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The Architecture of Displacement; Identity, Displacement and Nostalgia
By Migena Salihu
A dissertation submitted to the University of Manchester and Manchester Metropolitan University, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of a Masters in Architecture at the Manchester School of Architecture
Submitted on 16th April , 2018
Dissertation supervisor: Dr. Deljana Iossifova, senior lecturer in Urban Studies
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In loving commemoration of the lives lost during the Kosovo war (March 1998 – June 1999)
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A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
This research study would not have been possible without the support, guidance and encouragement from various people in various ways. I would like to acknowledge the outstanding support which I have received from my family during the academic year and my journey so far during my Masters at the Manchester School of Architecture. Their unfailing support and backing has given me the motivation and inspiration to constantly push myself towards the completion of this study and my ongoing studio work.
Although discussing the conflict which occurred in Kosovo is still a sensitive topic, my mother and elder brother have both devoted their time in the participation of the interviews which have guided this study. Their continuous enthusiasm, commitment and guidance on the direction I should adopt for the study is something I am forever thankful for.
My uttermost respect goes to members of my family members who live back in Kosovo for their positive spirit and continuous encouragement throughout this study. Many thanks to my great uncle, Imer Salihu, for introducing my family to the sentimental video he took of our home in the village of Perlepnice, Gjilan, the day after Serbian forces had evacuated. Photos which are taken from the video have been used in this study in order to portray the level of destruction caused in the conflict. This has been an invaluable source to back up this study.
I would also like to express my profound gratitude to my personal tutor Dr. Deljana Iossifova, senior lecturer in Urban Studies and her endless support and faith in this study which has had an important influence on the development of this study step by step.
Equally, I would also like to offer my special thanks to Demetra Kourri, PhD researcher within the Architecture Department, for her assistance, patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement and useful critiques offered during the duration of this study.
Thank you.
Acknowledgements I 8 7
CONTENTS PAGE
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A B S T R A C T
C H A P T E R
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WHAT CONSTITUTES ARCHITECTURE FOR THE DISPLACED INDIVIDUAL? 3.1 Defining Architecture and place 3.2 Architecture in relation to displacement 3.3 Architecture in relation to identity
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C H A P T E R
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INTRODUCTION 1.1 The case of Kosovo 1.2 Research questions and aims
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C H A P T E R
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IDENTITY AND PLACE 4.1 Place 4.2 Identity
1.3 Methodology
4.3 Place identity
1.4 Structure and key literature
4.4 Place attachment 4.5 The multifaceted dynamic of the home in relation to identity
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C H A P T E R
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ILLUSTRATIVE NARRATIVE
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C H A P T E R
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LOSS AND DISPLACEMENT 5.1 Displacement and nostalgia 5.2 The transfer of identity
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C H A P T E R
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THE ROLE NOSTALGIA PLAYS 6.1 Displacement and nostalgia 6.2 Identity continuity and nostalgia
C H A P T E R
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EMPIRICAL NARRATIVE 7.1 Identity 7.2 Displacement
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REFERENCES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
7.3 Nostalgia
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CONCLUSIONS
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E T H I C S C H E C K L I S T
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A B S T R A C T
The purpose of this study is to examine what impacts identity, displacement and nostalgia has had on a displaced individual through the case of Kosovo in 1999. This dissertation will outline the different outlooks that escalate during the journey of displaced person and the relationship they feel towards identity and nostalgia for their past environment. Fundamentally, I will evaluate how displacement affected identity continuity and the identity process for a displaced individual during the conflict in Kosovo, through examining the level of disruption to their identity which was experienced by the individual due to the act of being displaced.
Social theorists suggest that an individual can hold an abundance of identities at a single time, however the interpretation of these identities can be determined by a variety of frameworks. Data on the displaced individual has been collated through two arranged interviews with my mother and brother who were displaced during the conflict. I will dispute that there is a significance to analyse identity continuity and discontinuity in accordance to the displaced individual experiencing attachment, specifically within architecture, the built environment or space. I will augment the examining of the term nostalgia as a way of producing identity reconciliation in the light of identity discontinuity. This will be conducted with the specific concentration towards identity discontinuity in accordance to the experiences an individual encounters during displacement.
This dissertation will reflect on the meaning of architecture and identity for displaced individuals in relation to identity and place. I aim to illustrate how a displaced individual who experiences a loss of attachment to a certain environments or place can re-establish their identity within a new environment or place, through re-establishing facets of identity which may have been lost during the conflict in Kosovo.
Abstract I 12 11
“Displaced societies are of value. Their issues are our issues.�
C Y N T H I A
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B A S I N E T (2017)
C H A P T E R 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
Chapter 1 : Introduction I 13 14
1.1
T H E
C A S E
O F
K O S O V O
My interest to research this topic stemmed from my personal background and firsthand experience of being a displaced person within the Kosovo conflict in 1999. This interest combined with my ongoing commitment to my architectural studies and the social affects that architecture itself poses on society. I am a refugee from Kosovo. My family was caught up in the Kosovo conflict which arose after 1998 lasting until summer 1999, although tensions had been mounting between Kosovo and Serbia since early 1990. In villages divided along ethnic lines, Serbians and ethnic Albanians were systematically destroying each other’s homes (Sinclair, 2006). I was forced to move out of Kosovo and look for safety in another country.
Despite the end of the conflict in 1999, there are still hostile areas in Kosovo, predominantly in areas of ethnic division between the ethnic Albanians and Serbians. I am interested in how the destruction of the built environment within Kosovo caused an effect on people. Consideration has to be given to the long-term effects of violence on the people, and that the physical damage of the city and the psychological damage to the people are inextricably linked (Cordall, 1998). The intent of this study is to analyse the social effect the refugee crisis in Kosovo has had on identity continuity amongst the displaced Kosovar- Albanians after the Kosovo conflict.
Returning to Kosovo is always a sentimental and meaningful time for me and my family. It brings back memories of what life was like for my family before the war began. I am consistently astounded by the magnitude of redevelopment and reconstruction that is undertaken within the country each year. Due to the mass destruction which took place, refugees flooded out of Kosovo, increasing day by day. Over 1 million of Kosovo’s population were displaced (The Lancet, 1999). It is inevitable to examine how this conflict affected the lives of those involved.
As academics and architects we hold a strong accountability to tackle our own understanding of the protracted refugee crisis, in order to create a better understanding of the term nostalgia, place attachment and the home in relation to displacement. This is particularly relevant today, as we are faced with epic waves of migration, varying in scale of numbers globally. We are responsible for the alteration in the current situation, by motivating and enabling displaced people to have their freedom to live in peace,-
Chapter 1 : Introduction I 15 15
to aspire for a brighter and better future and fundamentally to have charge of their own lives.
Many people are familiar with the Kosovo conflict due to the extent of media coverage it sustained. Subsequently, the post war conflict situation meant the displaced refugees returned to a country of mass destruction, in attempt to rebuild their lives on their homeland. Consequently, it is critical to examine the Kosovar Albanians who had no choice but to involuntarily flee and live in a foreign country, in search of a safer environment.
The capital city of Kosovo, Prishtina, is a perfect example of a city left dilapidated and neglected accompanied with the uncertainty of impending threat. It was left behind in crushed pieces, like a puzzle which is hard to piece back together. Residents had to escape the violence being undertaken within their premises. Many of the places which the population migrated to were refugee camps generally within other countries in the Balkans. When all that is left are distressed displaced people, rural and urban environments ravaged by violence, a severe deficiency in food and housing stock, and most significantly destructed monumental pieces of architecture which contribute to the identity of the country. Andrew Herscher states, “most Kosovar Albanians were Muslim, I see the destruction of mosques, then, more as a way of endowing a particular sort of identity on Kosovar Albanians than of wreaking violence on a pre-existing and stable sign of that identity; this destruction was semiotic as well as violent.’’ (Weizman and Herscher, 2011).
1.2 R E S E A R C H
Q U E S T I O N S
A N D
A I M S
The dissertation focuses on displacement within the built environment and how this relates to displaced individuals in a post war conflict. Furthermore, I want to explore the concept of nostalgia and how it can address the creation of identity reconciliation in the light of identity discontinuity.
I will be examining these four questions:
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What is the meaning of “architecture” in relation to identity and place?
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What are the links between identity and place?
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How significant is displacement for identity?
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What role does nostalgia play for the (place-related) identity of a displaced person?
16 I Chapter 1 : Introduction
This diagram conveys how all the concepts will be explored through each chapter and how this will all relate back to place, which is the built environment in the case of Kosovo. Figure 8 - Theoretical Framework
17 Chapter 1 : Introduction I 17
1.3
M E T H O D O L O G Y
This dissertation focuses on displacement within architecture and how it relates to displaced individuals, specifically in relation to the conflict which occurred in Kosovo in 1999. Essentially, I will examine how displacement can affect identity continuity, through interviewing two relatives who were forced to relocate, examining the levels of disruption which were experienced. I will explore the role that the concept nostalgia plays in reconstructing the identity of a displaced individual, expanding on how nostalgia can address the creation of identity continuity in the light of identity discontinuity.
The main aim of this dissertation is to explore the affects of displacement and identity on an individual in specific relation to place related attachments to the built environment. This will be presented through an accumulation of the theoretical framework accompanied with primary interviews to gain a full insight on the experience of two different individuals. It is crucial to examine the relationships between identity and place and the parameters of the ways these affect each other. The research process of this dissertation will be based on my literature review and an analysis of the preceding theories presented by theorists in the environmental and social fields.
I then conduct research on the historic background of the Kosovo, focusing on a brief statistical overview of the country. This will provide an insight into the ethnic and religion based divides within Kosovo, drawing on the background of how the conflict emerged. This will be conducted through the use of published books, reports, articles and photos. It is essential to present this brief overview of Kosovo to set the scene and tone for the rest of the dissertation, both statistically and visually. It is crucial that the reader is informed about the scale and magnitude of the conflict, in order to fully engage with the theories which will be presented.
I then define the multifaceted topic of architecture, and what it means in specific relation to a displaced individual. It is important to analyse and explore the meaning of this, as it may vary in different scales and sizes in relation to the experience of once being displaced. The dissertation will focus on a more sensitive, insightful and effective based research, presenting two differing and varying viewpoints to the discussion. The aim of this research is to explore a more practical approach between (place-related) identity
18 I Chapter 1 : Introduction
and displacement focusing on the ways displacement affects identity and place, and vice versa. Throughout the dissertation, it will become inevitable to the reader that these concepts are inextricably linked to the other.
In order to explore and identify the relationship between place and identity in the built environment, a theoretical analysis of the literature for the two theories place identity and place attachment is presented. I then move onto the research conducted on the historical background of the two theories place identity and place attachment, specifically focusing on the theoretical framework and displaying the impartial and personal readings on the theories presented by different theorists throughout the different fields of study overtime. This will be conducted through the use of published books, journals, articles and reports. The aim of this is to provide the reader with an overview of the two theories, in order to be able engage with the concepts, which will be key theories taken forward into the dissertation.
In order to support the theoretical approach to the topics of place and identity, there will be specific attention paid on the research methods applied, to explore, analyse and comprehend these two phenomenon’s. In particular the analysis of nostalgia in relation to identity will be displayed based on existing literature and scholarly related articles. Ultimately, this analysis will suggest that nostalgia can be used as a mechanism to create identity continuity in the light of identity discontinuity for the displaced individual. The literature on these topics offers an insight to the background to the concepts presented, which will be elaborated on during the interviews. The interviews will be conducted with my mother, Shahe Salihu, 52 and elder brother, Gramoz Salihu, 25, who were both displaced during the conflict in Kosovo in 1999. My mother was 33 years of age when she became displaced due to the war in Kosovo, whereas my elder brother was 6 years of age. Therefore this age difference will contribute to two varying and interesting perspectives of the war and the affects of being displaced.
The difference in age, experiences in life and familiarity with what was going on during the conflict will offer an interesting difference in perspectives.ÂŹÂŹ The interviews aim to offer a personal approach to the topics, which will examine, explore and analyse the two varying perspectives of the topics discussed. These contrasting perspectives will advice on comprehending and dividing the varying ingredients of the multifaceted topics of displacement, place, identity and nostalgia.
Chapter 1 : Introduction I 19 19
1.4
S T R U C T U R E
A N D
K E Y
L I T E R A T U R E
The theoretical framework I will embrace in this study is organised around the idea of social identity theories and how these will relate to the people of Kosovo. This attitude led me to look at;
The Architecture of Displacement; Examining the role of identity, displacement and nostalgia in establishing identity reconciliation? Additionally, how important is the built environment in this?
In the introductory section of chapter two, I will look at the demographic, ethnicity and religion-based divides within Kosovo, which contributed to the unrest during the war. I will provide a short history of Kosovo and the beginnings of the unrest which began in the early 1990s. In order to understand the amount of destruction and the extent of damage that Kosovo experienced, I briefly will map out the conflict that took place in Kosovo in 1999. Finally, I will examine the extent of the damage caused, not only in Kosovo, but to the residents in terms of the level of trauma and loss they have experienced. I will use maps, drawings, video stills and photographs for illustration.
The third and fourth chapter of this study will offer a theoretical approach to ‘displacement’ and ‘identity’, accompanied with the implications both can bring within the context of the Kosovo conflict. I will use the work of Melinda J. Milligan, 2003 and Jennifer Byrne, 2016 who draw on the idea of ‘identity continuity’ in the light of discontinuity, specifically to the certain attachment an individual can feel towards the built environment. This poses the debate of what the built environment can mean for a displaced individual and how this can vary for different individuals, depending on experiences and the level of attachment which is felt towards certain spaces. Alongside the fourth chapter I will discuss the house in relation to ‘’The poetics of space’’ (Gaston Bachelard, 1964) where he references how the house can contribute to achieving a sense of identity, through this multifaceted and complex space, which influences the way a human behaves.
The purpose of the fifth and sixth chapters are to crucially analyse how these individuals experience the new environments they are placed in. This will draw on the work of Marc Fried, 1966, in “Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy”, where he presents critical analysis of the implications relocation brings. In the context of Kosovo, I will develop this, and investigate the implications of post war relocation. The concept of nostalgia will arise in this chapter six,
20 I Chapter 1 : Introduction
where it will be examined in relation to how a displaced individual may use this as a coping mechanism.
“The people, Place and Space Reader� (2013), edited by Jen Jack Gieseking & William Mangold, offers an accumulation of theoretical approaches on identity, such as place identity, a construct originally described by Proshansky (1983), which will be used as a background framework to discuss my approach throughout this study.
To conclude, these five pieces of key text stated above are what will constitute the theoretical research of my dissertation. The theoretical research will be accompanied with interviews with former displaced individuals who are my relatives, to strengthen my research and reasoning through primary data.
The empirical narrative will be based on the theoretical framework presented in the literature review, backed with the interviews I will conduct with two displaced individuals to strengthen my research and reasoning through a sensitive and personal approach. Through the interviews, I aim to define what each of these individuals define as architecture and identity, through the different experiences as well as the level of attachments and loss they have encountered through their experience of being a displaced person. These definitions of identities formed by the individuals raise key questions of the theories about identity and attachment, such as Proshansky (1983) on place identity, Erikson (1963) on group identity and place attachment first developed by Altman and Low (1992). I aim to view these identities, in order to clarify why a displaced individual who experiences a loss of attachment to a certain environment or space, can console with the acknowledgment and reestablishment of their sense of identity within a new environment or space. This has to be identified, in order to generate a more effective debate through the dissertation towards how the individual will experience a new environment or space they are placed within.
21 Chapter 1 : Introduction I 21
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C H A P T E R 2 : I L L U S T R A T I V E N A R R A T I V E
23 Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 23
I L L U S T R A T I V E O F K O S O V O
N A R R A T I V E
26. M Y F A M I L I E S T I M E L I N E O F E V E N T S
32. F A C T S O N KOSOVO
28. D I S P L A C E M E N T
33. L O C A T I O N
I N
O F
34. I N F O R G R A P H I C S O N K O S O V O 35. D I S T R I C T S
K O S O V O
K O S O V O 30. P H O T O S O F D I S P L A C E M E N T I N K O S O V O
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KOS
36. K O S O V O
44. S T A T I S T I C A L
A F T E R
O V E R V I E W
O F
O N
D I S P L A C E D
R E F U G E E S
PE O P L E
T H E
W A R , 1 9 9 9
46. M O V E M E N T
38. R E F U G E E M O V E M E N T I N
A N D
I N 45. E T H N I C I T Y
1 9 9 9
O V E R V I E W
A R O U N D K O S O V O 40. N A T O I N
F O R C E S
A N D
A R O U N D K O S O V O 42. G L O B A L D I S P L A C E M E N T O V E R V I E W
OVO T H E
C A S E
O F
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Figure 10 - My families timeline of events
26 26 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 27
D I S P L A C E M E N T I N K O S O V O
28 28 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
S H A H E
S A L I H U
M O T H E R - 5 2
G R A M O Z ‘‘It was 20th June 1999, when we went to the tents in Macedonia, it was in-between Kosovo and Macedonia where I saw 14 people, who were killed in front of me. We didn’t have food, we slept on rocks and after three days some people came to help and brought food for the children.’’
‘‘It was a very hard time.’’
‘‘I didn’t have water to wash my kids, I needed to cut my kids hair, because they were not in a good condition, it was a lot of memories. I went to neighbours to get hot water.’’
E L D E R
S A L I H U
B R O T H E R - 2 5
“The journey to the refugee camp in the war where we were forced to leave the house, was done in almost single file, in tractor and trailer, with close relatives, a group of at least 2- people travelling together, I don’t remember the refugee camp situation very well and I don’t remember after we left these what it was like to live in private homes, coming to England I have a lot more memories of the buildings here.”
“We were safe, people tried to help, we had security and lots of people around. We didn’t have a nice life, but it was improving, everyday would improve, by bringing clothes and food for the kids.”
“It was a tragedy.”
“It was difficult, very difficult.”
“The camps were not very clean, they were very busy environments, me my brother and sister all had our heads shaved to avoid lice.”
“People had a bad life. They don’t know what is coming in the future, what to do tomorrow the next day. Stuck in the today.”
Figure 11- Shahe Salihu, my mother Figure 12- Gramoz Salihu, my elder brother
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 29
Figure 13 - Drawing by a child inmate of Stankovic Refugee camp Figure 14 - Kosovo- Albania border, March 1999 Figure 15 - Kosovo- Albania border, March 1999 30 30 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
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F A C T S
A B O U T
K O S O V O
A R E A : 10,887 sq km L A N D : 52% Agricultural C A P I T A L : Prishtina D E M O N Y M : Kosovar - Kosovan C U R R E N C Y : Euro (â‚Ź) L A N G U A G E : Albanian P O P U L A T I O N : 1,895,250 (July 2017) L I T E R A C Y M A I N L I F E
R A T E : 97.6%
R E L I G I O N : Muslim 95.6%
E X P E C T A N C Y : 78.3 years
I N D E P E N D E N C E (Information retrieved from : Encyclopedia, 2018)
32 32 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
D A Y : 17th February
Figure 16 - Map of Kosovo in relation to a global and national scale Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 33
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Figure 17 - Kosovo infographics Figure 18 - Map of Kosovo Figure 19 - Peja city photograph Figure 20 - Gjilan city photograph Figure 21 - Prishtina city photograph Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 35
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Figure 22 - KFOR troops Figure 23 - KFOR troops Figure 24 - Destruction in Prishtina Figure 25 - Destruction in Prishtina Figure 26 - Peja after the war Figure 27 - Peja after the war
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R E F U G E E M O V E M E N T I N A N D A R O U N D K O S O V O Diagram conveys the movement of the displaced refugees in Kosovo in April 1999. Many moved to neighbouring countries due to refugee camps etc.116,000 refugees moved out of Kosovo to Macedonia
due
to
significant
amount of refugee camps they provided as the ongoing war continued in Kosovo. Me and my family moved to a refugee camp in Macedonia with several other family members from the village we resided in, Perlepnice, Gjilan. Figure 28- Refugee movement around the Balkans in April 1999
38 38 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 39
N A T O F O R C E S I N A N D A R O U N D K O S O V O The Kosovo war , also known as the Battle of Kosovo was an armed conflict in Kosovo which began in 1998 and ended in the summer of 1999. The war was fought by Serbian forces and the KLA (Kosovan Liberation
Army)
with
support
from the ANA (Albanian National Army) and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) forces in the later developments of the war. It is imporatnt to convey the amount of troops around Kosovo at the time of the conflict, in order to grasp how big the conflict was and the amount of people it affect, especially in terms of displacement. Figure 29- Map of ethnicity and K-FOR troops during the war
40 40 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 41
G L O B A L D I S P L A C E M E N T O V E R V I E W
These maps adjacent, convey the global IDPs in 1999 and returnee refugees in 1999 and 2000. One thing that was crucial to convey in particular was the difference in returnee refugees in 1999 and 2000. Many Kosovar-Albanian
refugees
returned
to
Kosovo in the later stages of 1999, back to their old homes and familiar environments. This significantly reduced in 2000, as many stayed to start their lives in Western Europe, such as my family.
Figure 30 - Internally displaced persons- IDPs1999 Figure 31 - Returned refugees 1999 Figure 32 - Returned refugees 2000 42 42 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 43
Figure 33 -Kosovar Albanian refugees in Europe, January 1999 Figure 34 - Refugees displaced by war Figure 35 - Population by major ethnic groups Figure 36 - Serbia and Kosovo refugee facts 2012 44 44 I Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo
Chapter 2 : Illustrative narrative of Kosovo I 45
Figure 37 - Displacement amongst children Figure 38 - View of Makeshift camp in April 1999
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C H A P T E R 3 : W H A T C O N S T I T U T E S A R C H I T E C T U R E F O R
T H E
D I S P L A C E D I N D I V I D U A L ?
Chapter 3 : What constitutes architecture for the displaced individual? I 47 47
This chapter aims to define what architecture is, how it is related to displacement and identity. It will elaborate on how the displaced individual views architecture differently to someone who has not been through the experience of being displaced.
3.1
D E F I N I N G A N D
A R C H I T E C T U R E
P L A C E
Architecture can be defined in many different ways and scales based on ideas, experiences and disciplines. There is not one sole definition as to what architecture is. Nonetheless this research will focus on examining what constitutes architecture between two displaced individuals in the case of Kosovo. It will revolve around thinking beyond the immediate connotations which emerge with the mention of the term ‘architecture’, such as a church or an iconic building in a city. I will take a step back from these connotations, and explore a different perspective formulated from personal interviews held with displaced refugees from the Kosovo war in 1999.
It is significant to grasp their personal perspectives in order to understand how displacement from what they perceive as ‘architecture’ has affected these individuals and perhaps the ways in which they respond to their new ‘architecture’ once they have been relocated post war. Inevitably, there will be a difference in the ways that individuals respond to their new environments due to the variations in extent and intensity of loss experienced and development of coping mechanisms, such as nostalgia through the war. It is critical to understand that these will vary and offer different insights into what architecture means for the displaced individual. There are wide variations in the success of post-relocation adjustment and considerable variability in the depth and quality of the loss experience (Wilson, 1966). In order to fully engage and comprehend how displacement affects an individual or group, it is essential to find out how they respond to their new environments and gain an understanding of how these compare and differ to their old environments and what they were familiar with.
3.2
A R C H I T E C T U R E T O
I N
R E L A T I O N
D I S P L A C E M E N T
A refugee is a person who has crossed an internationally recognized border because
Chapter 3 : What constitutes architecture for the displaced individual? I 49 48
of conflict or persecution (Ferris and Kirisci, 2016). When I refer to ‘displacement’, I refer to the experience of being removed from an environment which an individual is familiar with, and located to a new environment. Therefore, the consequence of displacement on individuals is relevant to architecture. It means walking on unfamiliar streets, sleeping in unfamiliar settlements, losing the memory of your childhood school or bedroom and so forth.
The relevance of architecture in regards to displacement, emerges from the environment. The environment is space, it can be buildings, the spaces in between buildings, the rooms inside buildings. These are inextricably linked. Space emerges out of history and everyday lived experience, which then becomes place. Place can be understood as fundamental in providing a locus of identity and sense of belonging among those who inhabit it (Hubbard and Kitchin 2011, cited in Baker, 2012).
“A city is more than a place in space. It is a drama in time.”- Patrick Geddes (Samuel, 2016)
Fundamentally, displacement transforms how people live within society and the built environment. Exclusive of the opportunities and freedom in movement which are presented to displaced refugees, arriving into a new built environment can be a daunting experience. The displaced individuals can find it difficult to build a sense of acceptance and security amongst these surroundings. The refugee crisis cultivates the increasing challenges of the main two pertinent issues in relation to the refugee crisis; the impacts of displacement and identity discontinuity. Conspicuously, the strains of displacement and identity discontinuity can have a substantial impact on the lives of the most exposed and liable within society. The mass burdens experienced, such as a disconnection to place attachment and feeling a sense of belonging to a place, which these two issues are interrelated to are becoming apparent in cities worldwide.
3.3
A R C H I T E C T U R E T O
I N
R E L A T I O N
I D E N T I T Y
Displacement has everything to do with the feelings and emotions associated with nostalgia for the familiar architecture, environment and spaces that the individual or groups have been removed from or have been lost. Place identity has been described as an individual’s self-identity, consisting of knowledge and feelings developed through the individual’s daily experience
49 I Chapter 3 : What constitutes architecture for the displaced individual? 50
of physical spaces (Proshansky, Fabian and Kaminof 1983, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). It can have an impact on the way the displaced individual experiences possible temporary and new architecture, environment and spaces. Therefore, the removal of an individual from these physical spaces can cause identity discontinuity in relation to place attachment. Environmental psychologists such as, Harold M. Proshansky, Abbe K. Fabian, and Robert Kaminof (1983) have conducted research on these impacts, including the implications on sense of place, attachment and so forth.
Place is related to individual, group and social identity (Gieseking et al., 2013). Therefore, displacement could lead to an interruption in either one of these three types of identity described that place correlates to.
In the case of Kosovo, displacement threatened the mutual social connections and relations that a group valuably hold within their communities and surroundings due to the post war relocation they were faced with. Alongside the destruction of homes, these built connections and relations simultaneously follow, often leaving the displaced individuals with a lack of what German-American developmental psychologist, Erik Erikson (1963) specifies as ‘group identity’ (Erikson 1963, cited in Wilson, 1966). This idea was initially developed by him and derives from the concept of an individual feeling a sense of inclusion and security within a group or a community. Places play a vital role in developing and maintaining self-identity and group identity of people (Ujang and Zakariya, 2015). In the case of Kosovo, the destruction of homes contributed to identity discontinuity, as the individuals feel a burden and loss of their ‘group identity’ due to the separation and estrangement from their groups and communities from a local region.
To conclude, it has been established that architecture is not just simply a monument or an iconic building, it has a deeper meaning and significance which varies for each individual. In addition, the differences between space and place have been revealed in relation to the built environment, aiding the establishment of how displacement is related to architecture, and the brief affects of this. The introduction of how identity is related to architecture introduces the theory of place identity, which will be further elaborated in the next chapter.
Chapter 3 : What constitutes architecture for the displaced individual? I 51 50
Figure 39 - Fleeing the war in 1999
51 52 I Chapter 3 : What constitutes architecture for the displaced individual?
C H A P T E R 4 : I D E N T I T Y A N D P L A C E
52 Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 53
This chapter aims to define what place and identity are, with the explanation of the two theories place identity and place attachment. It will elaborate on the different ways these have been interpreted over the years and different fields of study. The last part of this chapter will look at the home as a place, and a key element embedded into an individual’s identity.
4.1
P L A C E
Space is transformed into “place” when humans give it bounds and believe it has value (Tuan 1974, cited in Krueger and Flora, 2014). The concept of place is physical as well as psychological. The physical form, activity and meaning are mixed together to form the sense of place (Montgomery, 1998, cited in Ujang and Zakariya, 2015). Place is a construct that is not fixed, it is always changing depending on an individual’s experiences and opinions of how this is defined. It is a constant mechanism for the constitutional makeup of an individual’s identity (Tuan 1977, cited in Krueger and Flora, 2014).
De Certeau draws on reading the environment as one would a script: that is, like written speech. He elaborates on the debate that place is space, ‘like the word when it is spoken’. What he means by this is that, when city planners map out a city, they envisage places, points on the grid. These are locations, nodes, corners and roads. Destinations. The coffee shop on the corner of Fifth and Broadway in Manhattan is a place, as is London’s Caledonian Road. If you agree to meet your friends at their house, that house is a place, too (De Certeau 1984, cited in Vermeulen, 2015). Place then contains many elements, defined in various ways by the individual, who make them significant spaces.
Harvey (2000) explains the “heterogeneous spatio-temporalities” that he refers to as a result of moving from a place (or space) of origin to a new place (space) of settlement (Harvey 2000, cited in Sayre, 2009). In specific relation to the case of Kosovo, in the short term, it was the migration flow of the displaced individuals from one place of shelter to another during the ongoing conflict, and in the long term outlook of the conflict, the post war relocation into a permanent place these individuals settled into.
53 Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 55
C O M P O N E N T S
4.2
O F
P L A C E
I D E N T I T Y
The idea of identity represents the countless and infinite definitions which run alongside an individual, in juxtaposition with a social realm which is established upon the connections indicated by identity. Identity is formed and perpetuated by individuals and groups, however it is invariably developing during the whole of an individual’s life and therefore not a concrete conception, rather one which exists alongside the social realm. It is a flexible and adaptable conception based on circumstances, which in all present the opportunity for it to change based on experiences and the variety of identities which could likely be handed precedence over in a different space or built environment (Gieseking et al., 2013). In this dissertation, I will treat identity as a social construct.
Merje Kuus refers to the character of identity as the opposite of monolithic with many contested elements. Identity is modelled as fluid, volitional, and situational, which means that it can be influenced by different experiences and different identities may be given priority in different environments (Kuus 2007, cited in Byrne, 2016). Figure 40 - Diagram breaking down the components of place
54 I Chapter 4 : Identity and Place 56
Place and identity collaborate and participate alongside one another, as an individual will identify with their surrounding environment and where they live and how they will form this. Nevertheless, the individual is also formed through their surroundings and space, creating distinctive environmental autobiographies, the narratives we hold from the memories of the places that shaped us (Gieseking et al., 2013). There is a strong connection to examine between place and identity which will advance our comprehension of where identity has emerged from, in addition the role of place and the environment in social evolution.
Social design is very relevant to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid model. This model is relevant as we can relate it to the design within a community structure. Once basic physiological needs are met, we have a very interesting duality between needing love and belonging and our own sense of self-esteem. The built environment can help us to shape our identity and self-belonging, which is crucial when designing within this, with different needs and have different stages of needs in relevance to Maslow’s pyramid model. Relating back to Maslow’s pyramid model, it is only when we have that feeling of belonging and love that we can build our self-esteem and reach our full potential (self-actualisation). Within the built environment, this feeling of belonging and love can be reached through social design, for example, it could be through the use of the community buildings and public/ private spaces. This model is relevant to the rest of this study as it elaborates on how place (the built environment) is relevant to the identity of an individual. This model explores how they are linked through what an individual feels. Figure 41 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, directly linked to identity
Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 55 57
Figure 42 - Diagram illustrating what identity is, and its facets
56 58 I Chapter 4 : Identity and Place
4.3
P L A C E
I D E N T I T Y
Some authors suggest that sense of place encompasses the sub-concepts of place identity, place attachment, and place dependence (Jorgensen & Stedman 2001, cited in Scannell and Gifford, 2010). Feeling to an extent a certain sense of place identity, stems from the variety of ideas, such as the way the space operates and behaves in order to supply to an extent this sense of belonging, building upon the significance, providing the attachments to place and try to arbitrate the change of place identity. Place identity of an individual is capable of manipulating the individual’s experiences, mannerisms and approaches to another space.
Undoubtedly ,thinking about Kosovo will stimulate an abundance of feelings and emotions, inducing a variety of concepts of place for individuals or groups who were displaced during and after the conflict. The smell on the street, the weather, the local vernacular and the community around are all aspects which contribute to our understanding of who lives and even visits these places. What is it that contributes to the fluctuating sense of attachment to a certain place and less so in other places? It is inevitable that place and identity are connected to each other, supported by the theory of place identity (Proshansky, Fabian and Kaminof 1983, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). Place identity is an idea that is often referred to in the field of environmental psychology as a formation of identities in accordance to the different environments. The term was introduced by environmental and social psychologists Harold M. Proshansky, Abbe K. Fabian, and Robert Kaminoff, (1983) who argue that place identity is a sub-structure of a person’s self-identity, and consists of knowledge and feelings developed through everyday experiences of physical spaces (Proshansky, Fabian, Kaminoff 1983, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). In this dissertation I will be taking the use of place which is inextricably bound to architecture and the built environment, to relate back to identity.
The built environment often shapes identities through learned understandings based on locational socialisation, or “the meanings of locations, about what is expected to go on where and who is expected to be doing it” (Lofland 1973, cited in Milligan, 2003). These connections between place and identity can have an impact on social, cultural and political frameworks within a country. Katharyne Mitchell, American geographer in writing crossing the "Neoliberal Line: Pacific Rim Migration and the Metropolis" (2004), suggests that in order for groups of
Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 57 59
emigrants to establish roots in their new homes, through the planting of particular tree species or architectural ornamentation (Mitchell 2004, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). There is an abundance of ways to interpret place and identity through the reading and research conducted by other professionals in the field, however, what is most significant is how these connect to one another, and the variety in ways that individuals have developed their comprehension of these. Fundamentally, it has been discussed in work of environmental psychology that there are two main ways that place is related to identity, these being place identifications and place identity (Twigger-Ross and Uzzell, 1996). In the context of place identification and Kosovo, it is when a person from Kosovo will categorise themselves as a Kosovar-Albanian. It articulates the makeup of that particular social category, described through their location (Twigger-Ross and Uzzell, 1996). On the other hand, place identity offers a different way in which place and identity are related, a construct originally described by Proshansky (1978). He suggests that place identity is another aspect of identity comparable to social identity that describes the person’s socialisation with the physical world (Proshanshky 1983, cited in Twigger-Ross and Uzzell, 1996).
4.4
P L A C E
A T T A C H M E N T
Place attachment is associated with a sentimental fondness that an individual will formulate with their surroundings (Hidalgo and Hernandez, 2001). The notion of ‘place attachment’ was first developed in environmental psychology by Altman and Low 1992 (Teixeira, 2014) .This attachment to a certain place is a very crucial factor which will contribute towards the emotional makeup of an individual, their identity, ultimately shaped through their personal experiences in life (Jorgenson & Stedman, 2001 , cited in Raymond et al., 2010). Place attachments have bearing on such diverse issues as rootedness and belonging, place making and displacement, mobility and migration (Manzo and Devine-Wright, 2014). It is stronger for settings that evoke personal memories, and this type of place attachment is thought to contribute to a stable sense of self ( Twigger-Ross and Uzzell 1996, cited in Scannell and Gifford, 2010).
Throughout this dissertation, I will be defining place attachment as a sentimental feeling or connection an individual has to a certain space which is given a significance through social communication. Place attachment is linked to place identity due to the experiences
58 I Chapter 4 : Identity and Place 60
that an individual encounters within the built environment. The level of place attachment felt by an individual has magnifying variations (Anton and Lawrence, 2014). The best method in examining the level of place attachment an individual feels to a certain place is through analysing the anticipated spaces to be relocated into, whether it be by force or voluntarily.
As a former displaced individual, I have a strong interest in the way a individual feel towards a certain place. In the light of the conflict in Kosovo, it is inevitable that the fondness an individual feels towards a place can become unstable and strained. However, this fondness faces an alarming risk caused by the notion displacement. There is an increasing importance in raising the awareness of place attachment in the light of the exploration of the two notions of displacement and identity. The exploration of place attachment as a sentimental feeling an individual has to a place has increased our awareness of the affects of loss and trauma experienced by those who are involuntarily forced to relocate (Scannell and Gifford, 2010). Place attachment has thus been applied to disaster psychology (Brown and Perkins 1992, cited in Scannell and Gifford, 2010).
Melinda Milligan advocates that place attachment consists of two interwoven components: an individual’s memories of a place and an individual’s expectations for future experiences in relation to that place (Milligan, 2003). However, displacement comes into play through the experience when an individual is removed from this certain place. Milligan describes displacement to more generally occur when a site is no longer available for expected uses because of destruction, modification, or access limitations (Milligan, 2003). In the case of Kosovo, displacement emerged through the destruction of homes and the built environment which became no longer habitable due to the level of damage caused, therefore the protracted refugee crisis became arose.
On the other hand, Scannell and Gifford (2010) propose a framework for place attachment which consists of three dimensions, otherwise known as the three P’s: 1.
The person dimension: Who is attached? To what extent is the attachment based on individually and collectively held meanings?
2.
Psychological process: How are affect, cognition, and behaviour manifested in the attachment?
3.
The place dimension: What is the attachment to? What is the nature of this place? (Kaymaz, 2013)
Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 59 61
Anthropology seeks to understand the cultural significance of places in everyday life (Gupta and Ferguson 1997, cited in Teixeira, 2014). Psychological theories of human and environment connections are developed from the emergence of the phrase place identity, a multifaceted idea. Social psychologist Irwin Altman (1992) and anthropologist Setha Low (1992) describe the idea of place attachment, suggesting ways how individuals are bound to certain spaces and how these bounds have an impact on the evolution of an individual’s identity, behaviour, ideas and usual habits or routines (Altman and Low 1992, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). The concepts of place identity and place attachment enable us to comprehend why and where individuals feel a sense of belonging. In addition, enabling us to discover why displacement, whether it be short term or long term can be a an experience which is highly harrowing for individuals and larger groups of people.
T H R E E
P’S
F R A M E W O R K
F O R
Figure 43 - Scannell and Gifford’s (2010) three P’s framework for place attachment
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P L A C E
A T T A C H M E N T
4.5
T H E
M U L T I F A C E T E D
D Y N A M I C
T H E H O M E I N R E L A T I O N T O
O F
I D E N T I T Y
Comparable to the general term of ‘architecture’, the home, both a place and an idea, is complex and multifaceted. It resonates as a spatial metaphor in everyday conversations—“home is where the heart is” or “there’s no place like home”—and is the subject of scholarly debate across many disciplines (Gieseking et al., 2013). For a long time, an interest with the dwelling and the home as a phenomenon has prevailed. Some argue that the home is a crucial dynamic for the day to day life within a family household as it contains an archive of memories and artefacts ranging from an extended history of families or that it relates to an individual’s identity. As Gaston Bachelard describes in the poetics of space, in short, in the most interminable of dialectics, the sheltered being gives perceptible limits to his shelter. He experiences the house in its reality and in its virtuality, by means of thought and dreams. It is no longer in its positive aspects that the house is really “lived,” nor is it only in the passing hour that we recognize its benefits. An entire past comes to dwell in a new house (Bachelard, 1964).
Nonetheless, it is experienced by individuals in an abundance of ways, functioning in different and coinciding ways which signify a place where and how an individual can feel a sense of attachment and acceptance. Simultaneously, the concern of migration from displaced individuals emerges from the protracted refugee crisis which can be more prominently seen in countries involved in conflict today, such as Syria. This concern augments our comprehension of the affects that displacement, post war relocation and fundamentally the change in the ways of feeling a sense of attachment can have (Gieseking et al., 2013). I will examine the home as a dynamic, how it is experienced by certain individuals as a place with differing and contrasting significance to the individuals life. This section aims to convey that whilst the home as a place acquires an acute importance where life is lived through in shelter and comfort, this variation in importance stems from experiences held within this boundary of the home that exists.
Martin Heidegger, German philosopher, investigates the word ‘dwelling’ in relation to the home in his writing ‘Building Dwelling Thinking’. He argues that people, through both language and action, regularly conflate building and dwelling. He gives an example through the word bauen:
Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 61 63
The Old English and High German word for building, buan, means to dwell. This signifies: to remain, to stay in a place. ‌ Where the word bauen still speaks in its original sense it also says how far the nature of dwelling reaches. That is, bauen, buan, bhu, beo are our word binin the versions: ich bin, I am, du bist, you are, the imperative form bis, be. What then does ich bin mean? The old word bauen, to which the bin belongs, answers: ich bin, du bist mean: I dwell, you dwell. The way in which you are and I am, the manner in which we humans are on the earth, is buan, dwelling. To be a human being means to be on the earth as a mortal. It means to dwell (Heidegger 1971, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013).
Through this example, he suggests that the environment which we occupy presents the opportunity of a home, by the way we choose to dwell within these. This will prove to be a central theme within this section of the home as a dynamic concept as well as the examination of new environments as a whole, as it will explore the various ways in which the displaced individual react and adapt to these new environments that the displaced individual will dwell in, during the transition of being a refugee in a temporary settlement to a permanent move during post war relocation. It will examine the opportunities offered during post war relocation and the possibility of a home, just depending if the displaced individual is willing to engage with the concept Heidegger has suggested and everything that correlates to it. Fundamentally, I will relate the home back to identity, as it is a significant contribution to the way a displaced or formally displaced individual describes the term identity.
Home is interpreted differently between individuals, and displaced individuals. It can be carried through into the new environments, therefore the identity discontinuity gap can be bridged due to the idea of the home as identity being carried forward into these. J. Macgregor Wise (2000) communicates this concept thoroughly. He draws on the work conducted by Gilles Deleuze and FeĚ lix Guattari, questioning the definition of the term home which we use, and suggests that we can use it in a much looser and less regulated way (Wise 2000, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). He advocates that the home can be comprehended as a territory, which we can take with us, defined by something as simple as a song that makes someone feel safe in the dark (Wise 2000, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013).
The home, whilst intensely potent to everyday life and the cultural behaviours it holds, it is
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also something that can be transferred into new environments, due to the constant adapting and changeable behaviours we adopt overtime within the home. These behaviours are concepts we take forward with us, always open to interpretation and flexibility of adapting into our new environments (Wise 2000, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). The home and identity can be continued through into the new environments that the displaced are located to, whether it be temporary or permanent settlement, so long as the individual is willing to engage with this concept as a whole. The readings taken from theorist, Wise, accompanied by the philosopher Heidegger propose an intriguing relationship of the home before and after displacement. Suggestions are made that the home is a place to dwell and that this can also be transferred through into new environments, essentially meaning that identity continuity can be recovered and regained through the establishment of a sense of belonging, acceptance and attachment (Wise 2000, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013).
The loss of the house as a repository of memory, accompanied as a place of comfort and a sense of belonging, cultivates the significance of the built environment and fundamentally architecture in general. In addition, this loss raises the alarm for notion of spatial understandings as a basic underlining human demeanour and attitude. Architect, Samuel Mockbee, perfectly captures the notion of the concept of the house as a basic principal contributing to the human spatial identity, “everybody wants the same thing, rich or poor... not only a warm, dry room, but a shelter for the soul.� (Sinclair, 2006).
It could be argued that a sense of identity within a place, be it a house or the built environment is constitutional to the human demeanour and attitude. For example, the house, quite obviously, is a privileged entity for a phenomenological study of the intimate values of the inside space, provided, of course, that we take it in both its unity and its complexity, and endeavour to integrate all the special values in one fundamental value (Bachelard, 1964). The house is comprised of recollection, symbolism, the spatial foundation of life and the factors of ideals and desires. Erik Erikson concludes that the house represents a phenomenal or ideational integration of important experiences concerning environmental arrangements and contacts in relation to the individual’s conception of his own body in space (Erikson 1963, cited in Wilson, 1966)
To conclude, it has been established that place and identity are inextricably linked to one another. Furthermore, the differences between space and place have been discussed brief-
Chapter 4 : Identity and Place I 63 65
The analysis of place identity and place attachment has been important to understand the background and development of the theories. The introduction of how the home is related to identity and place through the literature has been explored and discussed. An essential piece of literature discussed throughout the work of Bachelard (1964) in ‘’The Poetics of Space’’. This is important to the empirical findings which will be discussed later on in the study. C O N N E C T I O N A N D I N T E R D E P E N D E N C I E S O F A L L T H E C O N C E P T S
This diagram conveys all the concepts I explore in the dissertation in order to understand if they are linked together through the discussion of the literature within the chapters I divide up. Figure 44 - Diagram illustrating how the chapters and key words are linked together
64 I Chapter 4 : Identity and Place 66
C H A P T E R 5 : L O S S A N D D I S P L A C E M E N T
Chapter 5 : Loss and Displacement I 65 67
This chapter aims to identity how displacement can affect identity and disrupt it, in specific relation to the displaced refugee in the Kosovo conflict. I will investigate how displacement can impact on identity continuity by closely examining the ways in which the Kosovar-Albanian displaced refugees encountered an detachment to this when moving to a place of safety which was an unfamiliar environment to them.
5.1
L O S S
A N D
D I S P L A C E M E N T
It is inevitable that forced dislocation from a home or zone of comfort is an experience which is immensely unpleasant and unsettling. In the instance of Kosovo and the refugee crisis, this is inherent within the powerful devotion to place attachment in relation to the houses the displaced people once lived in.
I will tell the intimate story of two individuals caught up in this crisis in order to gain an in-depth insight into some of the processes that may play a role in identity continuity after displacement. An interesting aspect of this study is how momentary the responses to the crisis would be and whether they will transition into post war relocation, affecting the way that new places and spaces are experienced by these two individuals. Undoubtedly, it will be difficult to brush off discouraging views of post war relocation, due to the uncertainty and unapparent danger. Therefore, a vast number of different experiences exist in this case. This can be down to how people react when adapting to new surroundings and even in the abundant variations of the loss of life and space that people will encounter during the war, toppled with the trauma that is associated with war.
Loss of place and life can convey a series of unwanted disturbances to a displaced persons past, present and future. Losses generally bring about fragmentation of routines, of relationships, and of expectations, and frequently imply an alteration in the world of physically available objects and spatially oriented action (Wilson, 1966). Generally, it is this disturbance in stability and structure of a person’s life, which can be a determining factor of how they will react when living within a new place due to post war relocation. I believe, the loss of a significant place, space, life or memory once held by or within these displaced people can present an essential factor to how they experience new places in the built environment.
66 Chapter 5 : Loss and Displacement I 69
Orozco (2000) reflects on displaced children, drawing on them needing to adjust to their new society by making sense of the changes they experience (Orozco 2000 cited in, Beauregard et al., 2017). This can be applied to any individual who is displaced, no matter on age, gender or ethnicity. Displacement is an instance where the identity process is fomented and heightened in specific relation to being displaced in a new, unfamiliar built environment. In the case of Kosovo and my mother and elder brother, it was the transition from Kosovo to England in June 1999.
5.2
T H E
T R A N S F E R
O F
I D E N T I T Y
I will explore how disruptions in identity are formed, and in some cases completely impaired due to the affects that displacement has on an individual. It can be disputed that places should not be the only factor which contributes to how a displaced person identifies themselves within an environment. I will attempt to understand what the loss of place means to a displaced individual. It will be significant to find out the importance of Kosovo to these individuals habitants. In essence I aim to understand how place is linked to identity, and whether loss will affect the identity of an individual and how they will perceive new environments that surround them.
The examination of the effects of displacement in relation to the Kosovo conflict will be conducted through interviews with my immediate relatives. These will enable me to create a very sensitive and personal response to the main research question, the Architecture of Displacement; Examining how displacement and identity continuity were impacted for a displaced individual, in the case of the Kosovo conflict. In order to fully comprehend the impacts that displacement has and the importance of loss of place and life, it is crucial that I gather an understanding of the psychological impacts that my mother and elder brother as a displaced individuals once faced, through asking a series of relevant questions.
67 I Chapter 5 : Loss and Displacement 70
Figure 45 - A memorial to victims in Meja
68 Chapter 5 : Loss and Displacement I 71
Figure 45 - A burial of ethnic Albanians
69 72 I Chapter 5 : Loss and Displacement
C H A P T E R 6 : T H E R O L E N O S T A L G I A P L A Y S
Chapter 6 : The role Nostalgia plays I 70 73
The aim of this chapter is to analyse the role that nostalgia plays for the displaced individual and how identity reconciliation can be formed as a process through the use of nostalgia in the light of identity discontinuity.
6.1 I D E N T I T Y C O N T I N U I T Y A N D D I S P L A C E M E N T To be rooted is perhaps the most important and least recognized need of the human soul (Weil 1987, cited in Kibreab, 1999). The intriguing matter to elaborate on here is how does the phenomenon of nostalgia manages to manifest itself into the exploration of regaining identity? In the case of identity continuity and discontinuity, nostalgia predominantly presents itself in the light of identity continuity. Davis introduces the debate in relation to identity and nostalgia, elaborating that identity discontinuity results in the emotion of nostalgia, “that the sources of nostalgic sentiment are to be found in felt threats to continuity of identity.” (Davis 1979, cited in Milligan, 2003).
The specific focus I have undertaken and thoroughly discussed throughout this dissertation is that of place identity and place attachment, in specific to the built environment and the relationship to identity. Displacement leads to identity discontinuity, which results in nostalgia for the lost site that is being discussed. Since nostalgia indicates identity discontinuity, it also indicates loss, which supports the contention that the involuntary disruption of place attachment (displacement) is a loss experience (Milligan, 2003).
6.2
D I S P L A C E M E N T
A N D
N O S T A L G I A
Displacement is a social phenomenon that disrupts people’s lives and identities. (Robinson 1990, cited in Powell 2015). I will predominantly concentrate on the notion of displacement and the experience of an individual being displaced, rather than phrases such as a refugee or a fugitive. The term ‘place’ is conveniently captured within the word dis-place-ment, which is embedded within my dissertation and will contribute to the way I will approach the notion of displacement and the relation it has to place attachment and place idenitty for an individual. Both of the terms are inextricably connected to one another, which offers a framework for the elaboration of the term “nostalgia.”
71 Chapter 6 : The role Nostalgia plays I 75
Nostalgia is from the Greek nostos, to return home, and algai, a painful condition; thus, a painful yearning to return home (David, 1977). It presents itself as a unique method of pertaining ourselves to our past, present and future. Similar to the way an individual reminisces on the past, dwells or daydreams, nostalgia is implemented in ourselves. It correlates with who we are, and what constitutes an individual’s identity. In short, nostalgia is one of the means, or, better yet, a readily accessible psychological lens-at our disposal for the never ending work of constructing, maintaining and reconstructing our identities (David, 1977).
Nostalgia is predominantly used to commemorate a time in an our life, however it also contributes to the expansion of our own identity, through cultivating a comprehensive sense of ourselves. Nostalgia is not just related to feeling a sadness or mourn. The sentimental formation of nostalgia is an accumulation of an pensive mood and a sense of attachment to a certain time in an individual’s life (McHale-Maughan, 2014). It is a profound and acute fondness an individual feels for their past. It can be deemed as a way of grasping onto an individual’s self. In the case of Kosovo, it is the loss of people, possessions in the home and the house itself, in essence the makeup of an individual’s identity, it can be related to neither a pleasant nor a particularly unpleasant emotion, nostalgia is nonetheless arresting and certain retains a magnetic attraction (McHale-Maughan, 2014).
Individuals use nostalgia as a coping mechanism to paint the lost site in a more positive light than it actually was. The use of nostalgia in this way will be explored and examined in the case of Kosovo through the two interviews conducted with my mother and elder brother.
72 I Chapter 6 : The role Nostalgia plays 76
Diagram exploring the identity continuation process and how this affect the individual in question. It is a process which is never fixed, it is always changing, depending on the facets which were examined in figure 42. This diagram draws on the role that nostalgia plays when the individual is faced with a disruption in identity. Figure 47 - Diagram illustrating what the identity continuity process is
73 Chapter 6 : The role Nostalgia plays I 77
Figure 48 to 52 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999
74
N I C K
S T . O E G G E R
He reflects on his visit to the Konik camp on the outskirts of Podgorica, Montenegro in 2012
“I am always taken by the way people are able to adapt to their situations, to make a home in a place that is not their own, to preserve some sense of normalcy in their lives. Walking around this area of the camp I saw people generally going about life as everyone else does.�
75 Chapter 6 : The role Nostalgia plays I 79
Q W I T H D I S P L A C E D I N D I V I D U A L S
A 76 I Chapter 7 : Empirical Narrative 80
&
C H A P T E R 7 : E M P I R I C A L N A R R A T I V E
77 Chapter 7 : Empirical Narrative I 81
This chapter will aim to highlight the key findings from the two interviews conducted with my two relatives. It will draw on the three concepts of identity, displacement and nostalgia and how these manifest into the theoretical framework and literature which has been described through the study.
7.1
I D E N T I T Y
Traces of identity are apparent when asking the question of how important Kosovo is a place for the person they are. My mother replied with ‘’Of course it is, we have a nice tradition and a beautiful country and home, but war happens, it happens everywhere.’’ My brother replied with ‘’ Yes, I feel comfortable when I go there, it’s like my own home.’’
When asked about how they felt when they had heard about the house being destructed by the war, my mother replied ‘’ very bad, we didn’t know how or what to think at the time.’’ My brother replied ‘’ It’s a shame that everything your family owns is lost, all the memories, are just wiped away, all the photographs are gone. But they were rebuilt in time and new memories have been made.’’ The objects that make the house a home, and in essence contribute to the identity of the two individuals in question, have been destroyed, and a disruption in identity has been caused, however the new memories made allow for the process of identity reconciliation to occur. This draws on the work of J. Macgregor Wise (2000) who advocates that the home can be comprehended as a territory, which we can take with us (Wise 2000, cited in Gieseking et al., 2013). This concept directly relates to how identity can be transferred forward, if the individual is willing to engage with this concept. It is a continuing process, something which is not fixed, it can be carried forward into new built environments.
7.2
D I S P L A C E M E N T
My mum recalls on her experience of being displaced and the time she spent in the refugee camps ‘’it was 20th June 1999, when we went to the tents in Macedonia. We didn’t have food, we slept on rocks and after three days some people came to help and brought food for the children.’’ She expresses her emotions through this period of time ‘’ I didn’t have water to wash my kids, I needed to cut my kids hair, because they were not in a good condition, it was a lot of memories. I went to neighbours to get hot water. It was a very hard time.’’ Despite the experience, she felt safe within this environment ‘’ we were safe, people tried to help,
78 Chapter 7 : Empirical Narrative I 83
we had security and lots of people around. We didn’t have a nice life, but it was improving, everyday would improve, by bringing clothes and food for the kids.’’ She draws on her experiences with other displaced individuals in the same camps, ‘’we talked with friends when we went to wash clothes with cold water, we didn’t have hot water. I remember seeing one English lady and she helped me, saying don’t worry somebody will help you, so I thought somebody would help us.’’
However, my brother was much younger and therefore remembers much less of his experience whilst he was displaced. However this is also interesting, as he picks out key moments which he does remember. ‘’The journey to the refugee camp in the war where we were forced to leave the house, was done in almost single file, in tractor and trailer, with close relatives, a group of at least two people travelling together, I don’t remember the refugee camp situation very well and I don’t remember after we left these what it was like to live in private homes, coming to England I have a lot more memories of the buildings here. I remember, they were not very clean, but very busy environments, me, my brother and sister all had our heads shaved to avoid lice.
7.3
N O S T A L G I A
The concept of nostalgia can be traced in the interview with my mother who draws on the home in Kosovo before the war ‘’we had everything there, we had a good life there
and our identity, it was there. I always remember my home in very good terms.’’
Even though she is now located in a better and safer environment with a much stronger financial situation in England than back in Kosovo, she still paints it in a positive mannerism.
Traces of the concept, nostalgia, can also be found in the interview with my elder brother, who draws on the architecture in Kosovo before the war ‘’I remember ‘a large garden with a house that you would consider to be in the country, with large trees planted in front of the house, and large garden areas, and a building outside of the house within a wall. It was very comfortable and peaceful. I do not remember any other architecture apart from my own house.’’ It can be argued that even though now he is living in England, where he is surrounded by some of the most iconic buildings globally, he still remembers the home as his main thought of architecture. Similarly to my mother, they both use the concept of nostalgia as a mechanism to remember the home in Kosovo, in a positive light although their current living situations are much more enhanced than they were back in Kosovo in 1999.
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The damage the war caused Kosovo was not only a visual impact on the built environment, it was the long term psychological damage it brought upon individuals in society. It completely transformed the way an individual lives and even adapts to the new environments they are surrounded by.
The exploration of the concept place attachment has been crucial and inextricable to this study. Ultimately, it is linked to identity, alongside this, follows identity continuity and discontinuity. The main conclusion from the study is that displacement can cause a disruption in place related identity of an individual, this is due to the removal of the individual from the place they are attached to. This concept of place attachment has been specifically examined through the case of Kosovo, during the refugee movement in 1999.
Developing an identity is connected to the process of exploring various alternatives that are provided by life and choosing the alternatives that are appropriate to one’s personal goals, beliefs, values and desires (Karaś and Cieciuch, 2018). Experiences shape our identity, therefore inevitably being displaced, and migrated to a new environment, the identity of an individual as a construct will differ due to the exposure of a differing environment that the individual is used to.
Identities are always changing, due to the different facets and ongoing experiences which contribute to ones constitutional makeup of their identity, additionally the way they choose to define who they are through these varying facets. Throughout this study, identity has been based on a spatial understand in relation to the built environment and the attachment individuals feel towards a place. Experiences that are felt by an individual are more than likely to establish place attachments. This is evident throughout the interviews with my mother and brother who perceive the home as their identity back in Kosovo in 1999, before moving to England. It has proven to be a stable source of identity for the two interviewed individuals. My mother recalls on the beautiful home, where as my brother draws on the large garden which surrounded the home making it a comfortable and peaceful environment. It is the experiences in this house that made it a home and therefore constitutional to their identity and experiences they had through this built environment. The displacement of these relatives during the war, caused a disruption in the differing levels of place attachment to the built environment they had developed overtime.
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The concept of nostalgia is introduced and experienced when an individual paints the lost place in a more positive light than it actually is. In the relation to identity and displacement, it is used as a mechanism to establish a sense of identity reconciliation. This was clearly used after the war in Kosovo, by the two interviewed individuals. My mother recalls how she ‘’always remembers home in very good terms’’, even though she is in a much more stable and secure home now in England. Nostalgia is such a strong concept, and is inevitably and inextricably linked to place related identity and displacement. Nostalgia inevitably has played a role for the (place-related) identity for my mother and elder brother, as suggested through the two interviews conducted.
My brother felt the concept of nostalgia for the positive experiences that he had once identified with the house in Kosovo in 1999, and for the particular features of the house and outdoor area that he once perceived in a negative light. He draws on the conclusion that the negative features of the house had contributed to the additional character to the house. This is a phenomenon often observed in instances of displacement, which is the case for this specific study (Colson 1971, cited in Milligan, 2003).
If the destruction of architecture could be a destruction of memory, then the construction of the countermonument suggests itself as a construction of countermemory. In the context of the countermonument, countermemory defines itself through its “perpetual irresolution”—an irresolution that is necessary to guarantee the “life of memory.” (Young 2002, cited in Herscher, 2014). The war in Kosovo, left society disconnected to the built environment and fundamentally to architecture- in essence to one of the many varying facets which can contribute to an individual’s identity. As discussed in the literature throughout the study and drawing on the work of J. Macgregor Wise (2000), I have concluded that identity can be carried forward, even with a disruption in this multifaceted idea. This is where the process of identity reconciliation will come into play and have impact in the light of identity discontinuity.
The built environment plays a significant role in the identity reconciliation process, specifically in the case of displacement. The built environment is space, it can be buildings, the spaces in between buildings, the rooms inside buildings. These are inextricably linked. This provides a foundation for the development of memories to be built on and archived. Space then becomes place when an individual inhabits it and then the sophisticated
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concepts of place identity and place attachment begin to develop. This is evident through the work of Hubbard and Kitchin (2011), who state place can then be understood as fundamental in providing a locus of identity and sense of belonging among those who inhabit it (Hubbard and Kitchin 2011, cited in Baker, 2012). The built environment offers the individual an opportunity to develop the concept of place attachment and a sensing a certain level of this. The displacement of an individual from an environment can cause a disruption in identity continuity and ultimately the identity reconciliation process. Overall, this suggests that displacement is significant for identity.
Throughout this study, I have identified the links between identity and place, through the social theories presented with the analysis of the preceding theories presented by theorists in the environmental and social fields, such as Proshansky (1983) on place identity, Erikson (1963) on group identity and place attachment first developed by Altman and Low (1992). I have also drawn on the meaning of ‘’architecture’’ in relation to identity and place, examining the relevance of the built environment to (place-related) identity and place attachment. Exploring the case of Kosovo has allowed me to develop a personal approach to the study from my own background. Additionally it is a perfect example of how the conflict which occurred in Kosovo in 1999 caused displacement throughout the country.
The term displacement and the experiences that are linked to this, such as loss and trauma individuals and groups will inevitably experience has been explored through the study. In conclusion, displacement triggers the significant challenges of the two pertinent issues discussed throughout this study, in specific relation to the refugee crisis in Kosovo; the impacts of displacement and identity discontinuity. The built environment plays a massive role in this due to the place attachments individuals sense through their experiences and memories, as evident through the conclusions taken from the two interviews conducted with my mother and brother. As explored throughout this dissertation, the built environment is inextricably linked to the concepts and ideas that follow from identity, displacement and nostalgia.
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Figure 53- Ariel of Prishtina Figure 54- Prishtina Figure 55- Newborn 85
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Milligan, M.J., 2003. Displacement and Identity Discontinuity: The Role of Nostalgia in Establishing New Identity Categories. Symb. Interact. 26, 381–403. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2003.26.3.381 Oegger, N.S., 2015. Konik Refugee Camp: Where is Home? Powell, K.M., 2015. Identity and power in narratives of displacement. Raymond, C.M., Brown, G., Weber, D., 2010. The measurement of place attachment: Personal, community, and environmental connections. J. Environ. Psychol. 30, 422–434. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.08.002 Samuel, K., 2016. The Urban Condition Is the Human Condition. Sayre, N., 2009. Space, Difference, Everyday Life: Reading Henri Lefebvre – Edited by Kanishka Goonewardena, Stefan Kipfer, Richard Milgrom and Christian Schmid. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 33, 1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00934_6.x Scannell, L., Gifford, R., 2010. Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework. J. Environ. Psychol. 30, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.006 Sinclair, C., 2006. Design like you give a damn: Architectural Reponses to Humanitarian Crises. Thames and Hudson, London. Teixeira, D., 2014. “Close Your Eyes and I’ll Kiss You”: The Role of Soundtracks in the Construction of Place (provisional version). https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1974.6569 The Lancet, 1999. Kosovo’s refugees: from crisis to catastrophe. The Lancet 353, 1199. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)00064-1 Twigger-Ross, C.L., Uzzell, D.L., 1996. PLACE AND IDENTITY PROCESSES. J. Environ. Psychol. 16, 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1996.0017 Ujang, N., Zakariya, K., 2015. The Notion of Place, Place Meaning and Identity in Urban Regeneration. AcE-Bs 2014 Seoul Asian Conf. Environ.-Behav. Stud.-Ang Univ. Seoul Korea 25-27 August 2014 170, 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.073 Vermeulen, T., 2015. Space is the Place - Rediscovering the late, great philosopher Henri Lefebvre, whose ideas are increasingly relevant to contemporary life. Weizman, E., Herscher, A., 2011. Conversation: Architecture, Violence, Evidence. Future Anterior J. Hist. Preserv. Hist. Theory Crit. 8, 111–123. https://doi.org/10.5749/futuante.8.1.0111 Wilson, J., 1966. Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy.
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Figure 1 - Front cover of map of Kosovo and displacement - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Mitrovica (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 2 - Refugee photos http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 3 - Refugee photos http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 4 - Refugee photos http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 5 - Refugee photos http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 6 - Refugee photos http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 7 - Refugee photos, conveying displacement movement in Kosovo in 1999 http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 8 - Theoretical Framework (created by me, conveying the concepts and how they will fit into the chapters I discuss in the study) Figure 9 - Polaroid collage on life in Kosovo before the war (created by me using photos taken from video stills and photographs sent by my family in Kosovo) Figure 10 - My families timeline of events (created by me using photos taken from video stills and photographs sent by my family in Kosovo) Figure 11 - Shahe Salihu, my mother (photo taken by myself in a cafe in Manchester) Figure 12 - Gramoz Salihu, my elder brother ( photo take by myself on his graduation day) Figure 13 - Drawing by a child inmate of Stankovic Refugee camp, Macedonia in 1999 https:// www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/30082579 (accessed 11th April 2018) Figure 14 - Kosovo- Albania border, March 1999 http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 15 - Kosovo- Albania border, March 1999 http://noorimages.com/feature/albania-kosovo-1999/ (accessed 24th March 2018) Figure 16 - Map of Kosovo in relation to a global and national scale https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/District_of_Mitrovica (accessed 25th March 2018) Figure 17 - Kosovo infographic conveying key information and statistics - information obtained from the World Bank https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL (accessed 6th April 2018) Figure 18 - Map of Kosovo in relation to a global and national scale https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/District_of_Mitrovica (accessed 6th April 2018) Figure 19 - Peja city photograph https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Peja#/media/File:Peja_with_ Rugova.jpg (accessed 7th April 2018) Figure 20 - Gjilan city photograph http://www.kosovo-info.com/kosovo-cities/gjilan/ (accessed 7th April 2018) Figure 21 - Prishtina city photograph https://jetsettingfools.com/a-guide-to-visiting-prishtinakosovo/ (accessed 7th April 2018) Figure 22 - KFOR troops http://www.robertdeutsch.com/return-to-pristina/ (accessed 22nd March 2018)
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Figure 22 - KFOR troops http://www.robertdeutsch.com/return-to-pristina/ (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 23 - KFOR troops http://www.robertdeutsch.com/return-to-pristina/ (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 24 - Destruction in Prishtina http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-503205/UN-failedimprove-Kosovo-years-stepping-halt-ethnic-bloodshed.html (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 25 - Destruction in Prishtina https://www.rt.com/usa/362697-trump-serbia-fake-interview/ (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 26 - Peja after the war http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/peja.html (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 27 - Peja after the war http://www.robertdeutsch.com/return-to-pristina/ (accessed 22nd March 2018) Figure 28- Refugee movement around the Balkans in April 1999- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/ world/europe/319042.stm (accessed 2nd April 2018) Figure 29- Map of ethnicity and K-FOR troops during the war: Google earth 2018 (accessed 2nd April 2018) Figure 30 - Internally displaced persons- IDPs1999-http://popstats.unhcr.org/en/overview#_ga= 1.100577630.1552663993.1459526223 (accessed 29th March 2018) Figure 31 - Returned refugees 1999 http://popstats.unhcr.org/en/overview#_ga=1.100577630.1 552663993.1459526223 (accessed 29th March 2018) Figure 32 - Returned refugees 2000 http://popstats.unhcr.org/en/overview#_ga=1.100577630.1 552663993.1459526223 (accessed 29th March 2018) Figure 33 -Kosovar Albanian refugees in Europe, January 1999 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/kosovo/183552.stm (accessed 3rd April 2018) Figure 34 - Refugees displaced by war http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2013/03/daily-chart-2 (accessed 3rd April 2018) Figure 35 - Population by major ethnic groups- https://wikis.nyu.edu/display/cpeaa/ Kosovo+after+the+1998-1999+war (accessed 3rd April 2018) Figure 36 - Serbia and Kosovo refugee facts 2012- http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/jun/19/refugees-unhcr-statistics-data#data (accessed 3rd April 2018) Figure 37 - Displacement amongst children https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/09/04/437582231/an-image-of-a-child-can-change-the-way-we-see-the-world
(ac-
cessed 11th April 2018) Figure 38 - View of Makeshift camp in the region of Blace, April 1999 https://www.unmultimedia.org/photo/detail.jsp?id=315/31544&key=13198&query=legacy:y&so=0&sf=arrival_date (accessed 11th April 2018) Figure 39 - Fleeing the war in 1999 http://euromaidanpress.com/2017/07/25/kosovo-diary/ (accessed 11th April 2018) Figure 40 - Diagram breaking down the components of place - https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S1877042815000889 (accessed 25th March 2018) Figure 41 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, directly linked to identity - https://uxmag.com/articles/ social-design-strategy (accessed 24th March 2018)
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Figure 42 - Diagram illustrating what identity is, and some of the facets it has (created by myself) Figure 43 - Scannell and Gifford’s (2010) three P’s framework for place attachment - https:// www.researchgate.net/figure/Place-attachment-and-related-dimensions-Scannell-2009_ fig1_273311133 (accessed 25th March 2018) Figure 44 - Diagram illustrating how the chapters and key words are linked together (created by myself) Figure 45 - A memorial to victims in Meja, where 372 Albanian men and boys were executed by Serbian forces in 1999, the largest massacre of the war https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/ world/europe/kosovo-independence-anniversary.html (accessed 10th April 2018) Figure 46 - A burial of ethnic Albanians in Gjakova six years after their death. The bodies had been found in mass graves near Belgrade, the Serbian capital https://www.nytimes. com/2018/02/15/world/europe/kosovo-independence-anniversary.html (accessed 10th April 2018) Figure 47 - Diagram illustrating what the identity continuity process is in relation to identity reconciliation and nostalgia (created by myself) ¬ Figure 48 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999 http://stoeggerphotography.com/portfolio/2015/04/konik-refugee-camp-where-is-home/ (accessed 8th April 2018) Figure 49 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999 http://stoeggerphotography.com/portfolio/2015/04/konik-refugee-camp-where-is-home/ (accessed 8th April 2018) Figure 50 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999 http://stoeggerphotography.com/portfolio/2015/04/konik-refugee-camp-where-is-home/ (accessed 8th April 2018) Figure 51 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999 http://stoeggerphotography.com/portfolio/2015/04/konik-refugee-camp-where-is-home/ (accessed 8th April 2018) Figure 52 - Konik refugee camp, Montengro, 1999 http://stoeggerphotography.com/portfolio/2015/04/konik-refugee-camp-where-is-home/ (accessed 8th April 2018) Figure 53- Ariel of Prishtina http://www.kosovapress.com/en/news/european-integration-process-where-does-kosovo-stand-137877/ (accessed 10th April 2018) Figure 54- Prishtina, the capital city https://i.pinimg.com/originals/bc/70/b3/bc70b38cb28654ff1b25b738cfd1523a.jpg (accessed 10th April 2018) Figure 55- Newborn monument https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/346355027568427511/ (accessed 10th April 2018)
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