is searching for them (see above). Many manufacturers print the WaterSense seal on the fixture boxes as well, although it usually only takes up a small fraction of the panel space. Some manufacturers

Top: Photo of the bathroom faucet display at Home Depot from about five feet away. Above: WaterSense logo

indicate their products' efficiency much more prominently on the packaging, using this feature as the main selling point. To further promote the program, there are printed, educational materials posted around the aisle that celebrate the benefits of upgrading to water-efficient products. In observing these retail spaces, we learned that these hardware stores had begun to educate consumers on the issues of water conservation. Some methods seemed more useful than others. For instance, focusing on the long-term financial advantages of these products created a compelling argument, especially considering the financial focus shared by many of the residents we interviewed previously. The hardware stores were also beginning to utilize the WaterSense logo as an easy way for consumers to navigate their choices, even though the logos were probably a bit too small to actually be useful.

Top: Entrance signage for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bathâ&#x20AC;? aisle featuring WaterSense information Far and Near Left: Almost all water conserving fixtures incorporate the color green in their packaging.

Occur Becau Assumed

Over-‐ Consump@on

Problems

Observing: Reflections Our assumption that most residents had a limited awareness regarding their water usage had, with reasonable certainty, been proven true. We had also established a need within the retail environment to provide more information pertaining to waterconserving fixtures and to make these products easier to find. Our findings, however, lacked specificity and spoke of generic problems that were probably true of anywhere in the US, rather than Philadelphia specifically. Our next step would be to connect with those individuals who were intricately woven into the fabric of Philadelphia’s water-related issues.

CSOs Discovered

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Homes Public Facili@es Parking Lots Open spaces Industry, Business, Commerce Alleys, Driveways and Walkways 51

3: Discovering Local Issues Local Strategies Reflections

Discovering: Local Issues Our research to this point didn’t seem to speak of issues specific to Philadelphia. We decided to re-focus our efforts on local issues to make our work more geographically relevant. Where was “the pain” and who felt it? Our first step was to understand the history of the water system. In the city of Philadelphia, water-supply and removal is handled by one entity: the Philadelphia Water Department. Looking through the historical information on their website, we identified an associated site called PhillyH20 which was said to have “a wealth of other information on the history of water supply, sewers and watersheds in Philadelphia and vicinity.”3 This website proved to be an excellent source of historical information and it was created and managed by one person: Adam Levine. If it was important to understand the problems which were specific to Philadelphia, Adam was just the person to talk to. 3. Philadelphia Water Department. PWD Historical Collection Online Catalogue. 12 May 2011 <http://www. phila.gov/water/PWD_ Historical.html>.

Adam Levine Historical Consultant After interviewing and observing residents to better understand their interests, attitudes, and awareness regarding their interactions with water, we decided to look more closely at what specific issues are affecting Philadelphia. Once these opportunities were established, we could then use our understanding of residents to try to connect their actions to these local issues. We started learning more about local issues by talking to Adam Levine, a consultant for the Philadelphia Water Department. As a child, Adam was heavily influenced by the drought in the ‘80s and joined the energy club in school which met to discuss

the world's energy problems. From that point on, he has felt a deep connection to the natural world around him and has made it’s protection his life’s work. Adam is a consultant and historian for the Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) and has played a seminal role in the creation of their Interpretive Center, an educational facility located along the Schuykill River in a now-defunct water processing plant. Adam’s extensive knowledge of Philadelphia’s water system helped inform us of a number of specific issues that the city was struggling with. First and foremost was the issue of pollution. The sewer system (specifically the

Top: Adam explains a component to the sewer system in Philadelphia.

“combined sewers”) in Philadelphia can get overworked during heavy rains, at which point they actually overflow into the rivers. This water has not had the opportunity to be filtered and processed, which makes it a strong contaminant. Heavy water usage by residents during these times can inflate this problem; Adam half-joked that it would be great if residents postponed their showers and flushings until after the weather passed. Unfortunately, he concedes, residents are rarely informed about this type of situation. This underscores another issue he brought up, that of awareness. Adam believes that few of the residents here have an understanding as to where their water comes from and where it goes. This is problematic because it reinforces an attitude of “flush it and forget it”, as he put it, referring to excessive water use. Such a perspective also contributes to a willingness by many residents to dump anything and everything down their drains, a behavior which makes cleaning and processing the water more difficult and more expensive. During the discussion, he pointed out that the PWD really doesn’t have a way to deal with this issue of connecting the users with their supply. This seemed like an oversight on the part of the water provider and a significant opportunity to address through design. Could awareness alone create cleaner water by curbing negative behaviors like dumping harmful chemicals down the drain? Establishing a connection between the supplier and its customers is one of the most significant opportunities Adam sees for our project, whether it be to let the residents 56

know how much water they’re using or to inform them of a new service. If the supplier were to have this ability to communicate effectively with residents, then tackling the issues faced by the PWD would be much easier to handle.

A GLARING DISCONNECT In a telephone survey of 961 American adults, 77% couldn't accurately identify the natural source of water used in their homes. Furthermore, of those who claimed to know the source of their water, only 50% could correctly identify it. “In the United States, we have the luxury of not having to know where our water comes from, and that luxury has created a disconnect between people and nature... As far as many Americans can tell, their water comes from the tap.” -Jeff Opperman, senior freshwater scientist at The Nature Conservancy.4

Could not identify the source of their water

4. The Nature Conservancy. More than Three-Quarters of Americans Don’t Know Where Their Water Comes From. 22 March 2011. 21 April 2011 <http://www.nature.org/ newsfeatures/media/pressreleases/ more-than-three-quarters-ofamericans-dont-know-where-theirwater-comes-from.xml>.

A COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM Sewage

Waste water from toilets, showers, sinks and any other drain pipe inside a building (except when the building uses a private cistern) is considered sewage.

Pollution Control Plant Sewage and stormwater flow down combined pipes to a processing facility that cleans and treats the water so it can be readmitted into the rivers without polluting it.

Stormwater

Water that is not absorbed into the ground or evaporates into the air washes into the street and into these drains.

Overflows

This is a release mechanism that dumps the sewage and stormwater excess into local rivers and streams.

There are 164 combined sewer outfalls in Philadelphia. Philadelphia Water Department. Watershed Issues. 27 July 2011. <http://www. phillywatersheds.org/watershed_issues>.

Louis Cook Angler From our discussion with Adam, it was clear that CSOs were the biggest problem facing Philadelphia in regards to its water supply. To get a better sense of the effects of CSOs, we met with Louis Cook, a professional angler who has extensive experience with these outflows. Louis lives in the Philadelphia area and does most of his fishing for carp, his fish of choice, in an urban section of the Schuykill River. For knowledgeable urban anglers, combined sewer outflows often serve as a great place to find fish. Many outflows are partially submerged below the surface, offering areas that the fish can swim into for relief 60

from heavy currents or uncomfortable temperatures. Louis is keenly aware of this and has caught many a fish using this knowledge. On days after a heavy rain, however, the things these outflows contribute to the waterways are a bit less beneficial. A list of things he’s “caught” in his fishing line include substantial clumps of human hair, baby diapers, feminine products, and what are often referred to as “Schuykill Whitefish” (a.k.a. condoms). Louis has also often noticed large amounts of soap suds pouring out into the river.

Top. Louis prepares his fishing line Right: The secret CSO Louis likes to fish at.

As an angler, Louis knows that this constant source of pollution can only harm the ecology of the local waterways. However, he realizes that many residents of Philadelphia are probably not as passionate about this problem as he is, mainly because the effects of CSOs arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t immediately felt by the majority of people in Philadelphia. Louis showed us first-hand that CSOs are a problem, but he suggested that connecting the problem to the rest of the residents of Philadelphia may be one of our most challenging tasks.

Discovering: Local Strategies After discovering the main water issue in Philadelphia, we wanted to understand the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach in dealing with CSOs. In learning about the current strategies, we aimed to identify opportunities in which design could play a role and contribute to the effort. We began this exploration by attending the Delaware River Basin forum, which brought stakeholders together to identify key issues and discuss possible solutions.

Delaware River Basin Commission Forum The Delaware River Basin extends from the Catskill Mountains in western New York down between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, further between New Jersey and Delaware where it ultimately joins the Atlantic Ocean. It’s a source of both surface and ground water for over 1000 communities which makes it undoubtedly important for about 15 million people. A commission was formed 50 years ago (the Delaware River Basin Commission or DRBC) to “share the responsibility of managing the water resources of the Basin.” The DRBC is made up of representatives from Delaware, New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania.

The basin is currently facing a number of troubling issues including population growth, pollution, and the effects of hydraulic fracturing for natural gas in the Marcellus Shale. In an attempt to bring the discussion of these issues into the public sphere, the DRBC held a collaborative forum in five locations along the basin, one of which was held here in Philadelphia. We attended with the intent to learn how stakeholders plan to deal with these issues. Of the 7 or so speakers, we were most struck by the presentation given by Christopher Crockett, the director of planning and research for the Philadelphia Water

Top. Participants getting settled shortly before the forum begins.

Department. In his presentation, he outlined the city’s 25 year, $2+ billion plan for dealing with stormwater management and specifically combined sewer outflows. It’s an ambitious plan called Green City, Clean Waters that essentially addresses the impermeable surfaces throughout the city with structural modifications such as pavement that can absorb water. The Green City, Clean Waters plan was created largely in response to a number of overlapping regulatory requirements, including EPA’s Combined Sewer Overflow Control Policy, the Clean Streams Law, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and others.7 These regulations require US cities to reduce their CSO discharges to a safer level. If cities do not comply to these regulations, they may be issued substantial fines. At its core, the plan aims to make Philadelphia less waterproof and more water absorbent so that stormwater does not overwork our sewers. What seemed to be missing from the plan however, was how the PWD was going to engage the citizens of this city. While GCCW does have a whole section on the “greening” of households, it didn’t seem to include a way to get real buy-in from the residents.

Audience Member: “What is the water department doing to reach out and educate the public?” Chris Crockett: “General education is a shotgun approach, sometimes you reach people, sometimes you don’t. One of the things we are, is a water supplier, we’re not media people. We’re engineers, scientists, planners and really, to be honest, we’re very bad at education and public outreach because our whole goal is to never have to talk to you, because if we talk to you, we feel like we’ve done something wrong. And so really, one of the biggest challenges for us is to come up with a good way to communicate with the public and educate them. We have been focusing all of our time with stakeholders in a targeted format..” It was a telling exchange and one which confirmed the things Adam Levine had brought up. Because the PWD was clearly in need of a communication strategy, we were starting to understand that this was a great entry point for our project.

We weren’t the only ones to notice the PWD’s lack of a public outreach strategy. During a question and answer session after Chris’ presentation, someone from the audience brought up the issue of resident outreach and education. Here’s the transcript from the discussion: Right. Chris Crockett presenting the Green City, Clean Waters plan.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;...one of the biggest challenges for us is to come up with a good way to communicate with the public and educate them...â&#x20AC;? -Chris Crockett, PhD

Green City, Clean Waters After speaking with Adam and attending the Forum, we wanted to look into the issue of CSOs and understand the Green City, Clean Waters program more thoroughly. Created largely in response to an EPA mandate, this program outlines the numerous ways the PWD will address the CSO problem here in Philadelphia. At the most elementary level, CSOs are problematic due to the impervious surfaces (i.e., cement, asphalt, etc.) throughout the city which prohibit water from being absorbed into the earth. Back when the system was built, the prevalence of such surfaces was not nearly as pronounced and so, did not present 66

the problem they do today. This pairing of a combined sewer system with ever increasing impervious surfaces focuses an incredible amount of water into a sewer that was not meant to handle it. In a nutshell, Philadelphia is too waterproof. Unfortunately, replacing the existing sewer system with a new one is beyond the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s budget. Instead, they have developed a plan that aspires to modify the existing infrastructure in order to make it more water absorbent. The Green City, Clean Waters plan breaks down the city into eight types of area including streets, homes, schools, public

Top: Illustration from the Green City, Clean Waters Community Orientation Packet

facilities, parking lots, open spaces, industry space and areas of travel. Across the board, the programs they propose all accomplish a similar task: holding water. Based on the comment made by Chris Crockett, we decided to direct our efforts to the part of Green City, Clean Waters that deals with homes and the residents that live in them. Because the information available online regarding the PWDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plan to reach out to their residents was limited, it was imperative to speak to someone who could provide a more insightful explanation.

Graphic: Philadelphia Water Department. What are Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs)? 2008. 12 May 2011 <http://www.phillyriverinfo. org/csoltcpu/Home/What_ Are_CSO.aspx >.

Tiffany Groll Office of Watersheds To understand the Water Department’s current goals and strategy for reaching the public, we met with Tiffany Groll, head of Public Education and Outreach for Philadelphia’s Office of Watersheds. Tiffany works on the “people side” of things; her recent work focuses on engaging the public in the new Green City, Clean Waters (GCCW) program. Although the program has not yet officially begun, Tiffany mentioned that the EPA was expected to approve the plan in the coming weeks. With this time line in mind, Tiffany has already started reaching out to residents to make connections she can strengthen as the 68

GCCW program gains momentum. Many of the city’s efforts in the GCCW program will target publicly-owned property such as public streets, sidewalks, and buildings. The public nature of these areas make mandated change easy to pursue. Residential property, on the other hand, is much more difficult to address. Because their property is privately-owned, mandates are significantly more difficult to implement. Because the city can’t tell them what to do, Tiffany tries to motivate them to take part through a variety of outreach programs. Tiffany admits that the current strategy of

Top: Our meeting with Tiffany (left) and two interns, (Paul and Amanda) in the PWD cafeteria.

PWD in reaching out to the public is a bit of a “shotgun approach”. She and her colleagues have been putting together a variety of efforts to reach the public. They discussed ideas like using bus shelters as a low-cost way to demonstrate the beauty of green roofs. Another concept they are working on is a residential credit/cost sharing program which would subsidize the installation of CSO-reducing measures. They have also begun to hold educational seminars in neighborhoods around the city to explain the benefits of installing, for the time being, rain barrels. Unexpectedly, the demand for these programs has exceeded their capacity

which has forced them to place this initiative on temporary hold. A large part of Tiffany’s strategy is to work with the neighborhood associations that already have established relationships with the PWD. The hope of which is to create “Model Neighborhoods” which can serve as an example to other areas in Philadelphia. The first such partnership will be in the neighborhood of Northern Liberties.

Behind all her efforts, Tiffany has two primary goals she needs to accomplish. The first is to promote specific programs that will reduce the frequency or extent of combined sewer overflows. These programs include the installation of rain barrels, flow-through planters, rain gardens and green roofs. The second goal is to gain the support of residents for the GCCW project. Simply stated, she needs the residents of Philadelphia to perceive a value to the exceptional amount of money they are using to improve the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sewer situation. This support will be especially necessary when the residents of Philadelphia begin to experience increased stormwater removal charges on their water bill to be used for the GCCW initiatives. The key will be to convince their customers that this increase is an investment rather than a financial inconvenience. According to the Green City, Clean Water plan, there are four proposed programs for residential properties: green roofs, rain barrels or cisterns, flow-through planters, and green gardens.

Program Participation

Support & Perceived Value 70

Rain Barrels

Average Single Unit

Rain Gardens

4’ x 2’ plot of land $7.50/sqft

Flow-Through Planters 3’ x 1’ planter $37.50/sqft

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$113 4 hours

6 hours $60

$60 1-2 hours

FOUR PROGRAMS IN THE GREEN HOMES PLAN

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Problems CSOs Discovered

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Reflections To make sense of everything we had observed and learned, we created this diagram. It attempts to drill down into the problems on the surface, such as CSOs and establish the root issues that can serve as entry points for our designs. We knew we wanted to look at residents which is why that section of Green City, Clean Waters is examined in detail. From this visualization of our findings, we have isolated three places which could help the PWD most: connecting the resident to their water source, making the initial buy-in easier and incentivizing the Green Homes programs.

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Parking Lots Open spaces Industry, Business, Commerce Alleys, Driveways and Walkways

Green City, Clean Waters 73

4: Researching Behavior Change Studies Reflections Examples of Change Reflections

Researching: Behavior Change Studies What the PWD was attempting to do was ambitious and would require a fundamental change in the way the inhabitants of a city thought about their water use and removal. If change was the goal, then how could it be achieved? We looked into various types of research, ranging from academic papers on behavioral psychology to books about human motivation. Our goal was to begin to develop an assortment of tools that we could use to inform the concepts we would ultimately propose.

Motivation

Ability

Target Behavior

Triggers

The Fogg Behavioral Model Behavioral psychology is a field of immense breadth so we tried to focus our research on work which related to our project most appropriately. We read several books and countless articles on the matter and one of the most recurring names we found is that of B.J. Fogg.

perform a target behavior, he or she must (1) be sufficiently motivated, (2) have the ability to perform the behavior, and (3) be triggered to perform the behavior. According to Fogg, it is imperative that these three factors of motivation, ability and a trigger, occur at the same moment to be truly effective.

Fogg is a professor at Stanford University as well as a consultant in Silicon Valley who does a lot of work regarding persuasive technology, going so far as to publish a book on the subject. He developed a behavioral model based on his research that can serve as a simple framework for designing with the intent to change behavior. The Fogg Behavioral Model asserts that for a person to

He breaks down the ability factor (also referred to as simplicity) into six components which are codependent: time, money, physical effort, brain cycles, social deviance, non-routine. Designers could greatly benefit, he contends, by understanding which of these resources is least available to a given audience.5

5. Fogg, B.J. A Behavior Model for Persuasive Design. Claremont, December 2010.

DRIVE Motivation Model Best-selling author Daniel Pink presents a slightly different perspective, focusing on the intricacies of motivation. In his research, he found that human motivation can be categorized into two groups depending on the origin. First he discusses extrinsic motivators which are those which come from outside of our minds, like rewards and punishment. While these sorts of carrots and sticks, as he calls them, do work in some instances, generally speaking they tend to narrow a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s focus. Something he believes the 21st century needs less of. Intrinsic motivators, on the other hand, are those which come from within each of us. These motivators are more about enabling an 78

individual rather than giving something to or taking something from them. Such motivators are characterized by their ability to provide a sense of autonomy, enabling mastery, and providing purpose and it is these three motivators which will fuel the decades to come.6

6. Pink, Daniel H. Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us. New York: Riverhead Books, 2009.

NUDGE & Choice Architecture Richard Thaler and Cass Sunsteinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Nudge puts forth a variety of factors that affect how we make decisions. Although they do not present a detailed model of human behavior, they do make a compelling argument for a technique they call choice architecture, which is essentially presenting choices in such a way that the user is â&#x20AC;&#x153;nudgedâ&#x20AC;? (but never forced) in a certain direction. To explain this concept, they use the example of rearranging food items in a school cafeteria; as a result of arranging the food so that the healthy food is at eye level while the unhealthy food is slightly out-of-reach, the students will choose to eat the healthy

food more often. They introduce a variety of factors that affect human behavior, including automatic vs. reflective thinking, anchoring, availability, representativeness, optimism and overconfidence, gains and losses, status quo bias, and framing. By understanding these factors and applying them wisely, designers can use choice architecture to change the behavior of a user in many situations.7

7. Thaler, Richard H. and Cass R. Sunstein. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New York: Penguin Books, 2009.

Motivate The Elephant

Direct The Rider

Shape The Path

SWITCH Behavior Model Chip and Dan Heath outline their own model for change that they lay out in their book Switch: How To Change Things When Change Is Hard. Their model is based off of â&#x20AC;&#x153;conventional wisdom in psychologyâ&#x20AC;? that says the human brain is made up of two systems: the emotional side and the analytical side. Using a metaphor taken from psychologist Jonathan Haidt they refer to the emotional side as The Elephant and the analytical side as The Rider. In addition to these two elements, the authors introduce a third element they call The Path which they define as the context or situation in which change is to occur. The Elephant 80

(our emotions) must be motivated with some element of feeling or understanding. The Rider (our analyzing side) must have a clear understanding of the goal at hand. Finally, The Path must be an environment in which the desired change is the natural choice. Addressing these components, according to the authors, is essential to effectively changing behavior. Motivate The Elephant, Direct The Rider, Shape The Path.8

8. Heath, Chip and Dan Heath. Switch: How to Change Things When Change Is Hard. New York: Broadway Books, 2010.

Waterpebble is one of the many feedback systems we came across when researching consumptionreducing products.

Feedback One technique that was brought up multiple times in our research is presenting feedback to the user as a means of affecting behavior. There are many forms of feedback, some of which use different combinations of behavior change techniques. In our initial research, we came across over 15 projects and concepts that attempted to use feedback to affect daily behaviors that involved consumption of resources such as water and electricity. Beyond that, we also found reviews of many more feedback-based projects. Sarah Darby, a research fellow at the Environmental Change Institute at the University of Oxford, reviewed a number of energy consumption feedback systems and found that direct

feedback (information that updates in near real-time with on-demand availability), alone or in combination with other factors, is effective in changing behavior. Almost all of the projects she reviewed involving direct feedback produced energy savings of 5% or more.9 Supporting her claim is an experiment done by the industrial design firm, Teague, which prototyped one such direct feedback system. They were able to connect a device that measured the rate of flow coming from a faucet and fed that data into an iPad. The iPad then displayed the usage of that instance as well as cumulative data for the day and

9. Darby, Sarah. Making it obvious: designing feedback into energy consumption. Oxford, December 2010.

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week. Information was fed back to the user in an immediate, meaningful and coherent way. And it worked. Water consumption at this faucet decreased almost immediately.10 Many of the projects we reviewed brought up similar design issues; on research project called UpStream suggested Information was fed there are design tensions back to the user in an between noticeability, aesthetics, immediate, meaningful informativeness, and persuasion and coherent way. which must be considered in the And it worked. development of an effective feedback system.11 Because feedback methods are so various and interrelated, feedback systems can have varying results. However, the concept of feedback has been shown to be effective in influencing behavior in a large number of studies (see “Methods For Changing Behavior” graphic on p.84-84).

10. Kumpf, Adam. “DIY Arduino Water Meter.” 4 November 2010. Teague Labs. 10 December 2010 <http://labs.teague. com/?p=722> 11. Kuznetsov, Stacey and Eric Paulos. UpStream: Motivating Water Conservation with Low-Cost Water Flow Sensing and Persuasive Displays. Atlanta, April 2010.

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Abstract

bjfogg@stanford.edu

In this multidisciplinary study, an Internet-based tool was used to encourage households (N ¼ 189) to reduce their direct (gas, .62' 1",,2+' *)' ;<<<7' 2$2&.+%&%.4' electricity and fuel) and indirect energy use (embedded in the production, :"+%(0' transportation and disposal of consumer goods).%(' >-$%)*+(%-' #2&-,2' -' .*/%&' *)' %(&+2-1%(0' Abstract A combination of tailored information, goal setting (5%), and tailored/"#$%&' feedback&*(&2+(9' was used. The purpose this ;<<<7' study was to examine ' A(' D-4'of;K7' !-&%)%&' Q-1' S$2&.+%&' >-$%)*+(%-N1' $-+021.' This R' paper presentsF!QRSI7' a new model for understanding human whether this combination of interventions would result in (i) changes in direct and indirect energy use, (ii) changes in energy-related behavior. In this model (FBM), behavior is a product of three 2$2&.+%&'".%$%.47'2L/2+%2(&23'%.1'6%0621.'/2-?'$*-3'.*'3-.27')*+&%(0'.62'".%$%.4'.*'%(1.%.".2'+*$$%(0' behaviors, and (iii) changes in behavioral antecedents (i.e. knowledge). After 5 months, households exposed to the combination of factors: motivation, V.-02' ability, ;' and-(3' triggers, of whichK'has *".-021' %(' .62' T-4' U+2-9' T4' $-.2' 1",,2+7'saved -).2+' (",2+*"1' 252('each -' V.-02' interventions saved 5.1%, while households in the control group used 0.7% more energy. Households exposed to the interventions subcomponents. The FBM asserts that for a person to perform a = significantly more direct energy than households in the control group did. No difference in indirect energy savings emerged. Households 2,2+02(&4'-$2+.7 '0+*8%(0'&*(&2+(1'-#*".'.62'1.-.2@&6-+.2+23'W(32/2(32(.'V41.2,'A/2+-.*+N1' target behavior, he or she must (1) be sufficiently motivated, (2) exposed to the interventions adopted a number of energy-saving behaviors during the course of the study, whereas households in the have the ability to perform the behavior, and (3) be triggered to -#%$%.4'.*',-.&6'/2-?'/*82+'32,-(3'8%.6'/2-?'02(2+-.%(0'&-/-&%.4'6-3'#2&*,2'XE62'S(2+04' control group did so to a lesser extent. Households exposed to the interventions had significantly higher knowledge levels of energy perform the behavior. These three factors must occur at the same >+%1%19Y'Z"2$23'#4'%(.2(12',23%-'&*52+-027'/+23%&.%*(1'*)'#$-&?*".1'-(3'.62'1.-.2N1'2&*(*,%&' conservation than the control group had. It is argued that if the aim is to effectively encourage household energy conservation, it is moment, else the behavior will not happen. The FBM is useful in 3*8(."+(7'2(2+04'8-1',"&6'#%002+'(281'.6-('%.'6-3'#22('1%(&2'.62'=G[<1'2(2+04'&+%1%19'''U' necessary to examine changes in energy use, energy-related behaviors and behavioral antecedents. analysis and design of persuasive technologies. The FBM also helps teams work together efficiently because this model gives r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. people a shared way of thinking about behavior change. Keywords: Tailoring; Household energy conservation; Behavioral change

1. Introduction The last decades have witnessed a steady increase in emissions of greenhouse gases, contributing to the phenomenon referred to as global warming. Human-induced climate change through increased greenhouse gas emissions is considered to be one of the most pressing problems of our time (OECD, 2002). Households partly contribute to these emissions through day-to-day energy-related behaviors, such as gas and electricity use, and the use of energy-intensive products and services. To illustrate, US households account for 21% of greenhouse gas emissions in their country (US Department of Energy, 2005), households in the UK for 15% (UK Department of Trade and Industry, 2005), and households in the Netherlands Corresponding author. Centre for Environmental Strategy, University

The FBM can give insight to behavior-change professionals in many domains, from health to education to sales. This framework has special relevance to those of us who study and design persuasive technology. As I see it, persuasive technology is fundamentally about learning to automate behavior change. To effectively encode experiences that change behaviors, we need a rich yet practical understanding of human psychology, specifically insights into the factors that drive human behavior. Without this understanding, designers of persuasive experiences are mostly guessing at a solution (or imitating techniques that work without understanding why those techniques work). The FBM provides designers and researchers with a systematic way to think about the factors underlying behavior change.

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= 'E6+22'$252$1'*)'/"#$%&'2,2+02(&4'-$2+.1',-4'#2'-((*"(&23'%('-(.%&%/-.%*('*+'2L/2+%2(&2'*)'3%))2+2(.'$252$1'*)' General Terms $*8' */2+-.%(0' +212+5217' 8%.6' V.-02' K' #2%(0' .62' ,*1.' 1252+29' V22' 6../J\\8889&-%1*9&*,\-8-\141.2,1.-."196.,$' Design, Measurement, Experimentation, Human Factors. )*+',*+2'32.-%$19' for 17% (RIVM, 2005). In view of this, households can be Keywords considered an important target group for energy conservaPersuasion, behavior change, simplicity, motivation, persuasive tion. By targeting energy-related behaviors at home, technology, captology, triggers, persuasive design Human Social resulting Dimensions Understanding Markets and Demand - 8.15 household energy use may be and reduced, in of a Energy Use:

reduction of households’ impact on the environment. The Need to Understand Behavior Change Household energy use can be divided into two categories The tools for creating persuasive products are getting easier to use, (Vringer & Blok, 1995). Direct energy use is related to with innovations in online video, social networks, and metrics, the use of gas, electricity and fuel, e.g. for heating and the among others. As a result, more individuals and organizations can use of electric appliances. Indirect energy use is related design experiences they hope will influence people’s behaviors via channels. However, many attempts at persuasive to the production, transportation and disposal of technology a design fail because people don’t understand what factors lead to variety of consumer goods and services. For instance, the behavior change. availability of meat or cheese requires energy, because of This paper shares a new way to understand the drivers of human the transportation involved in the production and distribubehavior, a model referred to in this document as the Fogg tion processes (also referred to as food miles). For an Behavior Model, or “FBM” for brevity. This psychological model average Dutch household, approximately half of the identifies and defines three factors that control whether a behavior amount of energy annually used is composed of indirect is performed. (Note: In this paper and in this model, “persuasion” energy use (Reinders, Vringer, & Blok, 2003). Households refers to attempts to influence people’s behaviors, not attitudes.) may not always be aware of this type of energy use, that is, they may not realize that the goods they purchase are Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Persuasive’09, April 26-29, Claremont, California, USA. Copyright © 2009 ACM ISBN 978-1-60558-376-1/09/04... $5.00

   

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Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2000, pp. 407–424 BJ Fogg Persuasive Technology Lab Stanford University captology.stanford.edu www.bjfogg.com

bjfogg@stanford.edu ABSTRACT This paper presents a new way of categorizing behavior change in a framework called the Behavior Grid. This preliminary work shows 35 types of behavior along two categorical dimensions. To demonstrate the analytical potential for the Behavior Grid, this paper maps behavior goals from Facebook onto the framework, revealing potential patterns of intent. To show the potential for designers of persuasive technology, this paper uses the Behavior Grid to show what types of behavior change might most easily be achieved through mobile technology. The Behavior Grid needs further development, but this early version can still be useful for designers and researchers in thinking more clearly about behavior change and persuasive technology.

People who create banner ads and people who create services like Flickr are all designing persuasive technology. However, the behaviors they seek differ. The techniques they use also differ. For example, to gain one-time compliance, such as clicking on a banner ad, a designer can use deception as a strategy. This approach won’t work for consumer services that intend for people to become loyal customers for years.

Toward a Coherent Theory of Environment Significant Behavior

Contrasting the two behaviors above is a simple way to show that target behaviors differ and that the strategies and techniques for success in each case are different. Even more fundamentally, the theories that describe persuasion in these two scenarios differ. For example, the theories about compliance are not the same as those relating to forming lifelong habits.

Paul C. Stern

General Terms

2. THE BEHAVIOR GRID

Design, Measurement, Experimentation, Human Factors.

To create a more efficient way to study and design for various types of human behavior, I’ve developed a new framework I call the Behavior Grid. This framework is especially relevant to studying and designing persuasive technologies because in this emerging field we are, more and more, exploring ways to automate how persuasive products get made, perhaps most notably demonstrated by automatic features in Google Website Optimizer. One step forward in this inevitable path is to categorize human behavior change in a clear way, hence the need for a tool like the Behavior Grid.

Keywords Persuasion, behavior change, motivation, persuasive technology, captology, persuasive design, psychological frameworks

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The need to understand behavior types When we create persuasive technology systems, we need to understand what type of behavior we seek with our creations. Not all behaviors are the same. For example, people who create banner ads for web sites hope people will click on their ads, a one-time act of compliance. In contrast, people who create web services like Flickr or Facebook hope that their creations will persuade people to repeat complex behaviors each day, such as logging in and uploading content. With Flickr and other consumer services, the persuasive intent is to create a life-long habit in users. (Note: In this paper, “persuasion” refers to attempts to influence people’s behaviors, not attitudes.)

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Persuasive’09, April 26-29, Claremont, California, USA. Copyright © 2009 ACM ISBN 978-1-60558-376-1/09/04... $5.00



Because the FBM is new, insights continue to emerge. This paper is an early way to share these ideas and seek feedback. Certainly, a static document like this paper is not well suited for conveying emerging content and related work. I encourage readers to see www.BehaviorModel.org for the most current explanation of the FBM, as well as citations to and discussions of related theories and models. That website also solicits feedback on the FBM.

Three Factors in the Behavior Model The FBM has three principal factors that I refer to as motivation, ability, and triggers. In brief, the model asserts that for a target behavior to happen, a person must have sufficient motivation, sufficient ability, and an effective trigger. All three factors must be present at the same instant for the behavior to occur. In the sections that follow I explain more about how these factors work together. I then define the subcomponents of each factor, followed by description of how the FBM is useful in research and design.

Visualizing the Behavior Model Figure 1 shows one way to visualize the FBM. The paragraphs below describe the figure. As the Figure 1 shows, the FBM has two axes. The vertical axis is for motivation. A person who is low on motivation to perform the target behavior would register low on the vertical axis. High on the axis means high motivation. There are no units on this axis, as the framework is conceptual, showing relationships of the components rather than precise values for each.

National Research Council

This article develops a conceptual framework for advancing theo mentally significant individual behavior and reports on the author’s research group and others to develop such a theory. It d tions of environmentally significant behavior; classifies the beh Because the Behaviorassesses Grid is new, insightstheories continue to emerge.of environmentalism, focusing causes; This paper is a way to share early ideas and seek feedback. Certainly, a static document like this papertheory; is not well suited for value-belief-norm evaluates the relationship between conveying emerging content and related work. I encourage readers to see www.BehaviorGrid.org for the most concern and behavior; andcurrent summarizes evidence on the factors explanation of the Behavior Grid, as well as citations to and discussions of related theories and models. That website also environmentally significant behaviors and that can effectively solicits feedback on the ideas in this paper. article concludes by presenting some major propositions suppor research and some principles for guiding future research an design of behavioral programs for environmental protection. The Behavior Grid categorizes behavior change along two axes. These axes form a table with 35 cells. Figure 1 shows the Behavior Grid, with a sample behavior change listed inside each of the 35 cells.

Recent developments in theory and research give hope for bu standing needed to effectively alter human behaviors that contri mental problems. This article develops a conceptual framework environmentally significant individual behavior, reports on devel such a theory, and addresses five issues critical to building a theory efforts to promote proenvironmental behavior.

*This research was supported in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection Social Psychology of Stated Preferences,” and by National Science Foundation g and 9224036 to George Mason University. I thank my colleagues Gregory Guagna especially Thomas Dietz and Gerald Gardner for their collaboration, support, a collective effort to theorize about environmental concern and behavior. Corresp this article should be addressed to Paul C. Stern, National Research Council, 210 N.W. (HA-172), Washington DC 20418 [e-mail: pstern@nas.edu]. 407

The second axis is horizontal, as shown in Figure 1. This axis is for ability. A person who has low ability to perform a target behavior would be marked toward the left side of the axis. The right side is for high ability.

Additional Behavior Change Techniques Although there are countless ways to model the behavior of humans, certain behavior change techniques used by researchers kept reoccurring throughout various studies. We looked into the topics of persuasive technology, feedback technology, conservation efforts, psychology, and design to better understand how to change behavior. Out of our research we pulled a sample of behavior change techniques that served as a “toolbox” which we referenced while developing concepts.

visually linked to a corresponding reference document with small colored markers. The chart developed was to help us understand the behavior change techniques we had found in a way that afforded easier comprehension.

In the following pages, a sample of behavior change techniques extracted from our research is shown visually. Each technique is 83

Methods For Changing Behavior Techniques END GOAL

Provide overarching goal

AUTOMATION

Automate tasks for the user

SIMPLE STEPS

Simplify tasks for the user

SELF-MONITORING

CHOICE ARCHITECTURE

TIMELY PROMPTS

HABITUAL PROMPTS

TAILORING

REWARD/PUNISHMENT

SOCIAL COMPARISON

FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION SOCIAL FACILITATION Provide user with direct social interaction

Show user that others are performing same behavior

COMPETITION

COOPERATION

GOAL-SETTING

COMMITMENT

Present the targeted choice as the default

Give positive or negative reinforcement

Leverage human beings’ natural drive to compete

Offer suggestions at opportune moments

Compare user performance with that of others

Leverage human beings’ natural drive to cooperate

Offer suggestions during habitual actions

Allow user to set personal goals

Track the user’s performance

Present tailored information to user

Allow user to commit to a certain behavior

SIMULATION

AUTONOMY

MASTERY

EMOTIONAL CONNECTION

IDENTITY CREATION

References

Model current status and future events based on user’s actions

Connect to user on emotional level

Provide user control

Allow user to adopt an identity

Provide user opportunity to improve skills

PURPOSE

Associate larger purpose with target behavior

Abrahamse et al., The effect of tailored information, goal setting, and tailored feedback... Abrahamse et al., A review of intervention studies aimed at household energy conservation Arroyo et al., Waterbot: Exploring Feedback and Persuasive Techniques at the Sink Darby, Making it obvious: designing feedback into energy consumption Fogg, Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do Froehlich et al., The Design of Eco-Feedback Technology Heath, Switch: How to Change Things When Change Is Hard Kuznetsov and Paulos, UpStream: Motivating Water Conservation with Low-Cost Water... Lockton, Design With Intent: 101 patterns for influencing behaviour through design Pink, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us Schultz et al., The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms Staats et al., Effecting Durable Change: A Team Approach to Improve Environmental... Stern, Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior Thaler et al., Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness

Communication Methods STATIC INFORMATION Educate the user with relevant information

INDIRECT FEEDBACK

Provide occasional information based on the user’s actions

Young, Changing Behavior and Making Is Stick: The Conceptualization and Management...

DIRECT FEEDBACK

Provide on-demand information based on the user’s actions

Communication Methods

Elements of Behavior Change Techniques

Reflections There is no one way to organize the factors that affect human behavior, but our review of prior work has informed us of the many models and techniques that have been suggested to be effective in changing behavior. After performing research on the subject, we are now fairly well-equipped to design approaches that will indeed affect a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior. Plus, not only will this information help design approaches to water problems, but it will also inform the design of other products or services meant to influence a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior.

Tailoring Static Information

Reward/Punishment

Indirect Feedback

Social Comparison

Direct Feedback

Face-to-Face Communication Social Facilitation

Direction End Goal

Competition Cooperation

Motivation Goal-setting Simplicity

Triggers

Automation

Commitment

Simple Steps

Simulation

Self-Monitoring

Autonomy

Choice Architecture

Mastery

Timely Prompts Habitual Prompts

Purpose Emotional Connection Identity Creation

Researching: Examples of Change Beyond the theories of behavioral change, we were interested in looking at historical examples of how change has occurred. Hopefully, these examples would reinforce some of the techniques discussed in the previous research we had done. It would also provide us with examples of events that, over time, created an environment that fostered wide-spread change.

Home Depot & The Top Down Approach<Examples of Change<Researching

Walmart & CFLs In 2007, retail-giant Walmart decided it wanted to improve its social image by focusing on making itself more “green”. It decided to make Compact Fluorescent Lightbulbs (CFLs) the focus of their effort and pledged to sell 100 million of them within one year. Achieving this goal would have a huge financial and environmental impact on the country; doing so would increase the total sale of the bulbs by 50% in the United States, saving Americans $3 billion on their electric bills. Despite its retail influence, Walmart met with resistance from consumers and suppliers alike. Although CFLs have many advantages over

incandescent light bulbs (they only use onefourth the energy, lasting ten times longer, and saving $30 over the life of one bulb) there are also disadvantages like price; CFLs were eight times as expensive as conventional bulbs. For a retailer who had built their empire on providing the cheapest prices, this was a bold step. Furthermore, most buyers didn’t like the unnatural light they provided.12 CFLs also posed a huge problem for the lighting supply industry. Because these new bulbs last so long, manufacturers would be selling fewer lights. American manufacturing would also suffer because the bulbs were being made in Asia as opposed to here

12. Barbaro, Michael. The Energy Challenge - WalMart Puts Some Muscle Behind Power-Sipping Bulbs. 2 January 2007. 25 April 2011 <https://www. nytimes.com/2007/01/02/ business/02bulb.html?ex=13 25394000&en=78dfdd6856c b7590&ei=5090&partner=rss userland&emc=rss&pagewa nted=all&pagewanted=all>.

LIGHTBULB PRICES IN 2007 $0.20 $2.00

in the US. Then there were the potential environmental risks associated with the bulbs; because the bulbs contain mercury, many feared that the adoption of these bulbs would increase the risk of pollution. An anonymous source within G.E. remembered how they had responded to Walmart’s pledge: “Don’t go too fast. We have all these plants that produce traditional bulbs.” The response from the Walmart buyer was blunt: “We are going there, you decide if you are coming with us.” In the end, the company’s influence proved too difficult to ignore and Walmart was able to stock CFLs at an affordable price that kept dropping over time. They also made a few efforts to promote the new bulbs heavily in their stores. First of all, they decided to move them from a lower shelf to one at eye level so they were more visually accessible. Sales 90

began to climb. They also wanted to show their customers how versatile the bulbs could be. To do this, they began displaying the new bulbs inside other products they sold such as lamps and hanging fans. Sales climbed further. Placing the new product at eye level and displaying how well they worked wasn’t enough for Walmart. They knew they would need to educate their customers as well so they placed educational display cases at the end of the lighting aisle. This gave the new bulbs four feet of valuable selling space which is an extravagance at Walmart. Sales climbed even higher.13 In early October of 2007, Walmart announced that they met their goal for the year. They had proven their influence among American consumers as well as their commitment to turning a new, greener leaf in the retail world. During that year, many organizations also caught the environmental bug. Home Depot

Graphic Data: West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection. Lightbulb Comparison Spreadsheet. 26 March 2007. 25 April 2011 <http://www.dep.wv.gov/ daq/EnergyEfficiency/ Documents/2007%20 Bulb%20Comparison.pdf>. 13. Barbaro, Michael. The Energy Challenge - WalMart Puts Some Muscle Behind Power-Sipping Bulbs. 2 January 2007. 25 April 2011 <https://www. nytimes.com/2007/01/02/ business/02bulb.html?ex=13 25394000&en=78dfdd6856c b7590&ei=5090&partner=rss userland&emc=rss&pagewa nted=all&pagewanted=all>.

HOW WALMART PROMOTED THE ADOPTION OF CFLS To promote CFLs, Walmart created educational displays and featured the bulbs in a varietyof products throughout the store.

Due to their size, Walmart places orders in huge quantities which allows them to demand lower prices. $/

WALMART

MANUFACTURER

SHOPPERS

$$$/

Most other retailers place comparably small orders and therefore pay higher prices per unit bought.

launched its Eco Options program to highlight its eco-friendly products and Ace Hardware experienced a 200% growth in CFLs. Utility companies also supported the movement, creating public-awareness campaigns touting the advantages of these new bulbs. Some even began offering coupons, rebates, and in some instances, free CFLs to their customers.14 While Walmart was making CFLs a central

OTHER RETAILERS

focus in their company-wide vision, the federal government of the US also played a huge role in making this change happen. In 2007, an energy bill was passed that laid out a plan to phase out the incandescent bulb as we know it today. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ambitious but focuses on the long-term savings that Americans will experience. The goal of the bill is that by 2020, all bulbs must be 70% more efficient than todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bulbs, making CFLs a great option.15

14. Addison, Bill. Wal-Mart makes light work of CFL sales. 21 October 2007. 25 April 2011 <http://www. homechannelnews.com/ article/wal-mart-makeslight-work-cfl-sales>. 15. Formisano, Bob. Specifics of Existing Incandescent Phase Out - 2007 Energy Bill. 25 April 2011 <http:// homerepair.about.com/od/ electricalrepair/ss/2007_ energybill_3.htm>.

In addition to the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mandate, Walmart had taken several key steps to make this change happen. The first thing they did was to make the price similar to the alternative. By leveraging their incredible purchasing power, they were able to make massive orders that effectively drove prices down to a similar number as the incandescent alternative. The next thing they did was to simply place the product in the natural eye path of the buyers. This tactic is a way to capitalize on a humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s impulse to lower their cognitive decision-making process. The last thing Walmart did was to devote significant effort to educating their customers. The displays they set up showed cost efficiency as well as allowed them to be tested with an interactive display. These three elements, competitive pricing, simplified decision-making and education of the issue were really about making the change easy and are what made their campaign so effective.

Right: Educational display of CFLs at Walmart.

Relay For Life Relay For Life is another example of widespread change, particularly change in community engagement, public awareness, and financial support of cancer research. The widespread success of this event serves as proof that the actions of one person can have a global impact. The first Relay began in Tacoma, Washington in May of 1985, when a colorectal surgeon named Dr. Gordy Klatt decided to raise money for his local American Cancer Society office. Motivated by his passion to help his courageous patients, Dr. Klatt decided to personally support them by doing something he loved to do - run marathons. 94

What Klatt did was to organize a fund-raising event in which he would run laps on a track at the University of Puget Sound. For 24 hours, Dr. Klatt ran and walked laps as nearly 300 of his friends, family, and patients watched and cheered him on. During the night, friends would donate $25 for the chance to run or walk along with Dr. Klatt for 30 minutes as a display of their support for the cause. During this first Relay For Life, Dr. Klatt ran over 83 hours and raised about $27,000 to fund cancer research and assist patients. After the success of his first event, Dr. Klatt realized that this had some serious potential

to grow. Because of the large number of people affected by cancer he saw a clear need for change. The simplicity of the event lent itself to an ease of scalability. With this in mind, Dr. Klatt took the next few months and organized a small committee to plan a new team-based version of the relay. This iteration would eventually become known as the City of Destiny Classic 24-Hour Run Against Cancer held in 1986. One the most valuable organizers, Pat Flynn, (who would later be know as the "Mother of Relay") combined her efforts with Dr. Klatt's to ensure the Relay's success. The first team Relay took place at Tacoma's historic Stadium Bowl and raised $33,000.16

From that point on, Relay For Life grew to become the American Cancer Society's leading source of income throughout every regional division. Relay For Life events are currently held in local communities, university campuses, and military bases throughout the United States. The Relay event has international presence as well; events are held in over 600 communities spanning 21 countries.17 It is estimated to have raised over 3.86 billion dollars since the first event was held.18 Besides raising funds to support research and cancer patients, the Relay For Life has raised awareness of cancer and increased community engagement among countless people. And it all began with the actions of one doctor in Tacoma. The success of Relay For Lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s model depends almost entirely on the motivated people that volunteer to organize and participate in the events. The participants are motivated by the shared cause of supporting cancer patients and research. For the most part, this motivation stems from being

16. American Cancer Society. Relay for Life Speaking Points 2009. 14 March 2009. 17. American Cancer Society. International Relay For Life: One World - One Hope! 25 April 2011 <http://www. cancer.org/Involved/ Participate/Relayforlife/ international-relay-forlife-one-world-onehope>. 18. American Cancer Society. Relay For Life Facts and Figures 2010. December 2010.

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Â â&#x20AC;¨â&#x20AC;ŠL the organizers and leaders, have to exert / $ %( $ "'& % & !#% ' " <GF ! #" #" " 7 " " % & # A?K %#! A??H a lot of effort by managing team members and leaders, asking local organizations for support, and organizing events that happen #% ' " B3D ! #" $ #$ , & ' / #% 3#% 7 D3FFK " % & %#! A??H throughout the Relay. However, many participants are asked to exert a relatively small amount of effort; all they are requested to do is raise a certain amount of money for a good cause, and attend the Relay For Life event, which traditionally involves walking around a track for a while and participating Graphic. American Cancer in optional events. Because the tasks are Society. Relay For Life Facts and Figures 2010. December relatively simple, the motivated participants 2010. are more than willing to complete them. This 19. American Cancer results in a high rate of achieving fund raising Society. Relay for Life and participation goals. Speaking Points 2009. 14

Â â&#x20AC;¨â&#x20AC;Š2010:

% #% : 8 " " 9 , "'& - % " @FH # (#"

March 2009.

The participants are motivated by the shared cause of supporting cancer patients and research.

Timeline: Relay For Life $30,000

$9,000,000

Look!

Gordy Klatt runs for 24 hours, thus beginning the Relay For Life

‘85

Nationwide, the number of Relay For Life events exceeds 500

‘93

$127,000,000

$306,000,000

$ Number of participants surpasses 1 million Relays occur in over 2500 sites

Number of participants exceed 2 million

‘97

‘99

‘01

Number of participants exceed 3 million at 41,000+ sites

‘04 Graphic Data: American Cancer Society. Relay for Life Speaking Points 2009. 14 March 2009.

Mothers Against Drunk Driving In May of 1980, 13 year-old Cari Lightner was walking to a church carnival when she was struck by a car which thew her 125 feet. The impact killed her instantly and the assailant drove off from this hit and run tragedy. Her mother, Candy, was devastated. The identity of the driver was ultimately discovered, along with the information that he had been drunk at the time of the accident. Unfortunately, getting help from her local government officials to simply locate the driver’s driving record proved frustrating and initially fruitless. This was partially due to the fact that at the time, drunk driving was a socially-acceptable behavior which didn’t make it a priority for local officials. Candy was determined to 100

change this so she set up an office and began her campaign. The first thing Candy did was look for help. She wasn’t looking for just anyone to join her movement; she began by looking for fellow victims. These individuals would share her pain and motivation and she found them through two methods: placing ads in the classified section of the newspaper and sending out news letters. It didn’t take long for the calls of support to start flowing in. Their support grew so fast that in less than five months they decided to officially incorporate under the name Mother’s Against Drunk Driving.

Above: MADD advertisement

In an article titled “Using Mass Media to Influence Energy Consumption...”, the authors lay out a four step process for successful public campaigns. The first step is to “Target the Right Audience”20 and this is exactly what Candy and her friend Sue LeBrun-Green started to do. In essence, they put together a grass roots advertising campaign to create a network of support that ended up growing beyond their wildest dreams. As more and more victims joined their effort, they quickly received requests to speak at public events and contribute to local media groups, and local government officials started returning their calls. Using a shared cause to unite people is a concept that is further supported by Albert Bandura in a piece written while at Stanford University titled “Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency.” In it he concludes that the ability to bring people together comes from the ability to connect a group of people to an experience they have in common.21 Candy was using a shared pain to bring people together. On October 1st of the same year her daughter was killed, Candy and a fellow victimized mother gave a press release on Capitol Hill that catapulted their organization into the public’s conscious forever. Their message of intolerance towards drunk driving resonated with parents all around the country and began a national shift in the way this issue was perceived by the public. It was personal and heartfelt and most of all, it was clear. This clarity made it easy for their movement to spread and grow. Newspapers and television stations were all featuring their story and message.

In the book Switch: How To Change Things When Change Is Hard, Chip and Dan Heath explain how the human brain is made up of two conceptual halves: a rational half and an emotional half. To motivate the emotional part of someone’s brain, they say, you have to “find the feeling”.22 Americans probably knew that drunk driving was a bad idea but by seeing Candy speak from her heart on stage, they could feel its importance. Tapping into feeling can be contagious and that’s exactly what happened with MADD. Not only did it lead to the creation of new chapters across the US, it also got support within the federal government. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) realized that the emotional appeal they had always lacked was right in front of them. The value of this realization can be measured, if only in part, by the $60,000 NHTSA gave MADD in 1981 to help start new chapters!23 The second component to the message was its clarity: drunk driving is killing children. “Using Mass Media to Influence Energy Consumption...” also touches on this by stating that to “achieve clarity, messages need to communicate specific, easy things to do...”24 Candy’s message has a clear and implied response to the problem of drunk driving. By not driving after drinking, even YOU can save children’s lives. Everyone can understand that. The message was so clear that in 1981 the Presidential Commission on Drunk Driving was created and MADD was invited. Around 1983 MADD found, through their research, a correlation between states that

20. Bender, Sylvia L., et al. Using Mass Media to Influence Energy Consumption Behavior: California’s 2001 Flex Your Power Campaign as a Case Study. Stockholm: European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, 2002. 21. Bandura, Albert. “SelfEfficacy Mechanism in Human Agency.” American Psychologist 37.2 (1982). 22. Heath, Chip and Dan Heath. Switch: How to Change Things When Change Is Hard. New York: Broadway Books, 2010. 23. Davis, Laurie. “25 Years of Saving Lives.” Driven Fall 2005: 8-17.

101

had a legal drinking age under 21 and teen car crashes that were alcohol-related. As with their previous goals of raising public awareness and creating a national movement, raising the drinking age of all 50 states to 21 became their new goal. Support for this new goal came from the Presidential Commission on Drunk Driving in the form of a set of recommendations which included one which would deny states federal funding for highways if the legal drinking age was not 21. In the end, the proposal was passed in large part from the simple message that MADD was able to convey and the simple goal of raising the drinking age to reduce teenage deaths. On July 17, 1984, the President signed the Uniform Drinking Age Act.25 One of the ways MADD succeeded in raising the drinking age was by using research to develop specific goals. It is in this instance that the rational side of the brain discussed in Switch is relevant. The authors argue this part of our brain works really well when given clear 102

guidance. By establishing concrete goals, MADD was able to unite the efforts of many people across the country and generate widespread change. By 1991, MADD had become big enough to have a voice of its own in the public discourse and came out with the first Rating The States report. This was their way of comparing the efforts to address drunk driving on a state and national level and it got a lot of press. Not surprisingly, a Gallup pole the following year showed drunk driving as the most important issue surrounding the nation’s highways. B.J. Fogg has spent a lot of time looking at human behavior and has produced an incredible amount of research and analysis on the matter. One of the things he’s created is a group of strategies that he believes to be legitimately effective in changing the behavior of humans. Some of these strategies, such as Recognition, Social Facilitation, and Social Learning can help explain the success of

24. Bender, Sylvia L., et al. Using Mass Media to Influence Energy Consumption Behavior: California’s 2001 Flex Your Power Campaign as a Case Study. Stockholm: European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, 2002. 25. Davis, Laurie. “25 Years of Saving Lives.” Driven Fall 2005: 8-17.

MADDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rating The States strategy.26 MADD publicly recognized the efforts of the states (Recognition), let the citizens of all states know that they were being observed (Social Facilitation), and publicly rewarded the states that made positive efforts with a good grade (Social Learning). These strategies helped to engage people across the country in the issues surrounding drunk driving.

Graphic: Mothers Against Drunk Driving. State Ranking Index Page. 2011. 12 May 2011 <http://www.madd.org/ drunk-driving/campaign/ state-ranking/>. 26. Fogg, B.J. Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2003.

103

Timeline: Madd

1 CHAPTER

100 CHAPTERS

MAY: After her daugher is hit by a drunk driver, Candy Lightner begins to look for ways to address drunk driving OCTOBER: Candy gives press release on Capitol Hill MADD sets goal of making legal drinking age 21

National Highway Traffic Safety Association gives MADD $60,000 to start new chapters

‘80

104

‘81

President Reagan signs Uniform Drinking Act making 21 the legal drinking age

‘83

‘84

400+ CHAPTERS

MADD releases the first Rating The States report

‘91 Graphic Data: Davis, Laurie. “25 Years of Saving Lives.” Driven Fall 2005: 8-17.

105

The Modern Recycling Movement By its own definition, the word recycling is a pretty vague concept which makes the process of understanding its history difficult to discuss intelligently. Does one, for example, discuss every time an old T-shirt is used as a rag? Certainly not. So for the sake of this analysis we shall begin the discussion around the time when recycling became an ecological issue and not simply a financial issue (as was the case, for example, around the second world war when aluminum cans were being recycled for the use of making bombs). The events we will discuss serve as seemingly disconnected success stories in a larger global movement. 106

Many historians regard 1962 as the unofficial beginning of the modern environmental movement, a movement ignited by a single book. The book, Silent Spring, looked at the effects of pesticides on wildlife, specifically the chemical DDT. The author, Rachel Carlson, not only looked at the way these chemicals affected the shells of birds, for example, but also eluded to the implications that they could have on humankind directly. This interested many people, including President Kennedy who, after reading it, funded research to verify its claims. In the end, the research confirmed what Carlson had written. Along with support from state and local governments, Kennedy formed

27. Natural Resources Defense Council. The Story of Silent Spring. 12 May 2011 <http://www.nrdc.org/health/ pesticides/hcarson.asp >.

the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1970.27 Silent Spring was so effective for several reasons, but mostly what it did was provide the nation with the motivation for change. Stanford professor B.J. Fogg says that the first step to change is motivation and this can come in several types, one of which seems particularly salient in the case of Silent Spring, that being the motivator of fear. He refers to its ability to bring about “the anticipation of something bad, often the anticipation of loss.”28 This sense of loss is exactly what Carlson was trying to use as a motivator and is exactly what the title itself implies by foreseeing a future devoid of birds and the songs they share. Davis, California was one of the first cities in the US to adopt recycling as a way of life. It started out as a small group of concerned citizens who, in April of 1970, asked their fellow residents to begin putting their newspapers aside and bring them once a week to local schools. The Recycling Committee of Davis (RCD), as they called themselves, collected the paper and brought it to a buyer in the nearby city of Sacramento. Within a year they also began collecting cans and bottles and opened their first recycling center. Within four years they were receiving support from the city of Davis and its waste removal service. By 1986, the National Recycling Coalition honored them with the status of having the best curb side program in the country. Since then, the recycling effort has expanded into a $4 million facility that spans seven acres. According to the Vice President of Davis Waste Removal, recycling

is now “part of the culture here.”29 Starting with a small effort was paramount to the success of the RCD. In a paper discussing persuasive technologies, B.J. Fogg states that many movements with big aspirations fail because they begin with too large of a goal. For him, the secret to success

Above: Photograph of Silent Spring 28. Fogg, B.J. A Behavior Model for Persuasive Design. Claremont, 2009. 29. Fitch, Mike. Growing Pains: Thirty Years in the History of Davis. 12 May 2011 <http://cityofdavis. org/CDD/cultural/30years/ chapt04.cfm >.

107

lies, in part, to a simple beginning like the one exemplified in Davis. He advises “to be less ambitious on project goals and focus first on achieving small successes”; the small successes will continue to fuel the larger effort.30 In the book Switch, the Chip and Dan Heath refer to this as “shrinking the change”. They use the debt management techniques developed by Dave Ramsey who has written extensively on the subject. The process Ramsey outlines focuses on dealing with the smallest debts first. This runs counter to much of the existing theories that say, instead, to focus on the debts with the largest interest rates. The idea is that it provides the individual in debt with a sense of accomplishment that fuels further frugality. Accomplishment breeds enthusiasm and maintains momentum.31 The recycling effort in Davis follows this logic and has the success to prove it’s efficacy. They began by simply collecting newspapers. After achieving this goal and starting the seeds of a “culture” of recycling, they were able to expand their efforts and start collecting cans and bottles. By building upon their small successes, they became a national leader in curb side recycling. Shortly after the first Earth Day in 1970, the Container Corporation of America held a student design contest with the hopes of generating a symbol to encapsulate the recycling process. This paperboardpackaging manufacturer was also, at the time, the largest paper recycler in the nation. The company thought that, because the next generation would be the ones to inherit the 108

earth, they should be entitled to the creation of this symbol. In the end, the design of Gary Anderson was the one they chose and remains to be the same three-arrowed symbol that is used today nationwide. In “Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior,” Paul Stern establishes several essential elements that play a role in changing behavior, one of which is evident in the creation of the recycling logo story. This principle involves gaining an “Understanding of Human Choice Processes”, and specifically “make limited cognitive demands”. By this they mean, the more brain processing power you demand of the person you seek to change, the less likely your success will be. It has to be easy.32 When the recycling movement began the public was not trained to know which materials could be processed and which could not. Rather than develop a lengthy list of acceptable and unacceptable materials, CCA used the symbol as a communication device. If someone wasn’t sure about the recyclability of a material, all they had to do was look for the symbol. Very little thinking was required, a factor that continues to enable the movement of recycling today. 30. Fogg, B.J. Creating Persuasive Technologies: An Eight-Step Design Process. Claremont, 26 April 2009. 31. Heath, Chip and Dan Heath. Switch: How to Change Things When Change Is Hard. New York: Broadway Books, 2010. 32. Stern, Paul C. “Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior.” Journal of Social Issues (2000): 407-424.

109

Timeline: Recycling 6.5 MILLION TONS OF RECYCLED MATERIAL

8.0 MILLION TONS OF RECYCLED MATERIAL

Rachel Carson releases Silent Spring The Federal government enacts the Solid Waste Disposal Act The US aluminum industry begins recycling discarded aluminum products The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) is established. On April 22, the first Earth Day introduces the concept of recycling to the general public.

‘62

110

‘65

‘68

‘70

‘76

14.5 MILLION TONS OF RECYCLED MATERIAL

33.2 MILLION TONS OF RECYCLED MATERIAL

The National Recycling Coalition honors Davis, CA with status of best curb side program in the country

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act is passed

The Plastic Bottle Institute develops identification code system for plastic bottle manufacturers McDonald’s stops using styrofoam packaging

‘80

‘86

‘88

‘90

Graphic Data: Earthsense. Recycling History. 12 May 2011 <http://www. greatgreenlist.com/Recycling-History-222.html>. Environmental Protection Agency. Text Version of Municipal Solid Waste Charts. 4 March 2011. 12 May 2011 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/facts-text.htm#chart3>.

111

Motivate

How Change Occurred

Reflections In our research of past examples of change (Walmart & CFLs, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, Relay For Life and Recycling) we kept an eye out for the methods and strategies that were used to change behavior. We began to see a variety techniques that focused on doing two things: motivating the user, and making it simple for the user to perform the desired behavior. The examples we studied motivated users primarily through education, emotion, and social means. They also provided simple tasks for the user or removed barriers to predetermined tasks. 112

Simplify

Walmart installed educational displays

Through Education

Through Emotion

Utilities launched public awareness campaigns.

With Fear

Imagine a world without birds...

With Hope

Relay = a "celebration of hope." Relay unites canceraffected people.

With a shared "pain"

Through Social Means

MADD unites people affected by drunk driving. Relay emphasizes team building. Public recognition inďŹ&#x201A;uences political efforts.

Walking to raise money. By Providing Simple Tasks

MADD's message speaks of goal. Purchasing power reduced price.

By Making Given Tasks Easier

Exemplary displays throughout store Financial incentives provided to promote action. Symbol used to guide action 113

114

5: Developing Synthesis of Research Concepts

115

Developing: Synthesis of Research In order to apply the concepts we learned from our research to the issues faced by the PWD in relation to Green City, Clean Waters, we had to first synthesize the mass of information into an understandable framework. We processed our research and organized it into branching visual diagrams.

116

They rarely educate themselves because Flow rates are unknown

Occurs Because Assumed

Over-‐ Consump@on

People are unaware of their usage Many residents don't use eco-‐ conscious products

because They don't know about them because

CSOs Occur because

because

They don't work as well

Problems

Discovered

They're too expensive

because

Sewer Systems get over-‐ worked

Residents ﬂush sewage down the drain

par0ally because

There is limited discussion Customers don't perceive the value

Educa@on is conﬁned to Water Works building

Disconnect b/t resident and water source Streets

because Stormwater ﬂoods the sewers

They rarely educate themselves

Schools because it isn't absorbed by

Homes Public Facili@es

which the PWD struggles with because

Residents are uninformed Residents are tough to get buy-‐in from

par0ally because

PWD is bad at public outreach "PWD aren't educators"

There is no incen@ve to act

Parking Lots Open spaces Industry, Business, Commerce Alleys, Driveways and Walkways

Synthesis of Observing •

• • • •

Pollution caused by combined sewer overflows (CSOs) is biggest problem for Philadelphia’s water supply Sewer system gets overworked because stormwater does not get absorbed and flows into the rivers There is a disconnect between the residents and their hydrologic system The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) struggles with public outreach The PWD struggles with getting buy-in from customers

117

Tailoring Static Information Communication Methods

Reward/Punishment

Indirect Feedback

Social Comparison

Direct Feedback

Face-to-Face Communication Social Facilitation

Elements of Behavior Change

Direction End Goal

Competition Cooperation

Techniques

Motivation Goal-setting Simplicity

Automation

Commitment

Simple Steps

Simulation

Self-Monitoring

Autonomy

Choice Architecture

Mastery

Triggers

Timely Prompts Habitual Prompts

Purpose Emotional Connection Identity Creation

Synthesis of Behavior Change Studies • Provide an end goal to give direction • Humans can be motivated by: Tailoring Reward/Punishment Social Comparison Face-to-Face Communication Normative Influence Competition Cooperation Goal-setting Commitment Simulation Autonomy Mastery Purpose Emotional Connection Identity Creation 118

• Change is made easier by: Self-monitoring Simple Steps Automation • Change can be triggered by: Timely Prompts • Communication methods that help change to occur include: Static Information Indirect Feedback Direct Feedback

Walmart installed educational displays Utilities launched public awareness campaigns. Through Education Motivate

Through Emotion

How Change Occurred

Imagine a world without birds... With Fear

Relay = a "celebration of hope."

With Hope

Relay unites canceraffected people.

With a shared "pain"

MADD unites people affected by drunk driving.

Through Social Means

Relay emphasizes team building. Public recognition inﬂuences political efforts. Walking to raise money.

Simplify

By Providing Simple Tasks

MADD's message speaks of goal. Purchasing power reduced price. Exemplary displays throughout store

By Making Given Tasks Easier

Financial incentives provided to promote action. Symbol used to guide action

Synthesis of Behavior Change Examples • Educational means of motivation include: Informative displays Public Awareness Campaigns • Emotional Means of Motivation include: Fear Hope Shared Pain • Social Means of Motivation include: An emphasis on Team building Building a public presence

• •

New tasks made simple include: Starting with a simple gesture Communicating with a clear message Existing tasks made simple include: Improved affordability Careful placement in retail environment Cash incentives like discounts Using symbols to improve navigation

119

Developing: Concepts Utilizing the concepts and lessons we had learned throughout the entire project, we brainstormed a set of ideas that the PWD could potentially use to make their Green City, Clean Waters campaign as effective as possible. Once a substantial amount of ideas had been generated, the next step was to filter this list down based on a set of criteria that spoke of the needs of our client, the water department, as well as of the success stories we had found previously. The remaining group was divided into clusters based on conceptual similarities which would become the phases of our proposal.

120

121

Brainstorming Using behavior-changing concepts to generate actionalble ideas.

Education

Hope/Fear

Edu-tip on water bill

Moss graffiti Green City ads

Workshops at home depot

Flash mob workshops in public

DIY section at home depot Public awareness campaign Edu-installations around city Food cart with green roof Food cart with rain barrel Public cso ticker like dept ticker in ny City-wide chalk stenciled statistics

Drain pipe sculpture contest Informational signage on public planters “Greenville” for Facebook SIMS expansion pack

Rating System For Schuykill: “Is It Swimable?”

Social Shared Pain Means

Make New Task Simple

Crew teams on boathouse row

Reduce costs with bulk purchasing

Celebrity endorsement: Tina Fey

Anglers Help Beautify Philly: Make it “BeautiPhil”

Sushi restaurants

Super-savers -Around city -Website

Triathlon sponsors 100% of Cancer patients don’t have Horticultural green roofs.. society “Imagine a world without fish” a-la Silent Spring

River-side restaurants like in manayunk

Focus on affected animals as mascot

Clubs on delaware ave

Postcard from the Future: “Thanks for your work!”

Soak It Up, Philly! campaign Neighborhood comparisons: Website, bill, etc Colored street lamps based on cso status Badges on drains for reduced flow Competition between neighborhoods Window stickers

Billboard w/ statistics that reveals in the rain

Hackathon competition

Spot on news before rain storms

Rainbarrel beer mug to support cause

Public fountains convey usage statistics

122

Program symbols in retail stores

DIY kits for residents “One-click” participation on website Explanation of payoff of investing Sod role-like system for green roofs Modular planters lock together Hanging planters cover side of a house Cascading planters absorb rain water

Make Task Easier

Motivation

Reduce the size of planters

Local cso info on Provide renters water bill with incentives to participate Reduce the size of Assign storm rain barrels drains to blocks Set a goal for a to manage block like “20% Modular green roof reduction” that clicks together Make participation Interactive Coupons cheaper display in retail -On website locations like in -On bill Gccw lottery paint stores for participating “Clip-on” rain residents Ad campaign: barrel and flow imagine a river thru planter Gift certificates like... for fish GCCW symbol restaurants Eco-appraisal to used at retail reduce bill locations Ambassador of change scheme DIY books with (like pyramids) step-by-step instructions

Simplicity

Triggers

Simple progress bar for participation

Spot on news for CSO report timely action -on bill &website

Reduce the size of “the actions” Automate the follow-ups for participation

Prompts on water bill during rainy months

Feedback

Rate The neighborhoods

Water meter ap for smart phones

Kit: pot, seeds and dirt all in one!

Window sticker to promote cause Reward blocks for collective participation Tax reductions for participation View neighbor’s participating on website 123

Filtering Using relevant criteria to eliminate the ideas which were least appropriate.

Education

Hope/Fear

Edu-tip on water bill

Moss graffiti Green City ads

Workshops at home depot

Flash mob workshops in public

Drain pipe sculpture contest Informational signage on public planters “Greenville” for Facebook SIMS expansion pack

Rating System For Schuykill: “Is It Swimable?”

Social Shared Pain Means

Make New Task Simple

Crew teams on boathouse row

Reduce costs with bulk purchasing

Celebrity endorsement: Tina fey

Anglers Help Beautify Philly: Make it “BeautiPhil”

Sushi restaurants

Super-savers -Around city -Website

Triathlon sponsors 100% of Cancer patients don’t have Horticultural green roofs.. society “Imagine a world without fish” a-la Silent Spring

River-side restaurants like in manayunk

Focus on affected animals as mascot

Clubs on delaware ave

Postcard from the Future: “Thanks for your work!”

Soak It Up, Philly! campaign Neighborhood comparisons: Website, bill, etc Colored street lamps based on cso status Badges on drains for reduced flow Competition between neighborhoods Window stickers

Billboard w/ statistics that reveals in the rain

Hackathon competition

Spot on news before rain storms

Rainbarrel beer mug to support cause

Public fountains convey usage statistics

124

Program symbols in retail stores

Make Task Easier

Motivation

step-by-step instructions

Simplicity

Triggers

Simple progress bar for participation

Spot on news for CSO report timely action -on bill &website

Reduce the size of “the actions” Automate the follow-ups for participation

Prompts on water bill during rainy months

Feedback

Rate The neighborhoods

Water meter ap for smart phones

Kit: pot, seeds and dirt all in one!

Window sticker to promote cause Reward blocks for collective participation Tax reductions for participation View neighbor’s participating on website

Filtering Criteria Does the concept focus on the residents? Does the concept support Green City, Clean Waters? Does the concept promote the two goals of action & support? Does the concept make participation easy? Is the concept simple to implement?

125

Organizing Concepts We looked for similarities within the resulting list as a means of developing a conceptual strategy.

Education

Hope/Fear

Edu-tip on water bill

Moss graffiti Green City ads

Workshops at home depot

Flash mob workshops in public

Drain pipe sculpture contest Informational signage on public planters “Greenville” for Facebook SIMS expansion pack

Rating System For Schuykill: “Is It Swimable?”

Social Shared Pain Means

Make New Task Simple

Crew teams on boathouse row

Reduce costs with bulk purchasing

Celebrity endorsement: Tina fey

Anglers Help Beautify Philly: Make it “BeautiPhil”

Sushi restaurants

Super-savers -Around city -Website

Triathlon sponsors 100% of Cancer patients don’t have Horticultural green roofs.. society “Imagine a world without fish” a-la Silent Spring

River-side restaurants like in manayunk

Focus on affected animals as mascot

Clubs on delaware ave

Postcard from the Future: “Thanks for your work!”

Soak It Up, Philly! campaign Neighborhood comparisons: Website, bill, etc Colored street lamps based on cso status Badges on drains for reduced flow Competition between neighborhoods Window stickers

Billboard w/ statistics that reveals in the rain

Hackathon competition

Spot on news before rain storms

Rainbarrel beer mug to support cause

Public fountains convey usage statistics

126

Program symbols in retail stores

Make Task Easier

Motivation

step-by-step instructions

Window sticker to promote cause

Simplicity

Triggers

Simple progress bar for participation

Spot on news for CSO report timely action -on bill &website

Reduce the size of “the actions” Automate the follow-ups for participation

Prompts on water bill during rainy months

Feedback

Rate The neighborhoods

Water meter ap for smart phones

Kit: pot, seeds and dirt all in one!

Conceptual Groups

Reward blocks for collective participation

Easy Buy-In

Tax reductions for participation

Supporting Information

View neighbor’s participating on website

Strategic Partner

Further Benefits

Public Awareness

127

128

6: Proposing Soak It Up, Philly! A Simple First Step An Incentive to Act A Motivating Interface Public Awareness Events Strategic Partnerships 129

Proposing: Soak It Up, Philly! We have developed an approach to help the Philadelphia Water Department motivate residents to participate in the Green City, Clean Waters program. The program is called Soak It Up, Philly! and consists of a simple first step, an incentive to act, and a motivating website. The Soak It Up, Philly! program will be supported by public awareness events and strategic partnerships.

130

A Simple First Step Soak It Up, Philly!

An Incentive to Act

Public Awareness Events

A Motivating Interface

Strategic Partnerships 131

Proposing: A Public Connection One of the primary obstacles to engaging residents is the fact that most residents are unaware that the problem of CSOs exists in Philadelphia. It is crucial to raise awareness on the issue and connect the resident to the problem in an engaging way. Although this thesis did not focus primarily on the development of awareness campaigns, we did generate a few approaches for raising awareness among residents.

CONCEPTS UTILIZED End Goal Public Awareness Cooperation Clear Message

132

133

Awareness Campaigns Introducing the residents of Philadelphia to the Green City program can be done many ways. Traditionally, this sort of outreach would be done with an advertisement campaign that would be featured in local printed publications like newspapers and magazines. To reinforce the revolutionary quality of the Green City program, we believe the public should be reached out to in a more cutting edge manner. POTENTIAL VENUES A. Public Fountains: There are several huge public fountains in Philadelphia and we propose that the PWD use them as informational tools with which to spread their message. B. Moss Grafitti: Thematically, Green City Clean Waters is about creating an urban environment that works more like nature. This type of grafitti utilizes an organic medium to create temporary yet beautiful messages.

134

g e i n to o u r r i ve

rs e

se w

h ave a h e a

ers d u m p 3 0

ew e

a 0g

ns o

f se wa

ti m

. Love Park Fountain Simulation, GoogleEarth

135

Proposing: Strategic Partnerships Currently, the Philadelphia Water Department works with a number of partners as a means to reach out to the public. The Soak It Up, Philly! program was designed to work with this strategy by utilizing the existing infrastructure of other organizations. One potential partnership that would offer a variety of benefits would be a hardware store such as Home Depot. (For a list of other potential partnerships, see the section titled Strategic Partnerships in Appendix.)

CONCEPTS UTILIZED Educational Displays Public Awareness Social Learning Choice Architecture Use of Symbols Simple Steps Convenience 136

137

Case Study: The Home Depot Retailers that have existing gardening sections like Home Depot, would be useful for several reasons. First, they are already a place that residents go to purchase such items as plants and pots. Second, they are set up to handle retail transactions which alleviates a huge burden for the PWD. Third, in exchange for this burden, a portion of the sales would go to the retailer, thus creating a relationship that is mutually beneficial.

138

GREEN CITY, CLEAN WATERS

(Green Homes)

5 Ways to make your house SOAK IT UP! Rain Garden Demo

Green Roof Demo

Flow-Through Planter Demo

20% Off

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Proposing: A Simple First Step Our research indicated that simple steps can encourage people to perform target actions. After looking at the time and money required to perform the Green City, Clean Waters actions, we wondered how we could simplify participation.

CONCEPTS UTILIZED Simple Steps Autonomy Reward Habitual Prompts Recognition

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The Starter Kit The starter kit serves multiple purposes. First, it provides a simple way for a resident to participate in reducing CSOs. At a low cost compared to the rest of the Green City, Clean Waters actions, the kit could be distributed by the Water Department through new and existing partnerships. For the cost of going to the movies, residents would have everything they would need to accomplish this part of the plan.

Green City, Clean Waters

The kit also sets the resident on a direction of performing actions to mitigate the CSO problem. By simply engaging in the first step, the resident is primed to continue taking further steps.

The blue pot in the kit serves as a symbol of the greater movement. The color blue connects the potted plant to the larger issues regarding local rivers. The pot could depict additional identifying graphics to tie it more directly to the Soak It Up, Philly! program, the Philadelphia Water Department, or local rivers.

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CONTENTS The kit would include enough supplies for two potted plants so the resident could share one with a friend or neighbor. This provides the opportunity for discussion on local water issues, allows for the spread of the blue pot as a symbol of support, and uses normative influence to increase the wide-spread adoption and support of the Soak It Up, Philly! program.

Pot (x2)

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Proposing: An Incentive to Act Having a simple first step is essential, but a real incentive for the resident would help drive further participation. Working off of the incentive plan mentioned by Tiffany, this concept serves as a portal that connects the participatory actions of residents to financial incentives and hydrologic benefits.

CONCEPTS UTILIZED

End Goal Public Awareness Cooperation Clear Message 144

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Redeeming Discounts Page To make Green City, Clean Waters truly successful, the Philadelphia Water Department will need to provide a way for residents to benefit financially from their participation: an incentive to act. With over 1.5 million residents, this incentive program should be simple to implement and easy to track, hereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s how it could work: 1. Every commercially available item associated with Soak It Up, Philly! would come with its own individual discount code.

2. Residents could then go to the Soak It Up, Philly! website and, once logged in, enter the given code into a specified field. Each program (i.e., Blue Pots, rain barrels, etc.) would offer a discount based on its capacity to absorb or hold water. A green roof, for example, would provide a greater discount than a Blue Pot because it retains significantly more water.

Discount Code 7380 8393 146

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Proposing: A Motivating Interface To drive further action, weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve developed a website for the Soak It Up, Philly! program. Within it, we have utilized a variety of behavior change techniques to motivate the user and trigger further action. The interface continues the user on the path established by the starter kit and leverages the financial incentive as a motivation to participate further.

CONCEPTS UTILIZED Reduction Tailoring Suggestion Conditioning Virtual / Actual Rewards Identity Creation Timely Prompts 148

Convenience Social Facilitation Social Comparison Social Learning Competition Cooperation Recognition

Simulation Simple Steps Self-Monitoring Goal-Setting Automation Direct Feedback

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The Profile Page The information contained on the profile page serves as a terminal from which the user can learn about and engage in Soak It Up, Philly. It does this by introducing a series of programs including the Blue Pots, rain barrels, etc. that can yield financial incentives and reduce the stormwater stress on the given individual’s local sewer system. To support these programs, the user is presented with informative modules that are tailored to their location which display upcoming events as well as the amount of stormwater relief their participation has provided. WIREFRAME A. User Profile Navigation: Provides navigation between the Incentivised Action page, Competition page and the Profile Page B. Program Module: Presentation of all programs within Soak It Up, Philly! including the Blue Pot Starter Kit, Rain Barrels, Rain Gardens, Flow-Through Planters and Green Roofs. User can see which programs they have finished by way of a virtual stamp titled “Completed”. B1. Program Module Secondary Navigation: For those programs which the user has yet to engage in, there is secondary navigation allowing them to “Learn More” about a particular program as well as find out how to either “Make” or “Buy” what is needed to reach completion. C. Progress Module: A visual display showing the cumulative discounts earned by the user from the specific programs they have successfully participated in. 150

D. Stormwater Relief Module: Displays image of user’s local CSO as well as a numeric calculation of the amount of water their participation has kept from flooding their sewers. E. Calendar Module: Calendar of upcoming events that are local to the user with secondary navigation allowing them to “Learn More” about an event as well as “Sign Up” for said event. F. Banner Module: Displays a variety of helpful hints as well as encouraging remarks. G. Logo: Displays Soak It Up, Philly! logo

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Competition Page The Incentive page and the Profile page are all about connecting the actions of a participant to the effects, both financial and hydrologic, of those actions. The concept of the Competition page is to motivate continued participation by promoting a neighborhood-based identity that is placed within a larger, city-wide context. Supporting modules allow the user to connect to the online community (Facebook) as well as view those residents who have exhibited exceptional participation in the programs. WIREFRAME A. User Profile Navigation: Provides navigation between the Incentivised Action page, Competition page and the Profile Page B. Neighborhood Comparison Module: Displays the cumulative completion of programs within a neighborhood and compares those results to other neighborhoods within Philadelphia. C. Progress Module: A visual display showing the cumulative discounts earned by the user from the specific programs they have successfully participated in. D. E-Achievement Module: Allows the user to display the programs they have completed in the form of virtual badges attached to their Facebook page. E. Local Hero Module: Displays a photograph of a local resident who has exhibited exemplary participation.

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F. Banner Module: Displays a variety of helpful hints as well as encouraging remarks. G. Logo: Displays Soak It Up, Philly! logo

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7: Reflecting Future Steps Looking Back

Future Steps Before these concepts can develop further, they need to be realized in the form of prototypes. Can something as simple as a pot or planter become a beacon for a larger movement? Could it spark inquisitive conversation and inspire participation? Because the water department has posted the neighborhood groups they’re planning to work with, we would begin with those areas as testing grounds for this simple concept. At first, a series of these large pots would be given free to those residents who are willing to be ambassadors for us and pass on our message to any curious individuals. Getting the prototypes into a specific location would then let us observe the degree to which they promote any sort of discussion. Does anyone stop and look at them? If so, for how long? Do they ask the owners about them? Do they motivate others in the area to either buy their own pots or paint existing ones the same color blue? These are the sorts of questions we’d want to answer. 156

Another direction we’d like to take this project has to do with the community outreach meetings held by the PWD. From what we’ve heard, the water department struggles with connecting to the residents of Philadelphia. The highly-educated scientists they send to conduct these meetings are experts in the field of engineering, for example, but are not trained in communication and struggle to connect with localized communities. This is an excellent opportunity for a human-centered approach. These meetings could serve as a testing ground for some of our website concepts and would be integrating both supplier and user in the design process. We think that would be a huge asset to the PWD and the residents. It could also be fertile ground for new concepts and possibilities. Of course, this would require the cooperation from the water department and this sort of connection is never an easy one to get. Finding a way to secure this would be essential and would require significant consideration and planning.

Looking Back This project was a real struggle. It felt like we were constantly swimming upstream with nothing but a toothpick for a paddle. Looking back, its easy to see several fundamental flaws inherent in our approach. We’d like to discuss them in an attempt to clarify some of the parts of this project which may seem disconnected and to help us understand them better so as to make sure not to repeat them in the future. First and foremost, we began with an approach that was ripe for failure. We both have a fascination in human behavior and believe that many of the problems our world currently faces can be solved or at least helped by carefully redesigning a given situation to affect human behavior. Although many may agree with our perspective, this personal interest cannot serve as the foundation of a human-centered design project. Looking at behavior is one way to deal with a problem but isn’t a problem in and of itself. We wanted to make

ourselves smarter and better equipped to handle the world’s complex problems which is an inherently inwardlycentered focus. We started with ourselves rather that with a group of individuals who had a real problem they were struggling to deal with. So we gave ourselves the context of water use and tried to make up problems, like, “The residents of Philadelphia use too much water,” as a starting point rather than using our energy to respond to a real situation. Our whole process was like having a tool to fix a particular part in a car and then spending your time looking for someone with that problem you could fix. This is the opposite of, to push the analogy further, finding someone with a broken-down car and helping them to find an appropriate way to fix it. In that case, you can ask questions like, “What happened before it broke down?,” and “How do you normally drive it?,” etc. The problem can be dissected, behaviors can be unearthed and patterns 157

can be found. Maybe behavior change is necessary, maybe not. The problem should dictate the solution, not the other way around. This issue of not having a particular audience or group of people to work with is another component to our misdirection. By not starting with a problem or pain, finding an appropriate audience with whom we could work with, interview, observe and research was futile. The major turning point in this project was the day we spoke with Adam Levine and found that CSOs are the biggest problem facing Philadelphia’s water source. We had finally found someone who knew of a problem. It was also the same day we attended the Delaware River Basin Commission Forum and saw Chris Crockett speak about how the PWD isn’t good at community outreach. This was a problem and it’s the sort of thing we should have started with. Once we had a real problem and an audience, finding ways to engage were, not surprisingly, much easier. Unfortunately, by the time we discovered this “broken down car”, our semester was almost over and getting our concepts to a point where they could be tested and iterated was just not feasible. Additionally, while we had the opportunity to meet with Tiffany and Adam (both PWD employees), we hadn’t secured the opportunity to work with their organization in any official capacity so our research could only pierce skin-deep. We had to speculate as to how they would handle their public-outreach meetings and what they might need. We didn’t know if launching the blue pot campaign was even possible, fiscally, logistically or otherwise, for the PWD. Nor did we know if we’d ever have the opportunity to test our concepts for them. We had found a problem and a client, but it just so happened that the client wasn’t particularly interested in working with us. As we mentioned earlier, this project has been a struggle. Its value to us lies not in the way we discovered a series of innovative solutions or the way we learned to apply a unique approach, but more so in the way it has taught us what not to do. We have gained the knowledge of 158

what a misguided approach looks like and it’s one we won’t forget. We’ve placed our understanding of human behavior back into our tool box where it shall remain until it’s needed.

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Appendix

Explained: The EPA & WaterSense WaterSense is an EPA-sponsored partnership program launched in 2006 that is meant to promote water efficiency and improve the market for water-efficient products and programs. "WaterSense brings together local water utilities and governments, product manufacturers, retailers, consumers, and other stakeholders to: • Decrease indoor and outdoor non-agricultural water use through the adoption of more efficient products and practices. • Help consumers make water-efficient choices, including differentiating between products and services in the marketplace and adopting simple daily activities that reduce water use. • Encourage innovation in manufacturing • Establish and standardize rigorous certification criteria that ensure product efficiency, performance, and quality."33 So what requirements must products meet to display the WaterSense label? Here are the current flow rates that WaterSense products must adhere to:

EPAct 1992, 2005 EPAct 1992, 2005 & WaterSense or & EISA 2007 EISA 2007 (Proposed/ Energy Star (Current Standard) Future Standard) (Current Standard) RESIDENTIAL Toilets (gallons per flush) Bathroom Faucets (gallons per minute @ 60psi) Kitchen Faucets (gallons per minute @ 60psi) Shower Heads (gallons per minute @ 80psi) Clothes Washers (gal/cycle/ft3) Standard Dishwashers (gal/cycle) Compact Dishwashers (gal/cycle) COMMERCIAL Toilets (gallons per flush) Private Faucets (gallons per minute @ 60psi) Public Restroom Faucets (gallons per minute @ 60psi) Family-Sized Clothes Washers (gal/cycle/ft3)

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1.6 2.2 2.2 2.5

1.28 1.5

9.5 6.5 4.5

1.6 2.2 0.5 9.5

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33. Environmental Protection Agency. About | Watersense. 14 April 2011. 12 May 2011 <http://www.epa.gov/ WaterSense/about_us/index. html>. Chart Data: Environmental Protection Agency. National Efficiency Standards and Specifications for Residential and Commercial Water-Using Fixtures and Appliances. 29 September 2008. WaterSense Specification for Showerheads. 4 March 2010.

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Fogg’s Principles Of Persuasive Technology

Experiences exhibiting these characteristics will be likely to persuade a user to perform a target behavior.

Computers As Persuasive Tools REDUCTION

Simplify tasks

TUNNELING

Guide users through a process

TAILORING

SELF-MONITORING

SURVEILLANCE

CONDITIONING

Track performance of user

Observe the user’s behavior

Present tailored information to user

SUGGESTION

Suggest specific actions

Give positive reinforcement

Computers As Persuasive Media: Simulation CAUSE AND EFFECT

Show the user link between cause and effects

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VIRTUAL REHEARSAL

Provide simulated area in which to rehearse a behavior

VIRTUAL REWARDS

Reward target behavior in a virtual world

SIMULATIONS IN REALWORLD CONTEXT

Simulate everyday routines

ior.

Increasing Increasing Persuasion Persuasion Through Through Mobility Mobility And And Connectivity Connectivity KAIROS KAIROS

Offer suggestions Offer suggestions at at opportuneopportune moments moments

CONVENIENCE CONVENIENCE

MOBILE MARRIAGE MOBILE MARRIAGE

INFORMATION INFORMATION QUALITY QUALITY SOCIAL FACILITATION SOCIAL FACILITATION SOCIAL COMPARISON SOCIAL COMPARISON

Easy to access Easy to access

MOBILE SIMPLICITY MOBILE SIMPLICITY Easy to use Easy to use

MOBILE LOYALTY MOBILE LOYALTY

Serve theServe interests the of interests the user of the user before those before of an those outside of anparty outside party

Support many Support interactions many interactions Deliver current, Deliverrelevant, current, and relevant,Show and userShow that others user that areothers are Compare Compare user performance user performance over a long over time a long period time period well-coordinated well-coordinated information information performing performing same behavior same behavior with that of with others that of others

NORMATIVE NORMATIVE INFLUENCE INFLUENCE SOCIAL LEARNING SOCIAL LEARNING Use peer Use pressure peer pressure

COMPETITION COMPETITION

COOPERATION COOPERATION

Allow userAllow to see user others to see perform others perform Leverage Leverage human beings’ human beings’Leverage Leverage human beings’ human beings’ natural drive natural to compete drive to compete natural drive natural to cooperate drive to cooperate behavior and behavior be rewarded and be rewarded

RECOGNITION RECOGNITION

Offer public Offer recognition public recognition to to an individual an individual or a groupor a group

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Other Cities’ Strategies

New York, NY

Portland, OR

Chicago, IL

• •

• • •

•

Cost-effective grey infrastructure Enough green infrastructure to control runoff from 10% of impervious surface34

•

Sewer separation Stormwater sumps Downspout disconnection from sewer system35 Sustainable Stormwater Management Program (green infrastructure)36

• •

Extensive tunnel and reservoir storage plan37 Rain barrel program Currently testing permeable pavement parking lot38

St. Louis, MO

Boston, MA

Cleveland, OH

• • •

• • • •

•

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Storage tanks Separation of sewers $100 million in enhanced green infrastructure along Mississippi River, including support of rain barrel and rain garden implementation programs39

• •

Sewer separation Treatment facility upgrades New CSO treatment facility CSO consolidation / storage conduits Relief sewers40 EPA green infrastructure partner city41

• •

Tunnels for combined sewage storage Treatment plant enhancements42 EPA green infrastructure partner city41

34. NYC Department of Environmental Protection. NYC Green Infrastructure Plan. New York City, September 2010. 35. Portland Bureau of Environmental Services. Cornerstone Projects. 10 May 2011 <http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index. cfm?c=31030&a=201795>. 36. Water Environment Research Foundation. Portland, Oregon. 2009. 10 May 2011 <http://www. werf.org/livablecommunities/studies_port_or.htm>. 37. Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago. Tunnel and Reservoir Plan. 10 May 2011 <http://www.mwrd.org/irj/portal/ anonymous/tarp>. 38. Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago. Stormwater Management Program 2010 Annual Report. Chicago, 11 April 2011. 39. Metropolitan St. Louis Sewer District. Combined Sewer Overflow Long-Term Control Plan Update Report. St. Louis, August 2009. 40. Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. Combined Sewer Overflow Control Plan: Annual Progress Report 2010. Boston, March 2011. 41. Environmental Protection Agency. Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure. 10 May 2011 <http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home. cfm?program_id=298>. 42. Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. Project Clean Lake. 10 May 2011 <http://www.neorsd.org/ projectcleanlake.php>.

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Strategic Partners Beautification Organizations Keep Philadelphia Beautiful http://keepphiladelphiabeautiful.org./index.html Keep America Beautiful - Great American Cleanup http://www.kab.org/site/PageServer?pagename= GAC_2010kickoffs Philadelphia Streets Department - Philly Spring Cleanup http://www.philadelphiastreets.com/philly-spring cleanup.aspx Pennsylvania Horticultural Society - Philadelphia Green http://www.pennsylvaniahorticulturalsociety.org/ phlgreen/about.html Waterfront Organizations Delaware River Waterfront Corporation http://www.delawareriverwaterfrontcorp.com/ Manayunk Brewery http://www.manayunkbrewery.com/ Cavanaugh’s River Deck http://www.theriverdeck.com/index.asp Moshulu http://www.moshulu.com/site/main.asp

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Art and Design Organizations Mural Arts Program http://muralarts.org/ DesignPhiladelphia http://www.designphiladelphia.org/ The Hacktory http://www.thehacktory.org/ Other Stakeholders Penn State Crew Team http://www.clubs.psu.edu/up/psucrew/ Philadelphia Anglers Club http://www.cookplex.com/pac/inside/index.php PHLYTRI Triathlon http://www.phillytri.com/ Hardware Stores Home Depot www.homedepot.com Lowe’s www.lowes.com

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References

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References Abrahamse, Wokje, et al. “A review of intervention studies aimed at household energy conservation.” Journal of Environmental Psychology (2005): 273-291. —. “The effect of tailored information, goal setting, and tailored feedback on household energy use, energyrelated behaviors, and behavioral antecedents.” Journal of Environmental Psychology (2007): 265-276. Addison, Bill. Wal-Mart makes light work of CFL sales. 21 October 2007. 25 April 2011 <http://www. homechannelnews.com/article/wal-mart-makes-lightwork-cfl-sales>. American Cancer Society. International Relay For Life: One World - One Hope! 25 April 2011 <http://www.cancer. org/Involved/Participate/Relayforlife/international-relayfor-life-one-world-one-hope>. —. Relay For Life Facts and Figures 2010. December 2010. —. Relay for Life Speaking Points 2009. 14 March 2009. Arroyo, Ernesto, Leonardo Bonanni and Ted Selker. Waterbot: Exploring Feedback and Persuasive Techniques at the Sink. Portland, April 2005. Association of California Water Agencies. “Fact Sheet.” September 2007. California Water Crisis. 21 April 2011 <Association of California Water Agencies>. Bandura, Albert. “Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency.” American Psychologist 37.2 (1982). Barbaro, Michael. The Energy Challenge - Wal-Mart Puts Some Muscle Behind Power-Sipping Bulbs. 2 January 2007. 25 April 2011 <https://www.nytimes. com/2007/01/02/business/02bulb.html?ex=1325394000 &en=78dfdd6856cb7590&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland &emc=rss&pagewanted=all&pagewanted=all>.

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Bender, Sylvia L., et al. Using Mass Media to Influence Energy Consumption Behavior: California’s 2001 Flex Your Power Campaign as a Case Study. Stockholm: European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, 2002. ChartsBin Statistics Collector Team 2010. Total Water Use per capita by Country. 21 April 2010 <http://chartsbin. com/view/u8u>. Darby, Sarah. Making it obvious: designing feedback into energy consumption. Oxford, December 2010. Davis, Laurie. “25 Years of Saving Lives.” Driven Fall 2005: 8-17. Earthsense. Recycling History. 12 May 2011 <http://www. greatgreenlist.com/Recycling-History-222.html>. Environmental Protection Agency. About | Watersense. 14 April 2011. 12 May 2011 <http://www.epa.gov/ WaterSense/about_us/index.html>. —. EPA - NPDES FAQs. 18 October 2007. 24 April 2011 <http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/faqs.cfm?program_id=5 >. —. Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure. 10 May 2011 <http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home. cfm?program_id=298>. —. National Efficiency Standards and Specifications for Residential and Commercial Water-Using Fixtures and Appliances. 29 September 2008. —. Text Version of Municipal Solid Waste Charts. 4 March 2011. 12 May 2011 <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/ facts-text.htm#chart3>. —. WaterSense Specification for Showerheads. 4 March 2010. Fitch, Mike. Growing Pains: Thirty Years in the History of Davis. 12 May 2011 <http://cityofdavis.org/CDD/ cultural/30years/chapt04.cfm >.

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Kuznetsov, Stacey and Eric Paulos. UpStream: Motivating Water Conservation with Low-Cost Water Flow Sensing and Persuasive Displays. Atlanta, April 2010. Lockton, Dan. Design With Intent: 101 patterns for influencing behaviour through design. Windsor, April 2010. Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. Combined Sewer Overflow Control Plan: Annual Progress Report 2010. Boston, March 2011. Metropolitan St. Louis Sewer District. Combined Sewer Overflow Long-Term Control Plan Update Report. St. Louis, August 2009. Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago. Stormwater Management Program 2010 Annual Report. Chicago, 11 April 2011. —. Tunnel and Reservoir Plan. 10 May 2011 <http://www. mwrd.org/irj/portal/anonymous/tarp>. Natural Resources Defense Council. The Story of Silent Spring. 12 May 2011 <http://www.nrdc.org/health/ pesticides/hcarson.asp >. Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. Project Clean Lake. 10 May 2011 <http://www.neorsd.org/projectcleanlake. php>. NYC Department of Environmental Protection. NYC Green Infrastructure Plan. New York City, September 2010. O’Connor, Siobhan. This Is A Turn Off: The GOOD Guide to Reducing Your Water Use. 28 July 2010. 21 April 2011 <http://www.good.is/post/this-is-a-turn-off/>. Office of Watersheds. FAQ. 24 April 2011 <http://www. phillywatersheds.org/watershed_issues/stormwater_ management/faq>.

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Thaler, Richard H. and Cass R. Sunstein. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New York: Penguin Books, 2009. The Nature Conservancy. More than Three-Quarters of Americans Don’t Know Where Their Water Comes From. 22 March 2011. 21 April 2011 <http://www.nature. org/newsfeatures/media/pressreleases/more-thanthree-quarters-of-americans-dont-know-where-theirwater-comes-from.xml>. The Water Information Program. Water Facts. 20 April 2011 <http://www.waterinfo.org/resources/water-facts>. Water Environment Research Foundation. Portland, Oregon. 2009. 10 May 2011 <http://www.werf.org/ livablecommunities/studies_port_or.htm>. West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection. Lightbulb Comparison Spreadsheet. 26 March 2007. 25 April 2011 <http://www.dep.wv.gov/daq/ EnergyEfficiency/Documents/2007%20Bulb%20 Comparison.pdf>. Wilson, Alex. On the Path to Passive Survivability. 14 October 2008. 21 April 2011 <http://www.buildinggreen. com/live/index.cfm/2008/10/14/On-the-Path-to-PassiveSurvivability>. Young, Raymond De. “Changing Behavior and Making Is Stick: The Conceptualization and Management of Conservation Behavior.” Environment and Behavior (1993): 485-505.

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