CINEMATOGRAPHY 101: Ten Essential Lessons for the Noob Cinematographer
101 Series Volume 3
By Film School Online! www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
Copyright Š Film School Online!
Preface As NYU Film School's production supervisor for the past twenty years, I have observed common questions and misconceptions that film students have when they enter the program. This is true for many noob filmmakers outside the halls of NYU, as well; hence, this eBook. The "ten essential lessons," as I call them, focus on several key areas in cinematography that are a source of interest and potential concern for the newbie. Along with demystifying these issues, I hope to provide you with insight into the job and tools of the professional cinematographer. The material is a compilation of several lessons and articles from the Film School Online website. I hope that you find the information well worth the small investment. If you are a fundamentals level instructor, this eBook may be helpful in providing your students with an overview of the art and craft of cinematography. For tips, advice, and online courses in filmmaking, please visit FilmSchoolOnline.com. Thanks for checking out the material and best of luck in your creative endeavors. -Louis La Volpe
Table of Contents
1. The Cinematographer
2. Attributes of the Visual Image
3. The Cinematographer's Team
4. Understanding HD Video
5. HD Video vs. 35mm Film
6. Soft Lighting Techniques
7. Video Camera Basics
8. Understanding RAW Files
9. DSLR Cinematography
10. Technical Infringement
1 The Cinematographer Cinematography is how the visual elements of the movie are framed, lighted, and recorded on film or video. The cinematographer is the person charged with this responsibility. It is perhaps the most mysterious of the filmmaking crafts because of the technology and equipment involved. Film students either love it or hate it. Tech types love it, while non-tech types fear it with a passion! Even if you are in the latter group, once you understand the basics of cinematography, it becomes no more mysterious than, say, directing or screenwriting. Not only is it a powerful tool for screen storytelling, but fascinating, as well, because of the ongoing breakthroughs in digital technology. Job of the Cinematographer Most people associate cinematography with camerawork. While this is true, camerawork is only a small part of the cinematographer's job and, generally, he does not do it himself! The actual shooting is performed by a camera operator. In fact, the cinematographer rarely touches the camera except to check the operator's framing. With that said, let's take a look at the real job of the cinematographer, also know as the director of photography or "DP."
The cinematographer is hired to translate the director's visual interpretation of the script to the screen. He does this using a variety of creative and technical skills, as discussed below. He also plays a vital leadership role on the set by working closely with other department heads in maintaining quality and continuity. These department heads include the set designer, sound mixer, and special effects supervisor. Lighting the Image The foremost creative job of the cinematographer is lighting the image. Again, most newbies are surprised by this because they see the cinematographer's job in terms of operating the camera. Camerawork is generally straightforward, but lighting the image is a challenge. It sets the mood of the scene and supports the emotional tone of the actors.
This job is complicated by the fact that there are usually different ways to get a job done. Some approaches are more expensive than others, depending on the cinematographer's creative goals. Unfortunately, budgets and schedules are the bane of filmmaking, so the cinematographer must find an approach that strikes the right balance between creativity and economy. Equipment The actual lighting of the set involves two components: equipment and setup. Lighting equipment remained pretty much the same until the late 1990s. Tungsten lights were standard with the occasional use of high intensity HMI units for simulating daylight or lighting expansive areas. Color gels were used to adjust the light's hue for either creative purposes or color correction. The latter was particularly helpful at locations with fluorescent light fixtures, which generated an objectionable green tinge. As digital filmmaking became prevalent, lighting fixtures became smaller and "softer," spearheaded by an innovated company called Chimera. In a strange twist of fate, fluorescent and LED lighting became indispensable tools, rather than scourges. The most popular of these units are Kino Flo (fluorescent lights) and Litepanels (LED lights). In a later lesson, we will take a closer look at these contemporary forms of soft lighting.
Setup Setting up the lights involves placing the units around the set and adjusting their intensity (brightness) based on the mood and emotion of the scene. To use a simplistic example, a suspenseful scene may require a lower intensity with lots of shadows, while a daytime party may require the opposite. Of course, this depends on how the director visualizes it. While this sounds technically straightforward, it requires a great deal of artistry on the cinematographer's part since there are countless ways to manipulate light and shadow. Because of this, the cinematographer's job is often characterized as "painting with light." We will examine the techniques used to accomplish this in the next lesson.
In addition to supporting the mood of the scenes, the cinematographer must maintain some level of realism in terms of the location and the source of light that would normally be found at such a location. Unless, of course, the style of the film is surreal. Most lighting setups are variations on a setup known as three point lighting. While much can be written on this technique alone, it essentially boils down to the use of three lights: one light acts as the main source, one light is used to control the amount of shadows, and one light is used to separate the subject from the background. The size of a lighting setup can vary greatly, depending on whether you are lighting for close detail or broad movement by the actors. The latter, obviously, covers much larger areas. Capturing the Image After lighting the image, the cinematographer must then capture it on film or video. Prior to the digital revolution in the late 1990s, theatrical movies were shot exclusively on 35mm film. This was very costly. The alternative was 16mm film, which was primarily a teaching format. Unfortunately, 16mm was not taken seriously by the industry and such films rarely found distribution. Two of the lucky ones were Spike Lee's She's Gotta Have It (1986) and Robert Rodriguez's El Mariachi (1992). A 16mm film had to win a key festival award or attract a major Hollywood player for this to happen. Today, the playing field is much different. 35mm is no longer a prerequisite. Digital cameras are smaller, cheaper, and record higher quality than most cameras prior to the digital revolution. The cost of this equipment is so low that independent filmmakers can buy the equipment rather than rent it.
Keep in mind that we are talking about high definition (HD) video, which has reached resolution levels comparable with 35mm film. If you are unfamiliar with HD, the concept is easy to understand. Standard definition video (what you see on tube style TVs) is composed of 525 horizontal "scan" lines. This resulting image is acceptable, but nowhere near theatrical quality. High definition video has reached an amazing 4,000 lines of resolution. So high, in fact, that as of this writing there are no projectors or monitors on the market that can show the full 4,000 lines. HD televisions are only 1,180 lines. Pretty amazing--but there is more.
The latest development in independent filmmaking is DSLR cinematography. DSLRs are still cameras capable of shooting high quality video. They are reasonably priced, costing $1,000 - $2,000, but the image sensor and lens capability are comparable to professional camcorders costing $30,000 or more. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
2 Attributes of the Visual Image The visual image involves the interplay of several photographic variables. While these variables can provide wonderful aesthetic value, their primary function is to support or convey the underlying emotion of the scene. In other words, they are used to help tell the story. This is the primary goal of cinematic lighting and image processing. The variables are as follows: Brightness Photographic images can vary in overall brightness, which is used to support the underlying emotion of the scene. High-key lighting means an overall brighter picture, while low-key lighting means an overall darker picture. Mid-key lighting falls in the middle, yielding average brightness.
The dramatic content of the scene dictates its brightness. Generally, you will find that highkey lighting is favored for upbeat scenes, and low-key lighting is the choice for slow or taut dramatic action. Although high-key and low-key refer to a picture's overall brightness, parts of the frame can be illuminated differently to affect attention or composition. For example, parts of a low-key image can be brightened to facilitate perception, while parts of a high-key image can be darkened to create a more interesting composition. Contrast Contrast is the range of tones between pure white and pure black. Low contrast images have a wide range and appear soft to the eye, while high contrast images have a small range and appear stark.
Quality of Light The quality of light is its perceived hardness or softness. A hard quality has dark shadows with sharp edges, while a soft quality has lighter, diffused shadows.
Focus Focus is the overall sharpness of the image. It can range from very soft to very sharp. Soft focus is usually associated with romance or beauty. Depth of field is the amount of acceptable focus behind and in front of the subject. Short focal lenses tend to produce a wide depth of field, where everything on the set appears in focus ("deep focus"). Long focal lenses produce a shallow depth of field, where only the subject area is in focus.
Perspective Perspective is the breadth and depth of the image, which can be manipulated with the choice of lens. The foreground and background can appear closer together (compressed) or further apart (decompressed). The shots below were taken with different lenses, resulting variations in depth perspective:
Depth perspective can affect the perceived speed of movement. Specifically, movement can appear sluggish when depth is compressed and faster when depth is decompressed. Manipulating perspective depends on several technical factors, particularly the choice of lens. Color Color, also called hue, is manipulated through lighting, art direction, and laboratory procedure. Shooting in color adds a new set of aesthetic variables: Overall Hue - A scene can be tinted a certain color to convey scene variables like emotion, location, and time. Emotionally, cool colors are associated with aloofness and strife, while warm colors are associate with romance. Time of day is characterized by different hues: yellow for sunrise, red for sunset, and blue for night. Distant time periods can also be conveyed through the use of hues. For example, an amber tint can be used to mimic the look of an old photograph. Changing overall hue from sequence to sequence can help the audience perceive broader changes in scene variables. It also helps create a sense of variety. The Searchers and Sophie's Choice rely heavily on the use of overall hue. Saturation - Color saturation is how rich colors appear on screen. Highly saturated colors are vibrant, while desaturated colors are muted. Saturation can be used to convey the emotion or time frame of a scene. For example, a flashback can be indicated using desaturated colors. Emphasis - Certain colors have a tendency to draw the eye to them, depending on how they are arranged in the composition. A carefully chosen color, therefore, can be used to emphasize an element or area within the frame. Contrast- Contrasting colors within the frame can be used to convey character or compositional tension. An unusual use of this technique is found in Coppola's One from the Heart, where a character is tinted a single hue and the background is in full color, and vice versa.
Grain Grain is the tiny particles of dye crystals that make up a photographic image. It is usually invisible, however, under certain exposure or processing conditions it can be very noticeable. This results in gritty look that is often used for aesthetic purpose.
Look "Look" is the visual feel of the movie. It is often equated with its surface texture (i.e., grain, focus), but the meaning is much broader. Different looks are achieved by systematically manipulating any photographic element, including grain, focus, contrast, lighting, color, lens focal length, and depth of field. This can be obvious or very subtle. Look supports the underlying dynamics of the movie. For example, The French Connection makes use of grain and stark lighting to give the film a sense of gritty realism, almost like newsreel footage, while Rear Window uses high contrast and saturated colors to convey a sense of romance and intrigue. The look of the movie can be constant throughout or changed in relation to certain story variables. For example, it may be desirable to alternate between different looks to reflect shifting story variables like location or time period. Another approach would be to progressively change the look to convey character growth and development. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
3 The Cinematographer's Team As discussed above, the cinematographer is responsible for lighting and photographing each scene. The position is more commonly know as the director of photography or "DP," for short. As you read below, you might find these acronyms a bit humorous, even hard to remember. They are not here for shorthand, however, this is the actual language used on movie sets. The DP reports to the director, and accordingly, translating the director’s visual requirements to the screen. Some directors give the DP free reign in this process, while others maintain strict control. It depends on the director's style and his working relationship with the DP. The DP plays a vital role on the set. In addition to supervising his own crew of camera and lighting technicians, he works closely with all craft department heads to assure quality and continuity in the making of the movie. The DP is second in importance only to the director, and his approach can determine whether the production stays on schedule and within budget. Film crew structure evolved over many years with heavy input from different craft unions. Each position is clearly defined in terms of job duties and scope. Video crews developed much differently, responding to ongoing and sometimes rapid changes in technology and production needs. As a result, video location crews tend to be smaller and somewhat less structured (there are exceptions, of course, as with major sports and music events). Technicians on both sides of the fence have adapted to the recent explosion in digital technology and media convergence by learning how to work in all the major formats. Consequently, the lines between crew types are quickly disappearing as people move back and forth between film and digital video projects. Generally, you will find that the cinematographer's team is made up of: Camera Operator The camera operator, as the name indicates, oversees operation of the camera. He is responsible to the DP for maintaining focus, composition, and smooth camera movement. To accomplish the many tasks involved, he relies on one or more camera assistants, called ACs for short: 1st Assistant Camera Operator - The 1st AC maintains the camera's exposure and focus during each take. He is also responsible for setting-up/breaking-down the camera, loading it, and maintaining camera reports. The 1st AC reports to the camera operator. This
position is also known as the focus puller. 2nd Assistant Camera Operator - The 2nd AC is responsible for procuring raw film stock, maintaining the film stock inventory, loading magazines, slating scenes, and moving the camera to another setup. The 2nd AC reports to the 1st AC. This position is also known as the clapper or loader. Digital Imaging Technician The digital imaging technician, or DIT for short, is responsible for the camera's image processing and digital data workflow on video productions. The DIT works on equal footing with the camera operator and, likewise, reports directly to the DP. This is relatively new key position. Gaffer The gaffer is the head electrician on the set. He is responsible for setting up the lights in each shot, as stipulated by the DP. This includes choosing the appropriate light fixtures and routing electrical power as needed. His 1st assistant is called the best boy. Key Grip The key grip is responsible for setting-up heavy equipment on the set, including: lighting control (C stands, gobos, reflectors, butterflies, etc.), camera movement (dollies, booms cranes), scenery, backdrops, and scaffolding. The key grip reports to the DP and gaffer. Second Unit Cameraman On larger productions, a second unit is used to shoot scenes that don't involve principal actors. It is a time saving technique used when the budget permits. The second unit cameraman supervises the second unit crew and reports to the DP. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
4 Understanding HD Video The concepts associated with high definition (HD) video can be confusing to those of you unfamiliar with video camera function. If you are a beginning filmmaker, terms like scan lines, SD, HD, and 4k technology, will certainly make your head spin! Fear not, for the concepts are surprisingly straightforward. In this lesson, we will cover the basics of high definition video and provide you with a working understanding of the terminology. In addition, we will look at 4k technology, also known as ultra HD. This technology is used by the groundbreaking Red One camera, introduced by the Red Digital Cinema Company in 2007. To understand high definition video, we must start at the beginning and examine how images are recorded by a video camera. Recording There are three mediums used to record video images: magnetic tape removable memory card hard drive
The preferred medium for cameras (and audio recorders) is removable memory card. Initially it was expected to be hard drive, but removable cards proved to be simpler and more portable. Today, hard drives are primarily used for editing, while magnetic tape is preferred for archiving. Although the hardware has moved from analog to digital technology since the inception of video recording, the principles are essentially the same. It's based on electromagnetism. The easiest way to illustrate the principles of electromagnetism is with magnetic tape. The recording head is essentially an electromagnet, which is activated by an electrical signal from the image processor. As the videotape travels over the head, the iron particles in the tape are magnetized. This is, in essence, the recorded image.
Scan Lines The video image is recorded one horizontal line at a time. These lines are called scan lines and the process is known as scanning. If you look closely at a TV screen you will see the scan lines. You probably can't see them on your computer monitor because the lines are narrower than on a TV.
Standard Definition (SD) The term "definition" basically means the visible detail in the video image. It is measured by the number of horizontal scan lines in a single frame. In the United States and Japan, standard definition video is 525 lines. In most European countries, standard definition is 625 lines. (The former is known as NTSC; the latter is PAL). High Definition (HD) Although much hype has been made about HD, the concept itself is simple to understand. Technically, anything that breaks the PAL barrier of 625 lines can be called high definition. The most common HD formats feature 720 and 1080 scan lines. Ultra High Definition Ultra high definition features an amazing 4,520 lines of horizontal resolution. Known as "4k" technology because the scan lines exceed 4,000, it will no doubt be the future industry standard. The following photos show the relative size of the different formats. The first one represents the typical digital video frame (DV and DVCAM). Notice how detail improves as the number of scan lines increases. The final photo illustrates the huge leap in image detail 4k technology provides.
As a point of reference, the typical flat computer monitor has 2,000 lines of resolution. 35mm film--as perceived by the human eye--falls in the mid HD range. More on 35mm in the next lesson. 4k technology is based on the proprietary 12 megapixel chip developed by the Red Digital Cinema Company. Their affordable Red One camera can shoot at all popular scan rates, including those shown above. 4k technology may prove to be the death knell for 35mm film. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
5 HD Video vs. 35mm Film Aspiring filmmakers are quite lucky compared to years ago. Today, you can make a movie in just about any format and still be taken seriously, assuming that you have a great story and reasonably good production values. As mentioned, The Blair Witch Project is one of the most successful independent features ever made, yet it was shot with a consumer video camera (non-digital). Prior to the digital revolution of the 1990s, things were a lot different. If the movie was shot on a format other than 35mm, it did not stand a chance of being distributed. 16mm was not taken seriously and video was a joke. These standards were so ingrained in the industry, that even actors were reluctant to work on non-35mm shoots. All that has changed now. Affordable, high-quality digital cameras have democratized the industry. Still, 35mm film is the standard by which all video formats are judged. Has video reached the same quality level as 35mm? Old school filmmakers say "no" because the image capturing ability of 35mm is a "gazillion" times greater than video. Is this really the case? Let's take a closer look. The truth may surprise you. Note: the study below is based on classic HD with 1080 lines of horizontal resolution. In 2007, the first ultra HD camera was introduced featuring an amazing 4,520 lines. Keep that in mind while reading! Comparison Their are two factors that can be compared: color and resolution. Most casual observers will agree that, assuming a quality TV monitor, HD color is truly superb. To avoid a longwinded mathematical argument, let's accept this at face value and focus on comparing resolution, which is the real spoiler. Resolution is the visible detail in an image. Since pixels are the smallest point of information in the digital world, it would seem that comparing pixel count is a good way to compare relative resolution. Film is analog so there are no real "pixels." However, based on converted measures, a 35mm frame has 3 to 12 million pixels, depending on the stock, lens, and shooting conditions. An HD frame has 2 million pixels, measured using 1920 x 1080 scan lines. With this difference, 35mm appears vastly superior to HD. This is the argument most film purists use. The truth is, pixels are not the way to compare resolution. The human eye cannot see individual pixels beyond a short distance. What we can see are lines.
Consequently, manufacturers measure the sharpness of photographic images and components using a parameter called Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). This process uses lines (not pixels) as a basis for comparison. Notice the lines in this resolution chart:
Since MTF is an industry standard, we will maintain this standard for comparing HD with 35mm film. In other words, we will make the comparison using lines rather than pixels. Scan lines are the way video images are compared, so it makes sense from this viewpoint, as well. HD Resolution As discussed previously, standard definition and high definition refer to the amount of scan lines in the video image. Standard definition is 525 horizontal lines for NTSC and 625 lines for PAL. Technically, anything that breaks the PAL barrier of 625 lines could be called high definition. The most common HD resolutions are 720p and 1080i lines. 35mm Resolution There is an international study on this issue, called Image Resolution of 35mm Film in Theatrical Presentation. It was conducted by Hank Mahler (CBS, United States), Vittorio Baroncini (Fondazione Ugo Bordoni, Italy), and Mattieu Sintas (CST, France). In the study, MTF measurements were used to determine the typical resolution of theatrical release prints and answer prints in normal operation, utilizing existing state-of-the-art 35mm film, processing, printing, and projection. The prints were projected in six movie theaters in various countries, and a panel of experts made the assessments of the projected images using a well-defined formula. The results are as follows:
Conclusion As the study indicates, perceived differences between HD and 35mm film are quickly disappearing. Notice I use the word "perceived." This is important because we are not shooting a movie for laboratory study, but rather for audiences. At this point, the typical audience cannot see the difference between HD and 35mm. Even professionals have a hard time telling them apart. We go through this all the time at NYU ("Was this shot on film or video?"). Again, the study was based on standard HD with 1080 lines of horizontal resolution. We now have ultra HD with 4,520 lines. Based on this, the debate is moot. 16mm, 35mm, DV, and HD are all tools of the filmmaker. The question is not which format is best, but rather, which format is best for your project? The answer, of course, is based on a balance between aesthetic and budgetary considerations. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
6 Soft Lighting Techniques Generally, filmmaking techniques change slowly over time. For example, directing practices are pretty much the same now as they were fifty years ago. Cinematography techniques were equally stable until the 1990s when digital cameras took the industry by storm. Techniques then changed dramatically within in a short period of time. More recently, there has been a change in lighting technology and aesthetics. Though this happened with little fanfare, it has been significant nonetheless.
Softer, Lower Intensity In a nutshell, there has been a shift towards softer, lower intensity lighting. The illumination is achieved primarily with Chinese lanterns, Kino Flos, and most recently, LED panels. All lighting setup practices still apply (i.e., three point lighting, exposure ratios, etc.). Softer lighting is used in both film and DV, small and big budgets. Cinematographer Lance Acord often uses it in his work, including the acclaimed Lost in Translation. In the shot below the lanterns are right in the frame (the bedside lamps).
High vs. Low Key In the past, soft lighting was typically used for high key setups. The current breed of cinematographers use soft lighting for both high and low key setups. In fact, a number of scenes in Lost in Translation are low key:
The trick to avoiding the flat look usually associated with soft light is to use side lighting. This results in shadow areas which serve to model the subject. Of course, the precise angle of the light depends on the look you are trying to achieve. Setup To create side lighting, the Kinos and Chinese lanterns are placed at strategic points around the perimeter of the set, usually at eye level. On locations where you want to preserve the natural light, the existing light sources are used as a guide for placement. The Kinos and Chinese lanterns will then serve to enhance the natural light. This approach is often used for documentaries and productions with tight schedules. Whether you use Kinos or Chinese Lanterns (or both) is a matter of personal choice. The quality of the light is similar, but the fixtures are radically different. Some cinematographers favor Kinos, while others favor the simplicity of the Chinese lanterns. Fill Light The fill light is important in creating the key level (mood) of the shot by increasing or decreasing shadows. This principle still holds true here, but with an interesting twist as to how the fill is achieved. Kinos and Chinese lanterns are low intensity lights. They are so low, in fact, that ambient light on the set is usually enough to act as fill. In other words, in most cases you will not need a dedicated fill light. If the ambient fill light is not adequate, you can: use a reflector board to bounce light into the shadow areas use an additional fixture (bounced) to raise the ambient light of the set
Exposure Metering The principles of exposure and contrast previously discussed still apply, too. The catch is that using an exposure meter at such low light levels becomes increasingly difficult.
Film stocks are becoming faster and DV cameras are approaching the sensitivity of the human eye. It makes sense, then, that your eyes are your best tool in judging exposure and contrast. Consequently, when light levels are too low for the proper use of a meter, the best approach is to make the lighting look as natural as possible to your eye. Do the final tweaking by checking the shot against a video monitor, particularly highlights and shadows. Lighting Control Kino Flo Lighting, Lite Panels, and other brands have their own accessories for lighting control, including louvers and dimmers. Louvers are used to control directionality and spillage:
Chinese lanterns are a bit tricky because you must improvise. A black skirt made of Duvetyn can be used to direct the light and control spill. Professional Chinese lanterns like those made by Chimera Lighting have their own accessories for lighting control:
Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
7 Video Camera Basics Digital cameras have become very affordable with broadcast quality cameras starting at under $1,000. The very best cameras cost over $75,000. Essentially, there is a camera for every budget. When looking for a camera, consider these features: Sensor In video cameras, the image is focused on a flat electronic chip called a sensor. The job of the sensor is to convert light into an electronic signal. This signal is then recorded for later playback. There are two types of sensors: CCD (Charged Couple Device) CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
CCDs and CMOSs use different technologies to achieve the same goals. They both employee photoelectric sensing cells, called pixels. The main difference is in how pixel output is handled. In CMOS sensors, each pixel's charge is outputted individually, in the form of digital bits. This is the newer of the two technologies. In CCD sensors, pixel output is grouped in the form of an analog signal that is later digitized. The grouping can involve one or more sensors. Consumer video cameras use one CCD. Professional cameras use three, with each sensor controlling one of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue. After the image passes through the lens of a three-chip CCD camera, a beam splitter trisects the light into red, green, and blue paths. Each color beam is focused on a screen that activates the corresponding CCD. The red, green, and blue CCDs must align precisely to create a single image in the composite signal. This is called registration. If registration is off, it results in color fringing and image softness. As of this writing, the surface of a sensor can consist of up to 1,500,000 photoelectric sensing cells (pixels). The sensor itself can vary in size from 1/2" to 1". Because pixels are the key to a camera's performance, the larger the sensor, the better the image quality. Format The most popular formats are listed below, from highest to lowest resolution. Keep in mind that even Mini DV is broadcast quality with only a 5:1 compression ratio:
4k (Red Digital Cinema) 2k (Silicon Imaging) HDCAM SR (Sony) Varicam HD (Panasonic) Digital-S/ D-9 (JVC) DVC PRO (Panasonic) DVCAM (Sony) DV (Mini DV)
Memory Cards For many decades, magnetic tape stock was the standard recording medium for video cameras and audio recorders. Around 2010 this decisively shifted to removable memory card.
Removable memory card is now the standard for several reasons: No moving parts - The cards are small, rugged, and solid-state. Because there are no moving parts, they are vibration and shock resistant. No tape related problems - Cards have none of the problems associated with tape, such as dropout. Simplified work flow - When you are ready to edit, just take the card and plug it into your computer. Each shot is in the form of a file, so you transfer the files as you would any computer file. There is no "capturing" of video, which is time consuming. Multi format - Perhaps the most amazing aspect of memory cards is that they can record any format as long as the camera supports it and the card has a large enough memory.
The cards have different capacities and speed class ratings. They range from class 0 to class 16, as of this writing. It is important to use the capacity and speed class rating specified by your equipment. Standard vs. High Definition (HD)
Resolution is the visible detail in the video image. It is measured by the number of horizontal scan lines that make up each frame of video. In the US, video images contain 525 lines (NTSC). In most Europe countries, video images contain 625 lines (PAL). This is standard definition video. Although much hype has been made about high definition, the concept itself is simple. Technically, anything that breaks the above standards could be called high definition. The most common HD resolutions are 720p and 1080i lines. In 2007, the first ultra HD camera was introduced featuring an amazing 4,520 lines of horizontal resolution. Aspect Ratio Aspect ratio is essentially the "shape" of the recorded image. It is a function of the camera's CCDs. There are two video aspect ratios in use today. The standard ratio is 4:3, which provides the square broadcast TV image. The widescreen ratio is 16:9 and conforms to theatrical film and HDTV standards. Most professional cameras allow one button switching between ratios. Some mid-range cameras have a 16:9 mode but do not have a true 16:9 CCD. Rather, they use a 4:3 CCD and simulate the wide-screen aspect ratio by masking the top and bottom of the image. This creates a widescreen effect, but uses less vertical lines in the process.
A true 16:9 chip uses all vertical scan lines, so resolution is superior. It has side panels that are used in the 4:3 mode and ignored in the 16:9 mode.
You can tell whether the camera has a true 16:9 CCD by observing the image while switching to the 16:9 mode. If the horizontal view expands, the chip is 16:9. If the vertical view crops, the chip is 4:3 masked to simulate 16:9. In some cameras the both the vertical and horizontal changes. If this happens, the acid test is whether the horizontal view really broadens. If so, the chip is 16:9. Whether you use 4:3 or 16:9 mode the resolution inside the visible frame is the same (you simply mask the top and bottom scan lines in the 16:9 mode). Consequently the choice is really a matter of aesthetics rather than quality. When transferring to 35mm it is desirable to use all vertical scan lines (rather than mask some) to maximize resolution. That's why a true 16:9 chip is important. In the absence of a 16:9 camera, some filmmakers use an anamorphic lens to squeeze all the vertical scan lines into to the 16:9 aspect ratio. You should consult the lab when attempting this. If a 16:9 camera or anamorphic lens are not available, take comfort in the fact that the 4:3 chip yields surprisingly good results in both 4:3 and 16:9 modes when transferred to 35mm. Whatever approach you take, it is important to do a test transfer beforehand. The test should include short clips under various lighting conditions and ratios. Also, shoot different close-knit patterns to see how your camera handles aliasing. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
8 Understanding RAW Files The latest generation of HD cameras (e.g. the Red One made by Red Digital Cinema) record images differently than traditional video cameras. Specifically, they use a variation of the format known as RAW, which has traditionally been used in still photography. RAW Files Adobe Systems was the first software company to use RAW for image storage. Photoshop, their flagship product, uses the PSD format, essentially a RAW codec. RAW files are so named because they are not processed. In other words, everything the camera "sees" is recorded. Consequently, the highly detailed RAW files are considered the equivalent of film negative. RAW files are too large for anything but storage. For practical use, such as in documents, they must be compressed into smaller formats like JPEG or GIFF.
Benefits The main benefit of using RAW is that such files can contain large amounts of information. This makes it possible to record extremely high resolution images. In fact, the amount of recorded information is so great that all image adjustments can be saved for postproduction, including color, gain, and sharpening (diffusion). Does this mean you don't have to white balance? Yes. You can white balance to give the RAW images a uniform look, but it is not necessary. Cinematographers are fond of diffusion filters to soften the image. Again, this can be applied in postproduction (although any cinematographer worth his salt will be reluctant to surrender such creative control). Amazingly, correct exposure is the only adjustment that has to be made to the camera, and even this can be estimated. An unusual approach to camera setup, to say the least! Enter REDCODE RAW
RAW files are proprietary and differ from from one manufacturer to another. Red Digital Cinema's version of RAW is called REDCODE RAW. REDCODE RAW enables the huge 4K video images to be compressed into manageable file sizes, and then uncompressed with virtually no loss of image quality. Because they are RAW files, the compression is minimal--just enough for practical storage. As of this writing, REDCODE RAW offers two levels of compression, REDCODE 28 and REDCODE 36. The latter provides less compression and is appropriate for highly detailed scenes such as, for example, wide shots. As other manufacturers venture into the realm of ultra HD, they will invariably develop their own version of RAW. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
9 DSLR Cinematography Still cameras have had the capacity to shoot video for some time now. The video was rather noisy and nowhere near camcorder quality. It was more of a novelty, certainly not useful in filmmaking. Today's technology, however, is quite different. The better cameras, known as DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex), have high quality sensors and lenses, with the resulting video nothing short of astounding. This has caused a budding revolution in filmmaking.
Benefits One of the finest camcorders available is the Red One, by Red Digital Cinema. It has a 12 megapixel CMOS sensor, measuring .96 inch. DSLRs have larger sensors and tests show that the resulting video is every bit as nice as the Red One’s. DSLRs, however, start at less than $1,000 while the Red One costs $25,000. Big difference. The most expensive DSLRs are priced below $3,000. That’s eight times cheaper than the Red One camera, yet they feature massive CMOS sensors--some approaching 25 megapixels, 1.5 inches, as of this writing. Another important benefit of DSLRs is that the large sensor and interchangeable lenses allow unparalleled control of depth of field. This enables you to isolate the subject in the frame for a more “filmic” look. Because of the “bigger bang for the buck,” low budget filmmakers are flocking to DSLRs. Even established producers are looking into them for future projects or at least questioning the relative cost of camcorders. Drawbacks Even though DSLRs have equal if not better image quality and are considerably cheaper, they are prone to the rolling shutter effect (aka, “jello effect”). This is distortion that occurs with certain types of swift movement.
If you have never seen the jello effect, examples can be found on YouTube. Needless to say, you would not want to have a day’s shooting ruined by this. Such a disaster can easily offset savings in camera costs. Until this problem is solved, you must use caution and carefully plan any shots where the camera and/or subject are moving. That could put quite a damper on certain types of movies. If you are willing to risk the jello effect, you should also consider the following essential features, which are standard on a camcorder but not present on a DSLR: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Articulating Video Monitor Electronic Viewfinder Power Zoom Zebra Stripes Time Code Stereo Sound XLR Audio Inputs Multi Channel Audio Input Manual Audio Controls Audio Monitoring
That’s a lot of missing stuff! Features you take for granted on even the cheapest camcorders but not available on DSLR cameras. Manufactures have recognized this and are either adding the features to the cameras or offering add-ons, as you can see in the BH Photo promo below:
Hidden Drawback A hidden drawback of DSLRs is that they do not record in the coveted RAW format. In addition, the video is compression to some degree, depending on the camera.
Manufactures do this to protect their high end video products. If they put all the "bells and whistles" in a $3,000 DSLR, why would anyone buy a $50,000 camcorder? Despite this, the image quality is so great that the compression is indiscernible to all but trained eyes. It is for this reason that DSLRs have caught the attention of not only indie filmmakers, but established producers as well. While DSLRs have certainly become a great filmmaking tool, it may be awhile before they become a true alternative to camcorders. In any event, it looks like there is a lot of excitement on the technological horizon! Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com
10 Technical Infringement Aspiring filmmakers go through similar learning curves and, as a result, make many of the same mistakes. One of the goals of Film School Online is to help you avoid these hard knocks. At the very least we hope to provide you with enough awareness that you can spot the telltale signs of trouble and take corrective action in timely manner. A common mistake is to confuse technology with filmmaking. In other words, you get caught up in the process of making a movie and loose track of telling a great story. It seems foolish to approach a project this way, yet countless filmmakers are obsessed with the latest cameras, lighting, effects, etc. Hollywood If you doubt that you can fall into this trap, take a look at Hollywood. How many potentially great movies have been compromised because of overly zealous special effects? George Lucas was praised for striking the right balance in the first three Star Wars movies, but many fans feel he dropped the ball with The Phantom Menace.
If seasoned pros can fall into this trap, students are particularly prone. Because of their inexperience, students don't see the difference between making a movie and transcending the process to tell a story. To them, it's one big ball of wax. Understanding the difference is what separates great filmmakers from mediocre ones. The special effects department is not the only culprit. All craft areas can be guilty of infringing on the story, from cinematographers with their cameras; to gaffers with their lighting; to production designers with their sets, and so forth. Recall Christian Bale's tirade against cinematographer Shane Hurlbut on the set of Terminator: Salvation (2009). If are unfamiliar with this infamous sound clip, I urge you to listen to it because it drives home the point of this lesson. It is readily found on the
Internet and Youtube. Bale certainly handled himself unprofessionally and there is no excuse for the way he addressed Hurlbut, but the point he was trying to make is valid. Hurlbut was so concerned about setting the lights that he was hindering the actors performances, which is, in essence, the telling of the story. Student Filmmakers From a pedagogical point of view, it's easy to see how student filmmakers get caught in the technology trap. To many of them, "learning filmmaking" means learning the latest cameras or lights or editing software. It's not the same thing. Filmmaking is the application of the principles and conventions of screen storytelling. These principles were developed over many decades and encompass both visual and audio aesthetics. Technology involves the tools that facilitates this application, it's not "filmmaking" per se. Instinct vs. Knowledge Too often, students become experts in the technology of filmmaking and go on to make films based on aesthetic instinct. A truly gifted filmmaker can probably get away with this, but not everyone is born with such ability. Most filmmakers work through a considerable learning curve to become great a what they do. Even if you are a natural born instinctive filmmaker, your creativity and problem solving ability can be stifled by not having a solid base of knowledge from which to pull from. For example, let's say you are instinctively using the technique of action compression. Wouldn't it be nice to know how and why this technique works? Wouldn't such knowledge help you apply it in better and perhaps unexpected ways? Understanding the principles and conventions of filmmaking (or any art form, for that matter) not only provides you with a foundation from which to practice your skills, but also allows you to unleash the creative potential associated with those skills. Don't fall into the technology trap. Keep your eye on the ball. No matter what your area of specialty is, your ultimate goal is always to tell a great screen story. Copyright Š www.FilmSchoolOnline.com ***