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Walking on Eggshells Thesis

Marisa Bamberg 140147508

Contents

Introduction

Thesis For mat

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Material Testing

Application Catalogue Ecological

Domestic

Commercial

Closing the Loop

Conclusion

References + Video Links

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Introduction Global Polluters

The above bar char t is demonstrative of how dif ferent sectors c ontribute to global emissions. The overall picture you see from this diagram is that ‘almost one -f if th of emissions c ome from agriculture and land use, this increases to one - quar ter when we c onsider the food system as a whole – including processing, packaging, transpor t and retail.’¹ Whilst food production is necessar y for human existence, there is sc ope to transform this sector into something that is more environmentally sustainable. This bec omes par ticular ly apparent when c onsidering 30 - 40% of all food is wasted.²

There is currently no universally accepted def inition of what ‘ food waste’ c onsists of. ‘The FUSIONS def inition is the most c ommonly accepted def inition in the UK and the EU.’³ Acc ording to FUSIONS, food waste c an be def ined as: ‘any food, and inedible par ts of food, removed from the food supply chain to be rec overed or disposed (including c omposed crops, ploughed in/ not har vested, anaerobic digestion, bio energy production, c o - generation, incineration, disposal to sewer, landf ill or disc arded to sea.’⁴ As we strive towards a zero -waste future, there are initiatives in place to make bet ter use of food from production to c onsumption. However, when c onsidering the ‘inedible par ts

Lentils (0.1kgCO2e)

Tomatoes (1.1kgCO2e)

Milk (1.9kgCO2e)

Tofu (2.0kgCO2e)

Bananas (2.0kgCO2e)

Yoghur t (2. 2kgCO2e)

Nuts (2.3kgCO2e)

Peanut but ter (2.5kgCO2e)

Rice (2.7kgCO2e)

Potatoes (2.9kgCO2e)

Eggs (4.8kgCO2e)

Canned tuna (6.1kgCO2e)

Chicken (6.9kgCO2e)

Turkey (10.9kgCO2e)

Farmed salmon (11.9kgCO2e)

Pork (12.1kgCO2e)

Cheese (13.5kgCO2e)

Beef (27.0kgCO2e)

Lamb (39. 2kgCO2e)

Total related to food (22.9%)

Livestock and manure (5.8%)

Agricultural soils (4.1%)

Rice cultivation (1.3%)

Crop burning (3.5%)

Deforestation (2. 2%)

Cropland (1.5%)

Landf ills (1.9%)

Wastewater (1.3%)

Chemic als (2. 2%)

Cement (3%)

Energy in agriculture and f ishing (1.7%)

Fugitive emissions: energy production (5.8%)

Unalloc ated fuel c ombustion (7.8%)

Commercial buildings (6.6%)

Residential buildings (10.9%)

Retail (0.7%)

Shipping (1.7%)

Production emissions (kgCO2e) Post- production emissions (kgCO2e)

Aviation (1.9%)

Road transpor t (11.9%)

Other industr y (10.6%)

Machiner y (0.5%)

Paper and pulp (0.6%)

Food (1%)

Chemic al and petrochemic al (3.6%)

Non -ferrous metals (0.7%)

Iron and steel (7. 2%)

Energy (73. 2%) Industr y (5. 2%) Waste (3. 2%) Agriculture, forestr y & land use (18.4%)

of food’ it still seems that there is lit tle to no use for them. It c ould be argued that most foods with inedible c omponents are biodegradable and will feed back into the ear th eventually. However, when c onsidering the amount of energy required for food production, it would be far more environmentally ef f icient to f ind a way to reuse or recycle these ‘waste’ products, in which there is a global abundance.

Introduction Lifecycle Assessment of a Free Range Egg in the UK

Sales value per year (UK ):

0.6%

£1,066m

Egg c ar tons

9. 2%

Land use change

Diesel and petrol Commercial

Packaging

Field and veterinar y agrochemic als

3.7%

• Laying cage

• Free range

• Barn

41% of egg production 10% of produce is damaged during production

Soil; from fer tilizer

1.6%

Warehouse Waste

Point- of- lay pullets

0. 225kg of CO2 per egg

5.6% Waste

Pullet grow th

Cleaning

Bedding

0.1%

Manure and manure handling Soil; from manure

2 .0%

Eggshells take 2- 5 years to dec ompose

Electricit y and water

The shell makes up 10 -12% of an eggs total weight

2 . 2% 12 .7%

13.1 billion eggs produced each year (UK)

Retail 59% of egg production Wasted eggshells make up 292 ,5 00 tonnes CO2 per year

Concentrates

Replacement of elder hens

40.3%

Feeding

The percentages above show how much each c omponent c ontributes to an egg’s overall c arbon footprint.⁵ Though one egg’s total footprint is 0. 225kg of CO2 (seemingly low), when c onsidering there are 13.1 billion eggs produced in just the UK ever y year ⁶, the c arbon impact of the egg industr y bec omes one of signif ic ance. The eggshell is an inedible c omponent of the egg that is t ypic ally sent to landf ill once the egg has been used for its nutrients. There is thus a signif ic ant inef f iciency of c arbon use as the eggshell makes up 10 -12% of the egg.

Egg laying

22 .0%

An average UK household c onsumes 6 eggs per week Residential

Introduction Omelet te Mapping

The animation is separated into three components where the egg has been highlighted and should be considered as one unit of raw material. In the first, the animation is true to real life in that it is an accurate depiction of how I, personally, make an omelette in my kitchen. The purpose of this segment is to demonstrate that once the eggshell has been placed into the bin it is no longer visible and thus, considered an irrelevant component of the egg; ‘out of sight, out of mind.’ Therefore, in the second component where the egg’s movement has been mapped in plan and section, the eggshell has been purposefully left visible in the bin. The intention was to highlight the irresponsible thinking that once something is in the bin it

no longer exists. Lastly, the egg counter on the bottom makes use of considering the egg and its components as one unit of raw material. As the eggshell makes up 10-12% of the total egg, it could be said that for every nine eggs bought, only eight are being used to their full potential and one ‘whole’ egg is being wasted.

Introduction Material Making Process

1 eggshell

6 eggs

5 0mm x 75 mm x 10mm

90% eggshell

10% binder

4. 1. Boil eggshells to remove surplus and kill any bacteria. 2. Dr y eggshells by baking for 30 minutes at 10 0°C.

3. Grind eggshells into a grit or powder depending on material outc ome. 4. Make a bioresin using boiling water, gelatine and glycerin.

5. Combine eggshell and bioresin. 6. Pour mix ture into a mould. 7. Eggshell material fully dried af ter 7-10 days.

Margaret Dunne’s ‘ Bioplastic Cook Book ’ formed the basis of the gelatin binder.⁷ Initial experiments included potato peel and banana peel (see Appendix A) as well as eggshells to give the bioplastic more strength. The eggshell biomaterial was the most successful. The premise of the thesis is to showc ase how this eggshell biomaterial c ould bec ome a viable alternative to traditional building materials. The material - making process c onsists of disinfecting, dr ying and grinding eggshells into a f ine powder. A more descriptive recipe and animation c an be found in Appendix B.

Af ter initial experiments, small scraps of the biomaterial were accumulating either through non - accurate pouring into the moulds or lef tover in the pouring c ontainer. Re - heating these elements in boiling water proved to be successful and from there the recyclabilit y of the biomaterial was disc overed. Though illustrated as inf initely recyclable above, it is still unknown whether this is the c ase. Thus far, there have been no issues with recycling the biomaterial.

Thesis For mat Content

Material Testing

Applic ation Catalogue

Closing the Loop

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

The overarching theme of the thesis is to demonstrate that biomaterials c ould be a viable alternative to traditional c onstruction materials. The c oncept of waste also plays an impor tant role; where there is waste there is a linear industr y with the potential to be circularised. Taking a humble egg as all source of inspiration has transformed this thesis into one that entails ec ologic al, social and industrial analysis. The thesis will be separated into three main c omponents; ‘ Material Testing’, ‘Applic ation Catalogue’ and ‘Closing the Loop.’ ‘ Material Testing’ is an in - depth investigation of how a

biomaterial made from eggshells c ould be used as a c onstruction material. The ‘Applic ation Catalogue’ will showc ase dif ferent ways the biomaterial c ould be applied on an architectural sc ale, based on material testing and experimentation. Lastly, ‘Closing the Loop’ looks at the egg industr y as a large - sc ale system and determines the viabilit y of the inc orporation of an eggshell biomaterial at dif ferent stages and sc ales. By sc ouring through the egg industr y with a f ine -toothed c omb, c ommon issues of sustainabilit y have been identif ied. The egg bec omes symbolic of all raw material on the planet where critic al analysis and thought ful design c ould lead to a more sustainable future.

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

Material Testing Form

Cast

Sheet / Tile

Brick

Understanding what form the biomaterial c ould take on was the initial star ting point to the experimentation phase. ‘ You say to brick, “ what do you want brick? ”’ ⁸ Due to its c ast nature, I was disc overing that the biomaterial was versatile and c ould easily be reworked to suit a variet y of dif ferent forms. To bet ter gauge how the material c ould be used in real - life applic ations, the forms were c ategorised into; c ast, tile or brick.

moulds for initial experiments, the biomaterial proved it c an be c ast with accuracy.

Lastly, experimenting with a brick form allows me the oppor tunit y to understand the potential of the material structurally. The bricks made so far have been approximately 70mm x 50mm x 20mm.

Though all the biomaterial’s outc omes are c ast by nature, the ‘c ast ’ element here refers to forms that are more organic and only achieved through using intric ate moulds. Using silic one

The tile aspect allows me to make use of the biomaterial as though it were a sheet material, which in turn has its own set of potential architectural applic ations. The making process for a sheet c ompared with silic one moulds dif fers, par ticularly during the dr ying phase. As the biomaterial star ts to dr y on one side it shrinks c ausing the sheet to c onc ave. Therefore, the sheet requires lots of turning and pressing during the dr ying phase. Once it is fully dr y, the material proper ties remain the same.

Material Testing Aesthetic Appearance

Sur face Treatment

Colour

The aesthetic s of material play a large role in how the material is experienced when applied architecturally. Aesthetic experiments included sur face treatment using the laser cut ter, c olouring using natural dyes and var ying the eggshell grit size.

For the natural dyes, I experimented with using; turmeric, c abbage, spinach and blackberries. Though the c olour deepened over time, the results, in my opinion, were not profound. The natural c olour is more appealing I think bec ause the brain c an make an easier c onnection to eggshells, which is interesting to do as an eggshell and a brick are seemingly ver y dif ferent.

Interestingly, where the laser cut ter usually engraves, in this instance the biomaterial protr uded due to a reaction bet ween the heat and the gelatin. The results were promising and proved that the sur faces of the biomaterial c ould be marked with accuracy. [Note; the number engraved above is the unique stamp used on the eggs that made that par ticular sample (see page. 61)].

E xperimenting with grinding the eggshells by hand instead of with a blender allowed for alternative tex tures, giving the biomaterial a dif ferent tectonic prof ile. Combining all the tex ture t ypes created a ‘ terraz zo’ t ype ef fect.

Eggshell grit size

Material Testing Environmental Impact

Fully dried brick

Frozen brick

Soaked

Half dried brick

Baked brick at 10 0°C for 30 minutes

Dried (af ter soaked) brick

Understanding how the environment impacts the biomaterial’s proper ties is also fundamental in deciphering which architectural applic ations the biomaterial will best suit. Using the same dimensioned brick, I was able to determine the environmental ef fect c omparatively. From these experiments, it bec ame apparent that the biomaterial per forms best when it is in a c ooler environment. Af ter submerging the biomaterial in water, it lost a lot of its str uctural stabilit y. Initially, this was a c oncern for any potential outdoor applic ations. However, once dried the biomaterial rever ted to its original form. Finding and working with material limitations is exciting and the disc over y of these parameters is essential for future thought ful design.

Material Testing Physic al Proper ties

Tex ture

Thermal c onductivit y

Largest Depth 1.

2. 3. 1. Thermometer 4.

2. Material sample 3. Glass beaker

Temperature (°C)

4. Boiling water

Smallest Depth

Nothing Eggshell Ceramic Cardboard Plastic Time (minutes)

‘A material’s physic al proper ties denote the physic al state of materials that are exclusive of their chemic al or mechanic al c omponents.’ ⁹ ‘Physic al proper ties are things that are measurable.’¹⁰ Understanding how the biomaterial responded to tools was impor tant in deciphering how it c an be reworked once dried and how it may slot into existing fabric ation systems. When used with the power tools, due to the heat created in the process, par ts of the biomaterial melt and c ongeal. When using power tools, par ts of a material are of ten wasted, for instance, sawdust. The c ongealed elements are easily removeable from the biomaterial (with sandpaper or by

Wood

hand) and due to the recyclabilit y of the material, the c ongealed elements c ould easily be c ollected and reused. Having the abilit y to create pilot holes and screw pieces of the biomaterial together is a great advantage in terms of its viabilit y in replacing traditional c onstr uction materials, especially when c onsidering it as a sheet material. Following a basic thermal c onductivit y experiment, I was able to determine how good a c onductor the eggshell biomaterial is c ompared with other traditional materials. In the above graph, the shallower the cur ve, the bet ter the insulator. The biomaterial per formed well and

there is sc ope to investigate the biomaterial as insulation. Determining the biomaterial’s dimensional parameters is cr ucial in understanding how it c an be applied on an architectural sc ale. If the material c annot set, it is susceptible to growing mould. The bowl - shaped experiment is demonstrative of this where the middle section did not receive enough air f low and thus, was not able to set. On the c ontrar y, the biomaterial allows for ver y small depths. When lef t to fully dr y it bec omes brit tle at this depth.

Material Testing Mechanic al Proper ties

Compressive strength test

Compressive strength apparatus

Load v Displacement

1400

1200

3. 2.

Compressive Load (N)

Tension space 1000

800

600

400

200

Compressive Ex tension (mm)

1. Screw c olumn

5. Adjustable lower crosshead

2. Adjustable upper crosshead

6. Enc oder Assembly

3. Wedge grips 4. Test sample

‘The mechanic al proper ties of a material are those proper ties that involve a reaction to an applied load.’¹¹ Understanding the mechanic al proper ties of the biomaterial will help to determine how it may be used str ucturally. Using the c ompressive strength machine, the biomaterial’s c ompressive strength and tensile strength (through a Brazilian c onversion method) have been c alculated. The biomaterial feels quite brit tle to the touch and it was surprising to disc over that it responded similarly to plastic under the c ompressive machine and has elastic proper ties.

Base

Brazilian Test

Material Testing Joints

Traditional Joints

Self Adhesive

Joining to Other Materials

traditional joint t ypes, they would have to be c ar ved into place using hand tools. Joining the biomaterial using the eggshell mix ture itself proved to be successful as it holds its form and reaches the same strength as usual when dried. This c ould be done by either melting one side of the biomaterial and fusing it to itself or by having the melted mix ture on hand and using it as a ‘cement ’ alternative.

by nature or porous (such as timber or c oncrete) the biomaterial will bond. However, if the joining material is plastic with minimal pores, the material c an act as a c asting mould as the biomaterial is easily removeable.

[ht tps:// w w w.thinglink.c om/scene/5325761210283 45857 ]

Understanding how the biomaterial c an be joined both to itself and other materials is critic al when c onveying that it c ould be used as a viable alternative to traditional c onstr uction materials. Initial experimentations with traditional joints included a dovetail joint and a but t joint. The dovetail joint was done using the laser cut ter, which was unsuccessful due to the heat reaction. Initial experiments with a simple but t joint were successful and the biomaterial held its form. If the biomaterial wanted to make use of other

Additionally, it is impor tant to determine how the biomaterial c an be joined to other c onstruction materials. Through experimentation, it is understood that if the joining material is organic

Material Testing Joints: Reinforcement

No Reinforcement

Chicken Wire FORCE

Steel Corner Braces FORCE

FORCE

Reinforcement Type None Chicken Wire Steel Corner Braces

Failure (kg) 6. 25 - 7.5 21. 25 - 22.5 > 50

To add strength to the biomaterial it is possible to reinforce it similar to c oncrete using tex tured steel. In the above examples, I tried reinforcing the same dimensioned cubes with chicken wire and steel c orner braces. By piling weights on top of the 5mm thick-walled cube, I identif ied at what weight the cubes failed. Unsurprisingly the reinforced options were much stronger. However, the addition of steel detracts from the biodegradabilit y of the material, therefore f inding applic ations that suit the biomaterial's strength will remain a priorit y.

1. Strain gauge 2. Plate 3. Biomaterial sample

Material Testing Joints: Layering

Dimension Parameters: Maximum Thickness

Casting in Layers with Plugholes

Seams

Max. 60mm

STPMJ: Stratum House [ht tps:// w w w.archdaily.c om/879 659/tratum - house - stpmj]

Cast materials are of ten susceptible to mould due to their moisture c ontent. Through creating a series of biomaterial samples at dif ferent thicknesses, its ma ximum dimension parameter was determined as 6 0mm. To create larger pieces, the biomaterial would have to be c ast in layers with the aid of plugholes. This is c ommon practice within ceramic s and architecture. In STPMJ’s Stratum House, the c oncrete has been c ast in layers using dif ferent c oloured c oncrete to accentuate the making process.¹² The eggshell biomaterial c ould be used in the same way, using dif ferent eggshell grit sizes to create an alternative tectonic outc ome.

Material Testing Alternative Binders

Binder: c alcium alginate

Bioc omposite: gelatin + soap

Binder: agar agar

Bioc omposite: gelatin + spirulina

I experimented with dif ferent bio - based binders and bio - c omposites based on Margaret Dunne’s recipe book to determine how the biomaterial’s proper ties may dif fer.

Bio - c omposites, in this instance, c onsist of gelatin and another biodegradable ingredient based on Margaret Dunne’s recipe book.⁷ The addition of soap made for many more air bubbles but did not change the overall look and feel of the biomaterial. The addition of spir ulina only seemed to af fect the biomaterial visually, where the c olour has a green tint. Adding glycerine to the biomaterial made it much more f lexible and c omparable with c ork. The addition of glycerine seems to be the most viable architecturally where the new found f lexibilit y of the biomaterial will result in dif ferent applic ation t ypes.

E xperiments with bio - based binders included c alcium alginate and agar- agar. As demonstrated above, neither was successful. The c alcium alginate set but was ex tremely cr umbly and thus, not viable for c onstruction. The agar- agar set well and feels as strong as the gelatin but is ver y susceptible to mould grow th.

Bioc omposite: gelatin + glycerine

Material Testing Waterproof ing with Beeswax

Beeswax

Beeswax Block as Waterproofer

Beeswax Sealant as Waterproofer

Binder: gelatine (wet)

Beeswax as Binding Agent: Dr y

Beeswax as Binding Agent: Wet

The gelatin - based biomaterial is proving to be a promising viable alternative to traditional c onstr uction materials. Its biggest architectural limitation is its lack of waterproofness. To keep the biomaterial biodegradable, I experimented with raw beeswa x and beeswa x polish. I used the raw beeswa x as both a sealant and as an alternative binding agent.

The raw beeswa x as a sealant also worked well for waterproof ing but the overall aesthetic outc ome is not pleasing as it is dif f icult to c oat the biomaterial evenly.

Using raw beeswa x as a binding agent helped in terms of the biomaterial’s waterproofness. However, bec ause beeswa x is greatly temperature responsive, any shif t in temperature may af fect the structural stabilit y of the biomaterial, reducing its use architecturally.

The beeswa x polish was the most successful. Af ter c oating the biomaterial and submerging the sample under water overnight, the biomaterial did not lose any of its structural stabilit y despite still being used with the same gelatin binder. Thus, opening up the potential to use the biomaterial for ex ternal architectural applic ations.

Application Catalogue: Ecological Birdhouse + Bird Feeder

Soluble Grit Separate digestible c alcium source

Insoluble Grit Stays in giz zard

Seasonalit y of nests with eggs (E) and young ( Y ), derived from Nest Rec ord Scheme Data

J F

Robins prefer to nest in an open front birdhouse

Walls to be 10mm thick minimum to protect nest from elements

Front panel 10 0mm to suit robin entrance

10 0mm

Robins feed on worms, insects, seeds and fruit

Robins prefer their nests to be c overed by vegetation

The nest should be protected from prevailing winds and rain

Robin clutch size usually 4 - 5 eggs

Entrance hole to birdhouse should face NE

Robins make their nest using leaves, grass and moss

Incubation period 13 -14 days

Birdhouse height at a ma ximum of 180 0mm above ground

Birdfeeder should be as close to ground level as possible

M A M J J A S O N Soluble Grit Separate digestible c alcium source

Birds need a c ombination of soluble and insoluble grit to make eggshells.¹³ Eggshells themselves c an be a source of soluble grit due to their high c alcium c ontent. For this applic ation, the c ommercial egg has been reimagined in that the inside of the egg is used by the human as usual for nutrients, but the eggshell is given back to the birds as a source of soluble grit. ‘Soluble grit needs to be provided in a separate dish to a hen’s main diet. A c ommercial poultr y feed will already include this t ype of grit in it, so eating more than that should be a free choice for hens who need more. Forcing a bird to eat too much c alcium (by mixing it into their feed) c an be toxic.’¹³

The birdhouse and feeder is the f irst applic ation that makes use of the biomaterial’s ec ologic al benef its. Whilst the birds are less par ticular about the form the bird feeder takes on, dif ferent species of bird have dif ferent requirements in terms of what kind of birdhouse they prefer to nest in. Due to timing and loc ation, I decided to use a robin as the client for this applic ation and mapped out their requirements acc ordingly.

180 0mm

Application Catalogue: Ecological Birdhouse + Bird Feeder

Roof

Side

Back Recycle

Base Side

Front

Recycle

The birdhouse design makes use of the biomaterial as a sheet material, whereas the birdfeeder is c ast into a more organic form. For these applic ations, I challenged myself to not only use a ‘waste’ product but also ensure the making process did not produce any waste. The birdhouse design’s dimensions were inf luenced by the dimensions of a found acr ylic tray, which I used as a mould. The lef tover material from the sec ond tray was recycled and used to create the bird feeder.

Application Catalogue: Ecological Birdhouse + Bird Feeder

Installation

3 months

Placing the birdhouse and feeder in a domestic garden in Rothbur y, Nor thumber land allowed the oppor tunit y to test the applic ation acc ording to its function. The goal for this applic ation was to bet ter understand how the biomaterial responds to weather and the impact it has ec ologic ally.

hard to f lexible. Bec ause of this, any c antilevered or unsuppor ted sections of the birdhouse have largely warped. Additionally, as the birdhouse was not waterproofed, it star ted to mould due to the absorbed water not being able to dr y out properly.

Af ter six months, the birdhouse is still intact despite being exposed to a variet y of harsh weather c onditions including rain, wind, sleet and snow. As learnt during the material testing phase, the biomaterial has a large c apacit y to absorb water and change its physic alit y from

Unfor tunately, due to the warping and mould no robins were nested in the house. With adequate waterproof ing, the birdhouse has ec ologic al potential.

6 months

Application Catalogue: Ecological Birdhouse + Bird Feeder

Installation

4 months

5mm thickness

~ 4 months

The bird feeder did not take as well to the harsh weather c onditions as the birdhouse. This may be bec ause I limited myself to a cer tain amount of material and af ter f illing the silic one mould for the base, there was not that much lef t for the top making it quite thin and lacking in str uctural stabilit y. However, both were lef t outside for weather testing. Over the months, the bird feeder has had a lot of at tention and there are some peck marks where the bird has used the biomaterial as a c alcium source.

Af ter approximately 4 months, the gelatin binder in the bird feeder star ted to break down, releasing the eggshell in its powder form to dec ompose into the ground below.

Application Catalogue: Ecological Henhouse

Chickens interacting with biomaterial

Kenga Kuma: Casa Wabi Coop [ht tps:// w w w.dezeen.c om/2020/0 6/20/c asa-wabi - c oop - kengo - kuma- mexic o/ ]

Since the eggs being used in the biomaterial origin from poultr y farms, feeding them back into the agricultural industr y promotes a closed loop system. ‘Closed loop – all materials enter an inf inite cycle (technic al or biologic al).’¹⁴ The henhouse is a c ontinuation of the birdhouse research where the biomaterial c ould act as a soluble grit source for pullets. Kengo Kuma’s chicken c oop in Mexic o (above) reimagines chicken enclosures as c ommunal housing. This f its in parallel with the work I have done so far ec ologic ally, where architects c ould think beyond human use in their designs.

‘ Bec ause of their scratchings, chickens are destr uctive to their range areas, which c an lead to a build - up of parasites in the soil.’¹⁵ O f ten pullet farmers will make use of mobile henhouses to reloc ate their chickens ever y season so the ground c an rec over. As eggshell has a high c alcium c ontent, it is of ten used as fer tiliser and many people reuse their eggshells for this purpose.¹⁶ Capitalising on this c oncept architecturally, the henhouse proposed suggests a temporar y alternative to the mobile option currently used. Once the pullets have scratched up the ground below, instead of reloc ating the henhouse it c ould be dismantled and as it dec omposes it will fer tilise the ground below.

Interestingly, the British Standards ‘ Building and Construction Materials for Agriculture’ states that ‘walls at bird level should be resistant to damage resulting from pecking.’¹⁷ This is the opposite of the planned c oncept and unveils some legal hurdles the biomaterial would have to overc ome to be used in an agricultural c apacit y.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Contex t

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Using my apar tment in Newc astle, I tried to identif y where (based on the material testing) the biomaterial may have potential as a viable alternative to unsustainable c onstr uction materials within a domestic c ontex t.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Kitchen Counter top

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Kitchen Counter top

‘Granite’

Resistance to marking by c old liquids (BS EN 12720)

Test Results:

3. 2. 4.

[ht tps:// w w w.granitegold.c om/c ommon -t ypes- of- granite - damage/ ]

The change in the biomaterial’s tex ture with dif ferent eggshell grit sizes reminded me of granite. I therefore looked into the possibilit y of using the eggshell biomaterial as a kitchen c ounter top. Using the British Standards for ‘Domestic Kitchen Equipment ’ I c onducted an assessment for ‘sur face resistance to liquids.’¹⁸ For a material to be suitable for kitchen c ounter tops, all liquids must have a rating of f ive af ter one hour, where there should be no change to the test area. I experimented with six liquids and af ter one hour, the c of fee and blackcurrant juice did leave a small stain as shown above.

Whilst the biomaterial failed the test, with a more chemic al - based sealant the eggshells show potential for this specif ic applic ation.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Cast Furniture

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Cast Furniture

Flexural strength

Load v Material Thickness 35

x 3 - Point Bending Test

30 1.

Fixed Weight

Failure (kg)

Variable Weight

20 15 10 5

Material Thickness (x)

4. 4 - Point Bending Test

Failure (kg)

5mm

6. 25 - 7.5

10mm

13.75 - 15

15mm

21. 25 - 22.5

20mm

28.75 - 30

20mm + reinforcement (chicken wire)

Material Thickness (mm)

Must support 130kg min. load [BS-EN 1022: 2018 Furniture - Seating]

> 75

1. E x ternal load 2. Loading pins 3. Test sample

Without reinforcement: ~100mm With reinforcement: ~30mm

4. Suppor ting pins

The biomaterials c ast nature allows for a variet y of three - dimensional forms, which c ould include furniture. Using a chair as an example, I needed to understand the biomaterial’s f lexural strength to establish how much load it c an hold. Unable to test this in a lab environment, I adapted the experiment to at home where I used weights and distances to c alculate how much load the biomaterial c ould hold before failing. Without reinforcement, testing samples with dif ferent thicknesses resulted linear ly. The British standard for chairs states that they must hold a minimum of 130kg.¹⁹ Using the linear graph, I

was able to estimate that without reinforcement, the thickness of the chair would need to be approximately 20 0mm. From ear lier biomaterial strength testing with reinforcement, I know that for 5mm thickness with chicken wire reinforcement the biomaterial c an hold 21. 25kg. Assuming with reinforcement the biomaterial also follows a linear fashion, it would have to be at least 30mm thick to hold 130kg.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Cast Furniture

Max. 60mm

1:10 sc ale models show t wo possible examples of how a chair c ould be c ast three - dimensionally. Making use of c asting in layers, I at tempted to c ast each layer with dif ferent eggshell grit sizes resulting in an interesting tex tural outc ome where the making process is celebrated.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Handles

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Handles

Gaining a bet ter understanding of the biomaterial's experiential qualities is imperative in establishing its potential architectural applic ations. Circulating MA 2E4 Toolkit ’s ‘E xperiential Characterization of Materials’ questionnaire (see Appendix C) was a useful indic ation of how other people interpret the biomaterial. This bec ame par ticularly relevant when considering the intimate, tactile relationship bet ween hand and handle.

‘Natural,’ ‘c alm’ and ‘hand - craf ted’ were the most popular user opinion and many noted the positive experience generated when ‘holding’ the biomaterial. Handles c an be made in a variet y of material t ypes from brass to wooden knobs, therefore there is sc ope to suggest that eggshell handles c ould be a viable alternative.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Handles

Door Handle Types

Using vinyl moulds I created t wo dif ferent handle t ypes. As the biomaterial is easily screwed (see page X) I was able to screw them into my bedside table. Testing for this applic ation is limited and thus, eggshell handles c ould be a viable material alternative.

Vinyl Moulds

Contex t Applic ation

Application Catalogue: Domestic Sheet Furniture

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Sheet Furniture

As well as c ast, the biomaterial c an also be produced in sheets. The only making criteria to c onsider is that during the dr ying process, if not suf f iciently turned and pressed, the material will star t to c onc ave on one side. A theoretic al c oncept for the eggshell biomaterial is to reimagine a mass sheet-furniture supplier such as Ikea. Customers c ould hypothetic ally be incentivised to bring in their eggshells for a price reduction in furniture. As the biomaterial is recyclable it c ould be reused and transformed into dif ferent furniture applic ations. Ikea c ould bec ome a hub for recyclable exchange.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Plant Pot

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Plant Pot

Making use of the biomaterial as a fer tiliser, an obvious applic ation is in the form of plant pots. As the biomaterial is c ast, there is a large potential for dif ferent pot st yles.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Ac oustic Panels

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Ac oustic Panels

Geometric Cast

Cell structure

2. [ht tps:// w w w.researchgate.net /f igure/ The -three - main -t ypes- of- porous- absorbing - materials _ f ig2 _ 272151761]

Cubic cells with c onnecting pores

4. 5.

1. Signal generator

5. Rigid termination

2. Sound source 3. Microphones 4. Test sample

Another internal architectural applic ation for the eggshell biomaterial c ould be in the form of ac oustic panels. Though I have thus far been unable to test the ac oustic proper ties of the biomaterial, ‘ Many natural materials (bamboo, kenaf, c oc o f ibres) show good sound absorbing per formances; c ork or recycled r ubber layers c an be ver y ef fective for impact sound insulation.’² ⁰ Looking at the biomaterial under the microsc ope, I identif ied it to have a stacked spheric al cell str ucture, which is fur ther a promising sign that the biomaterial has good ac oustic proper ties.

The c ast nature of the biomaterial would suit itself to intric ate geometric forms that c an of ten be seen in ac oustic panels.

Parallel f ibre bundles

Stacked spheres

Application Catalogue: Domestic 'Cork' Flooring

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic 'Cork' Flooring

If kept warm, the biomaterial c an be c ast over large areas, which opens up the oppor tunit y for it to be used as a f loor f inish. The biomaterial would be greatly suited for children's play areas. Its elastic nature would cushion any falls whilst the eggshell acts as a grit allowing for bet ter grip. Using a large, beeswa x sealed sheet I tested the biomaterial as a doormat to bet ter gauge if it would be suitable as a f loor f inish. With the sealant, the material is easy to clean, and the doormat has remained unchanged for four months.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Railing Cover + Window Sill

1. Kitchen c ounter top 2. ‘Cast ’ furniture 3. Door handles 4. ‘Sheet ’ furniture 5. Plant pot 1.

6. Ac oustic panel 7. ‘Cork ’ f looring 8. Railing c over/ window sill

Application Catalogue: Domestic Railing Cover + Window Sill

1. 2.

Temporar y window sill acting as both perch and c alcium source (for strong eggs)

Eggshell par ticles release as gelatine binder breaks down

4. 1. Eggshell c ap Planters placed underneath temporar y window sill to c atch falling eggshell and use as nutrients for plant grow th

2. Drip groove

1. Sealing tape

3. Galvanised screw

2. Continuous layer of adhesive over whole sloped and ver tic al c ontact area with new eggshell oversill 3. Eggshell oversill 4. E xisting sill

‘ Window sills and other exposed ledges provide nice perches for birds. O f ten, birds will use these areas as a lookout point for food and predators.’² ¹ Generally, architects actively tr y to avoid at tracting birds to buildings due to noise pollution and excrement. However, where so much of the bird's habitat has been taken over for human habitat, this applic ation proposes a c ompromise. A temporar y window sill or railing c over. The eggshell window sill would not only be physic ally appealing for the birds (to perch on) but also ec ologic ally benef icial in providing a c alcium source that will ensure they lay strong eggs.

From the bird feeder experiments, I determined that it is likely the weather will break down the binder quicker than the birds will eat the c alcium. Therefore, a new window t ypology c ould be developed where, as the binder breaks down, the eggshell c ould fall underneath to positioned plant pots acting as fer tiliser. The addition of temporar y window sills and railing c overs allows the biomaterial to c apitalise on its ec ologic al benef its within an urban c ontex t.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Insulation

10.

11.

9. Insulation 10. Tiles 11. Screed

Application Catalogue: Domestic Insulation

Thermal c onductivit y

‘Rigid insulation’ detail

Mould prevention

1. 50mm - 100mm 2. 3. 1. Thermometer 4.

2. Material sample 3. Glass beaker

Temperature (°C)

4. Boiling water

Nothing Eggshell 1. Solid wall

5. Vapour membrane

2. E xisting plaster

6. Plasterboard

3. Timber bat tens

7. Floor

Ceramic Cardboard Plastic Wood

As identif ied during the material testing phase, the biomaterial has good thermal proper ties and there is sc ope to suggest it c ould be used as an alternative insulation t ype. It would be installed in a similar way to rigid insulation boards where it c ould slot bet ween timber bat tens within a wall. ‘ Mould grow th is the most c ommon problem in an average household … the most impor tant aspect of taking c are of the problem is proper insulation.’² ² As the biomaterial is organic it is more susceptible to mould grow th c ompared with other c ommonly used insulating materials. Therefore, for this applic ation to be viable a chemic al - based sealant such as epox y or polyester resin should be used to minimise the risk of moisture c ontamination.

4. Eggshell insulation f it ted bet ween bat tens

Epox y resin [ht tps:// w w w.amazon.c o.uk /Epox y- Resin - Clear- Cr ystal - Coating/dp/ B08 4F YDBL1] Polyester resin [ht tps:// w w w.amazon.c o.uk /Polyester- Resin - Kit- Supplied - Disposable/dp/ B0 6V YH74Z5]

Application Catalogue: Domestic Tiles

10.

11.

9. Insulation 10. Tiles 11. Screed

Application Catalogue: Domestic Tiles

Process

As the biomaterial is successful in tile form, I experimented with how eggshell tiles c ould be joined using existing methods. The tiles were not sealed and thus, when using the bathroom and f loor grout, the porous nature of the biomaterial absorbed water from the binding material. Therefore, when dr ying the change in water c ontent c aused movement resulting in cracks within the grout. For the biomaterial to be a viable tile it must be suf f iciently waterproofed before installation.

Bathroom Grout

‘Eggshell’ Grout

Floor Grout

Beeswax

Interestingly, using the eggshell biomaterial itself as a ‘grout ’ was a success as it not only kept the tiles in place but also formed a strong bond to the MDF backing. This method c ould be applied to wall or f loor sur faces.

Application Catalogue: Domestic Screed

10.

11.

9. Insulation 10. Tiles 11. Screed

Application Catalogue: Domestic Screed

Bonded Screed

Bond to c oncrete

Load v Displacement

15mm - 40mm 1400

Compressive Load (N)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

Compressive Ex tension (mm)

Structural screed: 25 -30 N/mm² 1.

Test sample area: π(6 4.75) ² 4192.56/ 120 0 (failure) 10.97N/mm² 1. Concrete 2. Eggshell screed 3. Adhesive 4. Floor c overing

[ht tps:// w w w.kebur.c o.uk /product /everbuild - sbr- bond/ ]

The biomaterial c ould be used as a bonded screed alternative. The depth of bonded screed varies bet ween 15mm - 40mm which suits the ma ximum thickness of the biomaterial before moulding (see page 15).

However, str uctural screeds need to suppor t a minimum of 25 -30 N/mm2. Acc ording to the c ompressive strength tests I did the eggshell biomaterial c an only suppor t approximately 11N/mm2. Therefore, the biomaterial c ould not be used as a str uctural screed.

Above is demonstrative of the tight bond bet ween the eggshell biomaterial and c oncrete. If the biomaterial was used as a bonded screed it would eliminate the need for a bonding slurr y, fur ther making the eggshell alternative more sustainable.

Application Catalogue: Commercial Temporar y Structures

Ground c ondition af ter Glastonbur y Festival 2019

[ht tps:// w w w.somersetlive.c o.uk / whats- on/music - nightlife/galler y/ what- day- af terglastonbur y-2019 -30 430 42]

The domestic applic ations explored prior c ould also be used within a c ommercial c ontex t, relating to internal architectural applic ations. Previously the biomaterial was presented in such a way to show that it c ould be a viable alternative to more traditional and of ten unsustainable material t ypes. The ‘c ommercial’ section of the thesis seeks to showc ase where the eggshell biomaterial may be the best alternative. Lef t untreated the biomaterial is temporal and has great fer tilising proper ties. Similar to the c oncepts explored in the henhouse proposal, temporar y architecture made from eggshells

c ould be used for such events where the ground below suf fers as a result. Festivals, fairs and pop - up events of ten negatively impact the environment as shown above. Therefore, the biomaterial c ould be used for stage plat forms, temporar y warehouses, market stalls and many other temporar y str uctures with the intention of dec onstruction at the end of said event to fer tilise the ground as it biodegrades.

Application Catalogue: Commercial Chelsea Flower Show

1. Chelsea Flower Show

1.5 m ² radius:

74,673kg eggshell / year:

31,114 people:

densit y = mass / volume

1. Public transpor t 2. Bicycle 3. Foot

ρ = 1351kg/m³ volume = mass / densit y

1 person consumes 200 eggs / year:

Taking Chelsea Flower Show in London as a c ontex tual example, this section showc ases how the general public’s recycling habits c ould generate temporar y architecture. Acc ording to Wrap’s ‘Recycling Tracker Repor t 2020’ people are willing to travel 0.5 miles by foot, 1 mile by bicycle and 1.5 miles by public transpor t.² ³ Generally, people c onsume 20 0 eggs per year ² ⁴ allowing me to c alculate how many kilograms of eggshell waste occurs annually. Using a brick sample I was able to c alculate its densit y. When mass and densit y are known, the volume of how much biomaterial c ould be produced annually c an be c alculated as approximately 55m³.

If only 20% of the residents in a 1.5 mile radius recycled their eggshells or all the people it takes to put the f lower show together (80 0 0 people) ² ⁴, it would still generate approximately 11m³ of biomaterial.

/ ρ

6, 222 ,800 eggs / year:

~ 55 m³ eggshell biomaterial:

eggshell weighs 12g:

20% = 11m³:

Application Catalogue: Commercial Chelsea Flower Show

With 11m³ of biomaterial, Chelsea Flower Show c ould create large - sc ale biodegradable pavilions. The pavilions c ould be used as nutrients for the f lowers during the show to keep them fresh. Making use of modular c omponents would limit the need for multiple moulds. Additionally, it would allow for prefabric ation of the eggshell c omponents ready to be installed on - site with minimum joiner y. Components c ould either be joined by the biomaterial’s self- adhesive when exposed to high temperatures or with fasteners to allow for easy dismantling. Once the

show is c omplete, the modular c omponents c ould be dec onstructed and lef t to dec ompose and fer tilise the ground beneath which may be suf fering as a result of all the foot traf f ic.

Closing the Loop Circularising the Egg Industr y

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

The last section of the thesis will demonstrate how the linear system the egg currently follows c ould be circularised with the addition of the eggshell biomaterial. Though the biomaterial promotes circularit y due to its biodegradabilit y there are still ‘gaps’ within the system that either need to be improved or def ined.

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

Closing the Loop Upsc aling

D. Wise: Egg manufacturing c ompany [ht tps:// w w w.dwise.c o.uk / ]

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

Upsc aling the biomaterial’s manufacturing process is par ticular ly cr ucial for its viabilit y in c onstr uction. This bec ame par ticular ly relevant af ter inter viewing with Chip[s] Board (see Appendix C) who were unable to upsc ale their potato peel alternative to chipboard c ompetitively. D. Wise is an egg manufacturing c ompany in Cheshire. Due to having surplus eggshells, they decided to process it into powder. They were selling the powder to c ommercial pet food suppliers as it is so rich in c alcium. Af ter a phone c all with the c ompany, I learnt that (despite

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

still having all the equipment) they no longer process the eggshells as the inc ome they were receiving did not c over the energy c ost of r unning the machiner y. The subsequent pages dissect the machiner y involved to process eggshells on an industrial level with an emphasis on determining the ec onomic implic ations of an eggshell biomaterial.

Closing the Loop Upsc aling

210 0mm

[ht tps:// w w w.egg - machine.c om/product /eggshell - grinding - machine.html]

6 0 0mm excess liquid

140 0mm

3. 7.

1. Vacuum system 2. Centrifuge 3. Washer/ sanitizer 4. Dr yer

air

5. High speed par ticle reduction unit 8.

6. Membrane 7. Rotating disc 8. Bagger 9. Shell par ticles

Eggshell processing plants already exist and follow the same process I do at home when making the biomaterial. The centrifuge removes any surplus liquid from the eggshells, normally these are used with whole eggs. However, if just the eggshells were c ollected, a centrifuge would still be necessar y as I have noticed the binbags received from the restaurants/ bakeries of ten have a large amount of egg liquid inside. A washer to sanitise the eggs where I, at home, boil them. An industrial dr yer instead of baking them in the oven. A high - speed par ticle reduction

unit as an industrial blender. Where I use a sieve to separate the membrane from the shell, industrially there are t wo options. The above shows the bagger option which uses a rotating disc and air inf iltration to separate the lighter membrane elements from the heavier shell.

Closing the Loop Upsc aling

10 0 0mm

[ht tps:// w w w.egg - machine.c om/product /eggshell - grinding - machine.html]

2200

4. 0 60

excess liquid

3. 1. Vacuum system 2. Centrifuge 3. Washer/ sanitizer 4. Dr yer 5. High speed par ticle reduction unit 8.

6. Vibrating sieve belt 7. Membrane 8. Shell par ticles

The alternative option to separating the membrane from the shell is in the form of a vibrating sieve belt. This option is larger but more energy ef f icient.

Closing the Loop Damaged Eggs

Manufacture [ht tp:// w w w.poultr ynews.c o.uk /production/egg - production/egg -value - improved - as- sensor-technology- identif ies- c auses- of- shell -fractures.html]

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

‘Cracked and damaged eggs c an acc ount for bet ween 6% and 8% of total production.’² ⁶ Whilst for hygienic reasons the inside of the egg tr uly is waste, there is no reason why the eggshell c ould not be reused.

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

Closing the Loop Damaged Eggs

1. Collected eggshell

2 .5 m eggs/ week

£300k invest ment

170k broken eggs/ week

£5 00/ tonne (25% of plastic cost)

Disposal to landf ill/ year

4.5 years to pay of f equipment

£5.7k Landf ill cost s are rising in the UK

Prof it / year

£66.3k

[ht tps:// w w w.egg - machine.c om/eggs- processing - line/stainless- steel -10 0 0 0 - eggs- per- hour- egg -washing - machine - line.html]

Above is the average - sized processing plant for cleaning and packing eggs in the UK . There are already ‘eggshell c ollectors’ built into the machines as eggs are of ten damaged during this phase of production. It c osts money to dispose of this waste to landf ill and landf ill prices are increasing in the UK .² ⁷ Using the f igures found in The Guardian’s ‘Sc otch egg c ompany claims to have cracked problem of eggshell waste’² ⁸ as a c omparative, I was able to c alculate the ec onomic potential of c ollecting and selling eggshells. Assuming that one c ould sell the eggshell biomaterial for

a quar ter of the price of plastic, it would be prof itable for egg farmers to c ollect, process and sell their damaged eggs’ eggshells.

Closing the Loop Eggshell Collection

Collected eggshells from Egg Shack

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

It quickly bec ame unviable for me to rely on my own egg c onsumption for biomaterial experimentation. Eggshack, Pet Lamb Patisserie and Lit tle Twins Baker y have all kindly been c ontributing to my thesis in the form of eggshell donations. In a c onversation with the chefs at Egg Shack, I asked whether the eggshell c ollection had impacted their work f low as I was interested in determining the social implic ations of c ollecting eggshells at the restaurant level. They informed me that most of the waste generated on their premises was in the form of eggshells, therefore it was of lit tle disturbance to them

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

to put them aside for me in a bin bag rather than in the general bin. Asking the same question to the bakers at Pet Lamb Patisserie resulted in a similar answer in that they throw away many more eggshells c ompared with, for example, the bag that f lour c omes in. For other restaurants with many dif ferent food t ypes and waste items, separating eggshells from the rest might be inc onvenient. However, for egg - specif ic restaurants and bakeries c ollecting eggshells does not inter fere with work f low.

Closing the Loop Eggshell Collection

Starch

Egg

Brine

170m jars / year:

~ 3000m3 eggshell biomaterial / year:

30m squeeze bot tles / year:

565 bricks / m³:

331m eggs / year

8000 bricks / average UK house:

3,972 ,000kg eggshell / year:

~ 200 eggshell brick houses / year

Spice

Dynamic mixer

Eggshell Hold tank

Mayonnaise

Filler

Biomaterial

Moving up a sc ale from the restaurant level, I was curious to investigate what the implic ations of c ollecting eggshells on an industrial sc ale would be. If Hellmann’s inc orporated an eggshell c ollection and processing plant into their mayonnaise factories I estimated that this would result in 30 0 0m³ of eggshell biomaterial per year.² ⁹ This is an ex tremely large amount of material. As a c omparative, if the eggshell biomaterial was formed into a standard brick size, there would be enough bricks to build over 20 0 average - sized homes in the UK per year.³ ⁰

Closing the Loop Recycling

16.

Noise control

Ventilation (odour)

Temperature control

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

2100mmx 2200mmx600mm

6. 10.

Af ter c ollection, the eggshells will need to be taken to a ‘recycling’ unit ready for them to be repurposed as a c onstruction material. From the industrial eggshell processing equipment exploration, I know that a recycling unit would need to measure at least 210 0mm x 220 0mm x 6 0 0mm. Noise and ventilation c ontrol would be essential for the success of the recycling unit. Temperature c ontrol would help with the odour but would not be vital to its operational success.

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

Closing the Loop Recycling

Food product shops

Eggs used

Grocer y shop

Potential eggshell recycling loc ations

Cafes

Circulation route to recycling

Pubs / bars

Restaurants Supermarket

Using Chelsea as a c ontex tual example, I mapped out where there are food establishments within the area and then highlighted those which sell eggs or egg products. Taking into c onsideration how far people are willing to recycle and c onvenient circulation routes, I identif ied six potential eggshell recycling loc ations in the area. These units c ould be used for both c ommercial and residential egg c onsumers.

Closing the Loop Transpor t

Livestock Demographic Data Group: Poultr y population repor t (2017)

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

‘Ever y egg has a unique c ode printed on it,’³¹ which c an be used to identif y what farm t ype and where the egg has c ome from. Throughout the semester, I have been mapping where the eggs I have been using have c ome from on a national sc ale. I am based in Newc astle and, as shown, most of the eggs I have been using have c ome from the mid to the south of the UK . Af ter some investigation, the only clue I c ould f ind as to why this may be the c ase was the poultr y population map where the south seems to have a higher densit y of poultr y farms. However, there are still

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

1 Free-Range

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

3 Cage

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

Origin

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

12345

Producer ID

many poultr y farms in the nor th, therefore my egg food miles c ould be largely reduced. This environmental implic ation is not something I c ould design an architectural solution to. However, if an eggshell biomaterial were introduced on an industrial level there would be a rise in public awareness. That is if people were more closely c onsidering their eggshell c ollection and recycling habits whilst also making use of a new material t ype, over time perhaps transpor tation would be more closely c onsidered and bec ome more environmentally ef f icient.

Organic

Barn

Conclusion

Material Testing

Applic ation Catalogue

Closing the Loop

16.

15.

3. 14.

4. 13.

12.

11.

6. 10.

The thesis sets out to reimagine waste. We only have one planet with a limited number of resources. Waste, in my opinion, should be treated as a dated phenomenon. Without a wor ld of waste, there is a world of material oppor tunit y, which I hope to have demonstrated through eggshells.

1. Land use

9. Warehouse

2. Pullet grow th

10. Retail

3. Feed

11. Residential use

4. Egg laying

12. Commercial use

5. Cleaning

13. Eggshell c ollection

6. Damaged eggs

14. Recycling

7. Packaging

15. Sc aling up

8. Transpor t

16. Applic ation

References

1. Emissions by Sector (2016), Hannah Ritchie and Ma x Roser [ht tps://our wor ldindata.org/ emissions- by- sector]. 2. Global Food Losses and Food Waste (2011), Jenny Gustavsson, Christel Cederberg and Ulf Sonesson.

Video Links

23. Recycling Tracker Repor t 2020: Behaviours, at titudes and awareness around recycling [https://wrap.org.uk/resources/report/recycling-tracker-report-2020-behaviours-attitudesand-awareness-around-recycling]

5. The greenhouse emissions footprint of free range eggs (2018), R. C. Taylor & G. Edwards- Jones 6. Egg Info, British Lion Eggs [ht tps:// w w w.egginfo.c o.uk /egg -facts- and -f igures/industr yinformation/data] 7. Bioplastic Cookbook, FA BTE X TILES (2018), Margaret Dunne [ht tps://issuu.c om/nat _ arc / doc s/bioplastic _c ook _ book _ 3] 8. 1973: Brooklyn, New York, Louis Kahn (19 82), p.92. 9. What is the Dif ference Bet ween a Physic al Proper t y and a Mechanic al Proper t y ? (2019), Gaea Marelle Miranda [ht tps:// w w w.azom.c om/ar ticle.aspx?Ar ticleID =17626]

Sheet / Tile: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= OhKS5Z AUaCc

24. Find out about the British egg sector [ht tps:// w w w.c ountr ysideonline.c o.uk /food - and farming/feeding -the - nation/eggs/ ]

Brick: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=pj jbxpGvmxo

25. Chelsea Flower Show in Numbers [ht tps:// w w w.gardensillustrated.c om/chelsea /chelseaf lower- show- in - numbers/ ]

Half dried: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= MvXRqMvG524

26. British Poultr y Science, ISSN:0 0 07-16 68 (20 07), M. M. Bain, I. C. Dunn, P. W. Wilson, N. Joseph, B. De Ketelaere, J. De Baerdemaeker & D. Waddington, p. 462.

Frozen: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= -XL- NVol5dM

27. Changes to Landf ill Ta x Rates from 1 April 2021, gov.uk

Baked: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= MFOLf TQDZ6s

28. Sc otch egg c ompany claims to have cracked problem of eggshell waste, The Guardian (2016) [ht tps:// w w w.theguardian.c om/sustainable - business/2016/jun/30/sc otch - egg c ompany- cracked - eggshell -waste - problem - recycling - plastic]

Soaked: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=o 4yOofgRGHU

3. Food Waste (2016), Sarah Priestley (House of Commons Librar y). 4. Food Waste Def inition, FUSIONS [ht tp:// w w w.eu -fusions.org/index.php/about-food waste/10 -food -waste -wiki/280 -food -waste - def inition?highlight=WyJk Z W Zpbml0aW9uIl0 =]

Omelet te Mapping: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= 6z3lNWH2tpI

29. Hellmann's mayonnaise now use 10 0% c age free eggs, 2017 [ht tps:// w w w.unilever usa. c om/news/press- releases/2017/hellmanns- mayonnaise - and - dressings- now- use -10 0 percent- c age -free - eggs.html]

Dried (af ter soaked): ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=1a x zWMQgMv0

Largest depth: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=VoTgnUbeMsY

30. How many bricks to build a house, E xpandusceramic s [ht tps://expandusceramic s.c om] Smallest depth: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v= Gp5uepaB1Fg

10. How to Evaluate Materials (2020), Dave Olsen [ht tps:// w w w.metaltek.c om/blog/how-to elevate - materials- proper ties-to - c onsider/ ] 11. Mechanic al Proper ties, NDT Resource Centre [ht tps:// w w w.nde - ed.org/ Educ ationResources/Communit yCollege/Materials/Mechanic al/Mechanic al.htm]

31. Where are your eggs from [ht tp:// w w w.foodmiles.c om/egg - miles.cfm] Compressive strength test: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=j jm95MvnsN4

Gelatin + soap: ht tps:// w w w.youtube.c om/ watch?v=nBQhgML _ Hks

12. Stratum House / STPMJ [ht tps:// w w w.archdaily.c om/879 659/tratum - house - stpmj] Gelatin + spirulina: ht tps://youtu.be/ugj 6qwV 7c A4 13. This NZ Life, Sue Clarke [ht tps://thisnzlife.c o.nz /poultr y- exper t- sue - clarke - explainshow-to -feed -your- hens-the - c orrect- amount- of- c alcium - and - grit-to - lay- good - eggs/ ]

Gelatin + glycerine: ht tps://youtu.be/S6f Du2oBc 0s

14. Circular Ec onomy in Cities, Wor ld Ec onomic For um [w w w.wefor um.org], p.10. 15. ‘Simple Poultry Housing Tips’ (2015), Jackie Linden [https://www.thepoultrysite.com/ articles/simple-poultry-housing-tips-for-the-new-poultry-owner]

Beeswa x (waterproof ): ht tps://youtu.be/91_ J32ITkC w

Beeswa x (binding agent) dr y: ht tps://youtu.be/LVgLyk f ZIpM 16. A Review of the Uses of Poultr y Eggshells and Shell Membranes, A .M. King'ori (2011) International Journal of Poultr y Science, p.9 08 17. Building and Construction Materials for Agriculture (19 9 0), BS 5502-21, 4.6 ' Walls, Roofs and Ceilings.'

Beeswa x (binding agent) wet: ht tps://youtu.be/dWC w1d8 6kSk

Beeswa x (sealant): ht tps://youtu.be/ wpwb0OsH3Ec

18. Furniture - Assessment of sur face resitance to c old liquids (20 0 9), BS 12720:20 0 9, 9 'Assessment of Results.'

Chickens interacting with biomaterial: ht tps://youtu.be/ECc 8fgFMXCA

19. Furniture - Strength, durabilit y and safet y. Requirements for domestic seating (2012), BS 12520:2015

Flexural strength test: ht tps://youtu.be/5AyZvGdGVqs

20. Building Ac oustic s (2012), F. Asdr ubali, S. Schiavoni & K . V. Horoshenkov, p. 283. 21. Window Sills, Ledges [ht tps:// w w w.absolutebirdc ontrol.c om/products- by- area / windowsills- ledges] 22. Fighting Mould Grow th with Insulation [https://www.insulationshop.co/fighting_mould_ growth_with_insulation.html]

Material making animation: ht tps://youtu.be/l0xP tBipjCA

Inter view with Chip[s] Board: ht tps://youtu.be/dk1PNA93H3M

Appendix A Initial Experiments with Food Waste - Potato Peel

Appendix A Initial Experiments with Food Waste - Banana Peel

Appendix A Initial Experiments with Food Waste

Appendix B Material Making Process: Recipe & Animation

Eggshell Biomaterial Recipe Margaret Dunne’s ‘ Bioplastic Cook Book ’ 5 formed the basis of the gelatin binder. Initial experiments included potato peel and banana peel (see Appendix A) as well as eggshells to give the bioplastic more strength. The eggshell biomaterial was the most successful. The premise of the thesis is to showc ase how this eggshell biomaterial c ould bec ome a viable alternative to traditional building materials.

Prep time: 1hr

Cook time: 1hr

Ready in: 10 -14 days

Ingredients 40 Eggshells 75g Gelatin 20g Glycerine 6 0 0ml Water

Method Eggshell Preparation: 1. Place eggshells into a large pot of boiling water for 10 -15 minutes to remove any surplus egg white and kill any bacteria. 2. Remove eggshells from boiling water and place onto a baking tray. Bake in oven at 10 0°C for 30 minutes or until eggshells are c ompletely dried out. Open oven door ever y 10 minutes to release moisture. 3. Place eggshells into a blender until a f ine powder c onsistency is reached. Sieve the powder to remove any irregularities. Alternatively, grind eggshells by hand for desired eggshell grit c onsistency.

Binder Cooking: 1. Boil water. 2. Add gelatin and glycerine. Note: the more glycerine used the more f lexible the biomaterial will be. 3. Simmer and slowly stir the mix ture, keeping it below 80°C, for approximately 45 minutes or until the mix ture is the same c onsistency as honey. Make sure not to stir too rigurously or overheat the mix ture as this will allow bubbles to form. Evaporating as much water from the mix ture as possible will result with less shrinkage in the biomaterial. 4. Slowly stir in the prepared eggshell. Tr y to keep the mix ture warm other wise it may star t to set. 5. Slowly (to avoid bubbles) pour the mix ture into a desired mould. 6. Store mould in a c ool environment that has a lot of air f low. Warmer environments may c ause bacteria to grow, which c an c ause the biomaterial to mould. 7. Remove the biomaterial from the mould as soon as possible (normally 4 hours depending on mould t ype) to allow for ma ximum air f low. 8. Leave to fully dr y for 10 -14 days.

Appendix C Experiential Characterisation Map - MA 2E4 Toolkit [ht tp://materialsexperiencelab.c om/ma2e 4 -toolkit- experiential - characterization - of- materials]

Tex t from website:

The Ma2E4 Toolkit aims to suppor t material/design professionals in understanding (1) how people receive a par ticular material on four dif ferent experiential levels: sensorial, interpretive (meanings), af fective (emotions), and per formative (actions, per formances), and (2) how these levels interrelate in the experience of the material. By using the four experiential levels as a

EXPERIENTIAL CHARACTERIZATION MAP

. PERFORMATIVE LEVEL

This m ap aim s to suppor t you in

used to stimulate the design process, highlighting the unique materials’ qualities to envision

understanding how people experience

innovative product applic ations. , which facilitate an agile design research approach.

. SENSORIAL LEVEL

pre s s i n g

caressing

rub b i n g

fiddling

gra z i n g

pounding

comp r e s s i n g

pushing

po k i n g

............

-2

-1

hard

How d o yo u mo v e t h e ma t e r i a l ?

The Ma2E4 toolkit is c omposed of: (1) a manual of instr uctions; (2) facilitator ’s questions; (3) the experiential characterization map, to rec ord par ticipant ’s answers; (4) the af fective and interpretive voc abular y; (5) a set of interpretive pictures.

fol d i n g

f l e xi n g

lift i n g

picking

we i g h i n g

squeezing

be n d i n g

s me l l i n g

rough

ma t t e

glossy

cold not elastic opaque tough strong

How d o yo u h o l d t h e ma t e r i a l

light

st ar t

. INTERPRETIVE LEVEL

ho l d i n g

grabbing

seiz i n g

grasping

pin c h i n g

............

What do you associate with th e ma t e r i a l ?

r e g u l a r t e xt u r e fibred

. AFFECTIVE LEVEL

soft

s mo o t h

not reflective

m aterials.

Ho w w o u l d yo u d e s c r i b e t h e ma t e r i a l ?

How d o yo u t o u c h t h e ma t e r i a l ?

foundational structure, the toolkit provides a set of activities and voc abularies that facilitate a systematic and agile approach to user studiesy c ards. The resulting information c an be

W h a t d o e s t h e ma t e r i a l ma k e yo u d o ?

reflective warm elastic transparent ductile weak heavy irregular texture not-fibred

W h a t e mo t i o n s d o e s t h e ma t e r i a l e l i c t ?

How would you describe it? in t e n s e m eani ng 1

m eani ng 2

m e a n in g 3

un p l e a s a n t 4

5 (unf old t he map and open sidew ings)

. FINAL REFLECTIONS

pleasant

Why do you think the m aterial i s ..?

What is the most pleasant quality of the material?

What is the most disturbing quality of the material?

What is the most unique quality of the material?

Appendix D Inter view with Chip[s] Board