Theories of learning in early childhood

To design activities for the kids to learn effectively, it is important to know how learning occurs during childhood. In this section, we try to understand the process of learning in kids. This is done by studying the various popular and widely accepted theories of early childhood education.

1. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

The child has no preconceived notions about his/her surroundings, which is why learning can be imparted in a variety of ways. Gardner says that these differences “challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well.” Gardner argues that “a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means, the different ways of learning are :

Visual-Spatial – Thinking in terms of physical space. Some tools to enhance this are drawing, solving jigsaw puzzles, photographs, 3D modelling, videos, etc.

Bodily-kinesthetic - Using the body effectively, where there is a keen sense of body awareness. Learning can be imparted through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out and role-playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.

Fig. 6. Multiple Intelligences Representation Musical - Showing sensitivity to rhythm and sound. People who learn through this type love music, but are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically and tapping. Interpersonal - Understanding, interacting with others. These children learn through interaction. Intrapersonal - Understanding one’s own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. They’re the most independent of the learners. Linguistic - Using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Logical-Mathematical - Reasoning, calculating. These learners think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They can be taught through logic games, investigations and mysteries

2. Montessori’s Idea of conducive Learning

The Montessori Method, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori and put into use for the first time in 1907, is based on the idea of self-education. Rather than sitting still and absorbing lessons taught by a teacher, the child in the Montessori classroom educates himself with the teacher as his guide. In the Montessori classroom, students use handson materials and specially prepared classrooms to develop both intellect and character. In Montessori education theory, this type of self-actualization of students is called “normalization.” [16]

The 3-Hour Work Period: a minimum of one 3-hour work period per day, uninterrupted by required attendance at group activities of any kind is required for the Montessori method of education to produce the results for which it is famous.

The Human Tendencies: The practical application of the Montessori method is based on human tendencies— to explore, move, share with a group, to be independent and make decisions, create order, develop self-control, abstract ideas from experience, use the creative imagination, work hard, repeat, concentrate, and perfect one’s efforts

The Process of Learning : There are three stages of learning:

• (Stage 1) introduction to a concept by means of a lecture, lesson, something read in a book, etc. • (Stage 2) processing the information, developing an understanding of the concept through work, experimentation, creation. • (Stage 3) “knowing”, to possessing an understanding of, demonstrated by the ability to pass a test with confidence, to teach another, or to express with ease.

Introduction of concept

Experimentaion

Developing understanding

Assesment by demonstration

Teaching Method: There are no textbooks, and seldom will two or more children be studying the same thing at the same time. Children learn directly from the environment, and from other children—rather than from the teacher. The teacher is trained to teach one child at a time, with a few small groups and almost no lessons given to the whole class. She is facile in the basic lessons of math, language, the arts and sciences, and in guiding a child’s research and exploration, capitalizing on interests and excitement about a subject. The child is scientifically observed, observations recorded and studied by the teacher. Children learn from what they are studying individually, but also from the amazing variety of work that is going on around them during the day.

Assessment: There are no grades, or other forms of reward or punishment, subtle or overt. Assessment is by portfolio and the teacher’s observation and record keeping. The real test of whether or not the system is working lies in the accomplishment and behaviour of the children, their happiness, maturity, kindness, and love of learning, concentration, and work.

Requirements for Age 3-6: There are no academic requirements for this age, but children are exposed to amazing amounts of knowledge and often learn to read, write and calculate beyond what is often thought usual for a child of this age.

Learning Styles: All intelligence and styles of learning—musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, intuitive, natural, and the traditional linguistic and logical-mathematical—are nurtured and respected.

Character Education: Opportunities for the valorization of the personality is considered at least as important as academic education. Children are given the opportunity to take care of themselves, each other, and the environment—gardening, cooking, building, moving gracefully, speaking politely, doing social work in the community, etc.

The Results of learning in this way: In looking at the results one must be sure they are judging a class run by a fully trained teacher. Using Montessori without this training will not have the same results. When the environment meets all of the needs of children they become, without any manipulation by the adult, physically healthy, mentally and psychologically fulfilled, extremely well-educated, and brimming over with joy and kindness toward each other.

3. Learning through play

When children choose to play, they are not thinking “Now I am going to learn something from this activity.” Yet their play creates powerful learning opportunities across all areas of development. Development and learning are complex and holistic, and yet skills across all developmental domains can be encouraged through play, including motor, cognitive and social and emotional skills. Indeed, in playful experiences, children tap a breadth of skills at any one time. Often this occurs during ‘corner play’ or ‘centre time’ in the context of early learning or pre-primary programs. Corner play, when well planned, promotes child development and learning competencies more effectively than any other pre-primary activity. By choosing to play with the things they like to do, children actually develop skills in all areas of development: intellectual, social, emotional and physical. [17]

Fig. 7. Key characteristics of playful experiences

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For example, while children are playing, they can try out new social skills (e.g., sharing toys, agreeing on how to work together with materials), and they often take on some challenging cognitive tasks (such as figuring out how to make a building with smaller blocks when the larger ones are not available). Children are ‘hands-on’ learners. They acquire knowledge through playful interaction with objects and people. [18] They need a lot of practice with solid objects to understand abstract concepts. For example, by playing with geometric blocks they understand the concept that two squares can form a rectangle and two triangles can form a square. From dancing a pattern such as step forward, step back twirl, clap and repeat, they begin to understand the features of patterns that are the foundation for mathematics. Pretend or ‘symbolic’ play (such as playing house or market) is especially beneficial: in such play, children express their ideas, thoughts and feelings, learn how to control their emotions, interact with others, resolve conflicts and gain a sense of competence. [19] Play sets the foundation for the development of critical social and emotional knowledge and skills. Through play, children learn to forge connections with others, and to share, negotiate and resolve conflicts, as well as learn self-advocacy skills. Play also teaches children leadership as well as group skills. Furthermore, play is a natural tool that children can use to build their resilience and coping skills, as they learn to navigate relationships and deal with social challenges as well as conquer their fears, for example through re-enacting fantasy heroes. [19]

More generally, play satisfies a basic human need to express imagination, curiosity and creativity, which are key resources in a knowledge-driven world. They help us to cope, to find pleasure, and to use our imaginative and innovative powers. Indeed, the critical skills that children acquire through play in the preschool years form part of the fundamental building blocks of future complex “21st-century skills”.

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural learning theory

Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed a “socio-cultural learning theory” that emphasized the impact of social and cultural experiences on individual thinking and the development of mental processes. In Vygotsky’s theories of learning he also had the theory of zone proximal development.Each child has different zones of proximal development as they grow. In each zone of proximal development, they build on skills and grow by learning more skills in their proximal development range. They build on the skills by being guided by teachers and parents. According to the theory, even with teaching, it can’t alter a child’s development at any time. They must build off of where they are in their zone of proximal development. [20]

Vygotsky argued that since cognition occurs within a social context, our social experiences shape our ways of thinking about and interpreting the world. People such as parents, grandparents and teachers play the roles of what Vygotsky described as knowledgable and competent adults. Vygotsky advocated that teachers facilitate rather than direct student learning. [21] Teachers should provide a learning environment where students can explore and develop their learning without direct instruction. His approach calls for teachers to incorporate students’ needs and interests. It is important to do this because students’ levels of interest and abilities will vary and there needs to be differentiation.

Vygotsky states that by sharing meanings that are relevant to the children’s environment, adults promote cognitive development as well. Their teachings can influence thought processes and perspectives of students when they are in new and similar environments. Since Vygotsky promotes more facilitation in children’s learning, he suggests that knowledgeable people (and adults in particular), can also enhance knowledges through cooperative meaning-making with students in their learning. Vygotsky’s approach encourages guided participation and student exploration with support. Teachers can help students achieve their cognitive development levels through consistent and regular interactions of collaborative knowledge-making learning processes. [20]

Fig. 8. Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

3.6. Developmental milestones

In this section we try to understand and define the abilities of kids of age 2-4 years, in terms of cognition, language, physical & emotional.

Developmental milestones are a set of functional skills or age-specific tasks that most children can do at a certain age range. Holistic development sees the child in the round, as a whole person - physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. Learning about child development involves studying patterns of growth and development, from which guidelines for ‘normal’ development are construed. Developmental norms are sometimes called milestones - they define the recognised pattern of development that children are expected to follow. Each child develops in a unique way; however, using norms helps in understanding these general patterns of development while recognising the wide variation between individuals.

Psychoanalytic Child Development Theories

The psychoanalytic theories of child development tend to focus on things such as the unconscious and forming the ego. The two primary psychoanalytic theories of development are Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erik Erikson psychosocial theory of development.

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Child Development Theory

According to Freud, child development is described as a series of ‘psychosexual stages.’ Each stage involves satisfying a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behaviour. During each stage, the libido’s energy becomes centred on a particular area of the body. The stages of Freud’s child development theory are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages. During each stage, the pleasure-seeking energies of the id drive for satisfaction based on a particular erogenous zone. During the oral stage, for example, a child derives pleasure from activities that involve the mouth such as sucking or chewing. Conflicts associated with stage must be successfully resolved in order to develop a healthy adult personality. Failing to resolve these conflicts can result in fixation at a particular point in development.

2. Erik Erikson’s stages of development:

Erikson recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. Erikson said that humans develop throughout their lifespan, while Freud said that our personality is shaped by the age of five. Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages that humans encounter throughout their life. The stages are Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.

Image.18.Erikson’s Stages of development

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 Years): As children grow, they become more capable of doing things on their own. If children are supported in their bids at independence, they will learn to have confidence in their abilities. On the other hand, if children are too controlled or criticized, they will start to doubt their ability to take care of themselves. If the individual emerges from this stage with a greater sense of autonomy than shame or doubt, they will develop the virtue of will, the ability to make choices freely while also having self-control when appropriate.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 Years): Preschool age children start to take initiative in pursuing their own objectives. When they are successful, they develop a sense of competence in their ability to make and achieve goals. When those objectives meet resistance or become problematic in the social world, they will experience guilt. Too much guilt can lead to a lack of self-confidence. If the child emerges from this stage with more positive than negative experiences taking initiative, they will develop the virtue of purpose, the ability to determine what they want and go after it.

Behavioural analysis of child development

One of the largest impact of behavioural analysis of child development is its role in the field of education.It identifies how children learn through their interactions with environment. Early in the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviourism took hold in psychology. The behaviourist believed that learning and development were the results of associations, rewards, and punishments.

According to behaviourist John B. Watson, any behaviour can be learned. “Give me a dozen healthy infants…and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select…regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors,” he famously suggested in 1930.Other theorists including Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner also contributed significantly to behaviourism, driving this school of thought to become a dominating force in psychology for many years.

Image.19. Three major type of behavioural learnings

Two important behavioural processes that influence development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming an association between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response. After an association has been formed, the once neutral stimulus now produces the response all in its own. Operant conditioning involves learning as a result of reinforcement or punishment. The consequences of behaviour determine how likely it is for that behaviour to occur again in the future. When a behaviour is reinforced, or strengthened, then it is more likely that the behaviour will occur again in the future. When a behaviour is punished or weakened, then it is less likely to occur again in the future.

These theories emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement, or punishment lead to learning. However, a great deal of learning also occurs indirectly. For example, think of how a child watches his parents wave at one another and then imitates these actions himself. A tremendous amount of learning happens through this process of watching and imitating others. In psychology, this is known as observational learning. Observational learning describes the process of learning through watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed.

Cognitive Child Development Theories

The cognitive theories of child development focus on how a child’s thought processes change over the course of childhood. One of the best-known cognitive theories is Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development. He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world. According to his theory, children can be thought of as “little scientists” who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. Early thinking tended to assume that the way kids think is pretty similar to the way adults think, but Piaget helped change this. He concluded that the way that children think is fundamentally different from that of adults.

His cognitive theory quickly became one of the most influence on child development theories. His approach focuses on four distinct stages that kids go through as they progress from birth to adulthood. Concepts such as schemas, egocentrism, accommodation, and assimilation are central to Piaget’s theory. Each stage of development is marked by distinct changes in how children think about themselves, others and the world.

The four stages in Piaget’s theory are:

The Sensory imotor Stage, which takes place early in life between the ages of birth and two. During this time, a child learns about the world through their sensory perceptions and motor interactions. It is a time of astonishing cognitive change as children gain a great deal of knowledge about the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage, which occurs between the ages of 2 and 6, is also a time of rapid growth and development. At this stage, children still lack the ability to mentally manipulate information and struggle to see things from other people’s point of view. A great deal of language development takes place during this stage.

The Concrete Operational Stage, which takes place between age 7 and 11, involves the emergence of more logical thought. Kids are able to think rationally about concrete events, although they struggle with abstract concepts.

The Formal Operational Stage, which lasts from roughly age 12 and into adulthood, is marked by the emergence of hypothetical thought. Kids are able to reason about abstract concepts and make systematic plans about the future.

Image.20. Four stages of cognitive development

Social Learning Theories of Child Development

Social theories of child development tend to focus on the role that parents, caregivers, peers and other social influences impact development. Some focus on how early attachment influence development, while others are centred on how children learn by observing people around them. A few examples of these social theories of child development include attachment theory, social learning theory, and sociocultural theory.

Image.21. Kids acting similarly to what they watched, Bandura’s bobo doll experiement

Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as a social learning theory. According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviours from observing other people. Unlike behavioural theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction, and accomplishment could also lead to learning.

Bandura’s social learning theory combines elements of behavioural theories as well as cognitive theories while accounting for the powerful influence that social experiences have on how kids learn and grow. Bandura believed that behavioural processes alone could not account for how kids learn. How, he wondered, could we explain learning that occurred without any direct association or reinforcement?. He noted that observation and modelling play a major part in the learning process. In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that kids could learn aggression by watching the actions of an adult model. Observational learning can involve directly observing another person, but it can also take place by listening to someone else explain how to do something or even reading about it in a book.

Key Insights:

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4. The rate of development in kids are highly dependent on the environment they are in, and it is not easy for the parents and teachers to set up a good environment beacuse the efforts in gathering these information are not paid off in a way that can be easily percieved by them. This information is made available in the form of developmental milestone charts. There are many theories of development and each with several interpretations, studying these informed about the various methods used by experts to determine the developments, and streamline the expectations from the primary research. Considering a normal [22] (adhering to clinical standards) intake of nutrition and similar external conditions (tempearture, climate, socio-economic status) the physical development in kids remain similar. The cognitive development in kids of age 2-4 Yrs is categorised under three parts as ‘developed, developing & under-developed’, whereas for physical, social and language abilities. only the ‘developed’ are discussed. This is because the developing cognitive abilities may be challenging for the kids, overcoming which shall be highly rewarding making this a playful motivation. However, physical and social abilitites can be limiting, which can be praticed by reinforcement.

Cognitive milestone:

Developed • 4 to 5 pieces of a puzzle • Involve in Imagination, make-believe play and animism • Match/pair objects e.g. shoe & socks • Recognize and name basic shapes • The relationship between pictures, maps, or scale models and objects or space that represent • Sorting - based on colour, size and shapes (sticking to one characteristic at a time) • Patterning (ABAB) • Classifying - recognize which object doesn’t belong in a group (e.g. banana, chair, apple • Counting - up to 5 • Moral development (Kohlberg) – avoiding punishments and obtaining rewards • Initiation (Erikson) and exploration of the environment

Developing • Logical reasoning of cause and effect • Working memory, generic memory & episodic memory, recognition is better than recall. • Attention (3 to 8 minutes) & executive functioning • Counting (one to one correspondence) and the concept of number • Learns the names of basic colours • Change in egocentrism • Gender identity development (identifying to same-gender parent) • They develop an understanding of the system of actions through stories • Asking “why” questions and gaining pieces of information • The concept of time (sense of “before” and “after” was developed, the concept of

“yesterday”, “tomorrow”, “after a week”, “after 15 mins”, etc are not developed)

Under-developed • Rational & Abstract thinking (Piaget) • Future thinking (starts to develop)

Social milestone: • Interested in new experiences • Cooperates with other children • Plays “Mom” or “Dad” • Increasingly inventive in fantasy play • Dresses and undresses • Negotiates solutions to conflicts • More independent • Imagines that many unfamiliar images may be “monsters” • Views self as a whole person involving body, mind, and feelings • Often cannot distinguish between fantasy and reality

Language milestone: • Say their own name and age • Can speak 250 to 500 words vocabulary • Answers simple questions • Speak in sentences of five to six words, and speak in complete sentences by age 4

Speak clearly, although they may not be fully comprehensible until age 4 Tell stories

Physical milestone: Hand and Finger Skills • More easily handle small objects and turn a page in a book • Use age-appropriate scissors • Copy circles and squares • Draw a person with two to four body parts • Write some capital letters • Build a tower with four or more blocks • Dress and undress without help • Screw and unscrew jar lids • Turn rotating handles

Movement • Walk up and down stairs, alternating feet -- one foot per step • Kick, throw, and catch a ball • Climb well • Run more confidently and ride a tricycle • Hop and stand on one foot for up to five seconds • Walk forward and backwards easily • Bend over without falling • Help put on and remove clothes