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Submitted for the degree of BA Honours Architecture and Urban Planning

School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape 2019-2020

COMMUNITY-LED PLANNING FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN THE COTSWOLDS A framework for effective community empowerment

APL3007 Student No. 160331905

Abstract Affordable housing is in short supply, especially in rural areas across the UK. This research explores the success of community-led planning in delivering affordable housing in the Cotswolds by providing a framework for effective community engagement. Highlighting the barriers in the process, which hinder developments in rural areas, especially within the sensitive environment of the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. In addition, the framework analyses why and who is need of affordable housing, the role of the Parish Council and localism powers. As well as, the exploration of Rural Exception Sites, and the importance of producing a robust and highly influential Housing Needs Survey. The case study of Eastington Community Land Trust will highlight the importance of community led planning in meeting local housing needs in building affordable housing on an exception site. The research summarises with conclusions and recommendations for future planning guidance on delivering affordable housing through community empowerment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor, Sally Watson for the support throughout the process, as well as my family and friends who have always been there for me. I am most grateful.

AUTHOR - ANNA K T JONES

C O N T E N T S

List of Figures...............................................................1 1. Introduction..............................................................3 2. Literature Review.....................................................6

2.1 Local and National Policy................................6 2.2 Economic and Social ......................................8 2.3 The impact of Environmental Regulation in delivering Affordable Housing .....................12 3. Methodology .........................................................13

3.1 Research Plan..................................................14 3.2 Data Analysis..................................................14 4. Results / Findings...................................................15

4.1 Who is affordable housing for in the Cotswolds? .....................................................15 4.2 Role of Parish Council: Localism Power....................................................18 4.3 Community engagement and Community-Land Trusts.....................................21 4.4 Rural Exception Sites.....................................23 4.5 Housing Needs Survey- Producing a robust and influential rural HNS....................25 4.6 Eastington S.18/2202/FUL. Proposal: 23 affordable units...............................30 5. Conclusions ...........................................................38

5.1 Recommendations..........................................40 6. Bibliography............................................................41

LIST OF FIGURES Cover photo: Bomberg, A. (2019) Aerial view of Eastington Parish (image) Available at: https://www. alex-bomberg.co.uk/alex-bomberg-parish-councilor.html (Accessed: 2th Dec 2019). Figure 1: Hewes, J. (2010) Map of the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty showing railway lines and stations. (map) Available at: https://visitbytrain.info/cotswolds/index.htm (Accessed: 4th Dec 2019). Figure 2: Urban75. (2012 ) High Speed Train train from London on platform 2. (image) Available at: http:// www.urban75.org/railway/kemble-railway-station-gwr.html (Accessed: 8th Dec 2019). Figure 3: Churcham Homes. (2019) Illustration of a new ‘luxury’ home at the site in Ullenwood. (image) Available at: https://www.churchamhomes.co.uk/ullenwood-floor-plans?lightbox=dataItem-jy8rs5r81 (Accessed: 2nd Mar 2020). Figure 4: Coberley Parish Council. (2019) Cotswold Voluntary Wardens in Coberley. (image) Available at: https://coberleyparish.co.uk/ (Accessed: 15th Jan 2020). Figure 5: Cotswolds Tourism Partnership. (2020) The Cotswolds in realtion to its surrounding urban areas. (map) Available at: https://www.cotswolds.com/ (Accessed: 2nd Mar 2020). Figure 6: South Gloucestershire Council. (2019)District deprivation as a proportion of district population, split by domain of deprivation with supplementary indices, 2010 and 2015. (graph) Available at: https://www. gloucestershire.gov.uk/media/1521544/understanding_cotswold-10.pdf (Accessed: 13th Dec 2019). Figure 7: Harper. (2019) Foundation works : First phase works in July, 2019. (image) Available at: http://www. harpergroup.co.uk/north-cerney/(Accessed: 15th Oct 2019). Figure 8: Author’s Own. (2020) Development nearly complete, March 4th 2020 (image). Figure 9: Cirencester Housing. (2020) Churnbridge Row- 12 affordable homes in a range of sizes to meet local residents needs. (illustration) Available at: https://www.cirencesterhousing.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2019-Annual-Review-Final-Web3.pdf (Accessed: 20th Nov 2019). Figure 10: NCLT. (2020) Forming a CLT (diagram) Available at: http://www.communitylandtrusts.org.uk/ what-is-a-clt/about-clts (Accessed: 5th Mar 2020). Figure 11: Parish Link. (2019) Map of Coberley Parish (map) Available at: http://www.churnvalley.org.uk/ content/pages/documents/1550682097.pdf (Accessed: 13th Feb 2020).

Figure 12: CNES. (2020) Satellite image of Coberley (image) Available at: https://www.google.com/ maps/@51.8421072,-2.0535245,1579m/data=!3m1!1e3 (Accessed: 15th Feb 2020). Figure 13: GRCC. (2017) HNS survey for Coberley Parish. (Questionnaire). Figure 14: Bomberg, A. (2019) Aerial view of Eastington Parish (image) Available at: https://www. alex-bomberg.co.uk/alex-bomberg-parish-councilor.html (Accessed: 2th Dec 2019). Figure 15: OCSI. (2016)Average property price by dwelling type. (graph) Available at: https://www.gloucestershire.gov.uk/media/1521297/glos-parishes-cotswold-northleach-with-eastington-cp-glos_li_parish_ e04004252-20161109001057229.pdf (Accessed: 11th Oct 2019). Figure 16: Northleach with Eastington Neighbourhood Plan. (2016-2031) Displays at one of the drop-in days in June and July 2014. (image) . Figure 17: Northleach with Eastington Neighbourhood Plan. (2016-2031) Early sife assessment work being carried out by community volunteers. (image). Figure 18: Eastington. (2020) ECLT Site boundary. (image) Available at: https://eastingtonclt.uk/the-project/ choosing-the-site/ (Accessed: 13th Feb 2020). Figure 19: Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Own. (2020) Junction 13 of M5 motorway, near to site. (image). Figure 20: Eric Cole Ltd. (2016)April 2017 Layout. (image) Available at: https://eastingtonclt.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2018/10/designandaccess-compressed.pdf (Accessed: 29th Nov 2019). Figure 21: ECLT. (2020) Early construction works on site in February. (image) Available at: https://eastingtonclt.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Fencing-etc-at-Puddleworth-Close.pdf (Accessed: 29th Feb 2020). Figure 22: Authors Own. (2020) Most recent site development in early March (image). Figure 23: ECLT. (2020) Stroud DC Leader Doina Cornell, Tom Morrison, ECLT chairman, and Jane Gallifent, Director of Aster Housing Association, celebrating the start of work. (image) Available at: https://ecn. eastington.website/2020/02/01/eastington-community-land-trust-on-tv/ (Accessed: 3rd Mar 2020). Figure 24: ECLT. (2020) The ECLT Trustees on the site. (image) Available at: https://ecn.eastington.website/2020/02/01/eastington-community-land-trust-on-tv/ (Accessed: 2nd Mar 2020).

1 INTRODUCTION This study aims to explore the core issues relating to Community-Led Planning (CLP) in delivering affordable housing on Rural Exception Sites (RES). The investigation will provide a comprehensive analysis of the current issues arising from the pursuit of local and national targets to meet specific housing needs, when developing in sensitive environments

The research will address the lack of supply and responsiveness of housing in UK rural areas through a detailed study of the Cotswold Area of National Beauty (AONB). There are 87 parish and town councils in the area, covering 787 square miles, through five counties; Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire and Worcestershire (Cotswold, 2020). The designation of the district as an AONB in 1996 has led to strict environmental measures regarding planning policies and regulations. Affordable housing policy is set out in the Cotswold AONB Management Plan 2018-2023 (Policy CE12), with robust evidence of a significant lack of supply in the area. Priority is given to the provision of affordable housing in the AONB on exception sites, where any other form of housing development would not be permitted.

Recent research has raised concern over the effectiveness of current policies in rural areas and the existence of certain barriers to the successful deliverance of affordable housing (Baxter and Murphy, 2018) These perceived barriers, falling into the categories of social, economic, governmental and environmental obstructions will become explored in this study. Local authorities have adopted a positive RES policy to deliver affordable housing (Shelter, 2016). However, it is argued that “uncertainty over a planning authority development strategy, or its intentions for a

particular site are unclear, owners may be less inclined to release land for exception schemes” (Gallent et al, 2002: p. 456). These problems have arisen primarily as a result of a lack of clear guidelines for local landowners and Parish Councils The first Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) Notes, were issued jointly in Wales and England in 1988, as specific guidance on using the planning system to deliver affordable housing— more recently as either a planning gain, or through the exceptions approach (Gallent et al, 2002). The use of Rural Housing Enablers (RHEs) has helped local communities locate RES for development. The research will address the success of Parish Council (PC) engagement with RHEs and the creation of successful Neighbourhood Plans in identifying a local housing need through a robust Housing Needs Survey (HNS). A range of Parish Councils (Coberley, Eastington, Bagendon and North Cerney) within the Cotswold District Council (CDC) will be analysed in the research. The fact that resources for making a Neighbourhood Plan are not directed at those communities with greatest needs is a barrier to local empowerment in the development of affordable housing (TCPA, 2018: P. 46). Many small rural parishes do not have a precept that would allow enough funds to cover the costs involved in making a Neighbourhood Plan, ie Coberley Parish. A good case study of how Neighbourhood Planning can be achieved is through the successful housing scheme created by the Eastington Community Land Trust (ECLT). Eastington’s Neighbourhood Plan reflects the importance of local planning practice in the Cotswold District in desperate need of affordable housing meet local housing needs. This will help decide whether the aim of the Neighbourhood Plan achieves its objectives.

Figure 1: Map of the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty showing railway lines and stations. (Hewes, 2010)

This dissertation will explore the issues associated community involvement in the planning and development of local affordable housing. Factors affecting the delivery of such rural affordable housing include; restrictive approaches to development, the issues arising from developing in sensitive environments such as AONBs, lack of willing from landowners to supply exception sites at a price below market rate, lack of willing from local residents, as well as the lack of funding from appropriate organisations such as Housing Associations (HAs), Help to Buy and Home Seekers Plus.

The case studies used will explore the extent to which, and the way in which, Local Planning Authorities (LPA) base housing provision in the Cotswolds AONB on evidence of the need for affordable housing within the district. In addition, there will be discussions on the extent to which local authorities require, and prioritise, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;local connectionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; when allocating affordable housing. As well as, the extent to which new affordable housing provision within parishes (especially on RES) actually ends up benefiting those locals who have been identified as being in need of affordable housing.

This study will illustrate the socio-demographic pressures which exacerbate the need for the deliverance of affordable housing. This study is pertinent and necessary in order to better provide housing in light of increasing homelessness, issues of affordability and increasing social deprivation in the district, made more serious by the relatively low median household income in the Cotswolds compared to other rural areas in the UK. Population growth, as elsewhere, is undoubtedly of major concern and contributes to increasing housing demand in the district as well as across the UK. This further complicates the housing of families on low incomes near to family members, restricting elderly and child-care support opportunities and reducing employment opportunities, thus further deepening socio-economic inequality.

The dissertation will be structured in four parts. The first section will take the form of a literature review, exploring the key extant literature on the economic, social, environmental and policy relating to barriers in delivering affordable rural housing. The second section will explain the methodology used in the study, to test the questions proposed through a range of data collection methods such as interviews with Rural Housing Enablers and Cotswold District Councillors. The findings will be used to propose who affordable housing is for in the Cotswolds, the barriers to development, the importance of community engagement and Community Land Trusts. The next section will provide the case study evidence from Eastington CLT through effective community engagement from a highly influential HNS. Finally, the essay will conclude to provide a summary of the research findings with proposed ideas in order to plan proactively and sustainably for the delivery of affordable housing in the Cotswolds. The proposed ideas will explain the importance of balancing local needs and desires of the council, landowners and developers by bringing people together to build strong relationships in rural communities.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Local and National Policy The National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) requires local planning authorities to plan proactively to meet housing needs in their respective districts, including both market-rate and affordable housing. The NPPF highlights the importance of the contribution of sustainable development in local planning policies in Paragraphs 7 to 14, through analysis of social, economic and environmental factors. Paragraph 9 states that, “Planning policies and decisions should play an active role in guiding development towards sustainable solutions, but in doing so should take local circumstances into account, to reflect the character, needs and opportunities of each area.” (NPPF, 2019: p.5) However, it is important to consider that there is a conflict between Government’s sustainable development objectives and their targets for the deliverance of new homes.

The Barker Review of Housing Supply (2004) has identified issues regarding the supply of affordable housing in England, as supply has not met local demands. The Government has been highly criticised for not meeting housing targets due to increasing house prices and lack of land availability across the UK (Parliament, 2005). This has led to the identification of the need to better understand the mechanisms for ensuring affordable housing and increasing land availability. An example of this is through the involvement of a Rural Housing Enabler (RHE), explored in the research, as an effective use of engagement between the local community, developer and the Cotswold District Council (CDC). Paragraph 77 of the NPPF, states the importance of the identification of RES to meet local needs, as well and the need for some market housing on RES to make projects a success.

It is crucial to plan proactively for future generations in isolated rural communities, as affordable housing helps retain young and new families, keeping services such as primary schools open and injecting new life into villages in the Cotswolds. The Government plays a significant role in subsidising affordable housing through schemes, which include shared ownership, build-to-rent and Help-to-Buy. To improve the delivery of affordable housing the Government encourages LPAs to actively use planning obligations and other tools effectively (Communities and Local Government, 2016).

The Housing White Paper (2017) and supporting documents set out the government’s plans to reform the housing market and to boost the supply of new homes in England. However, changes to government policy as well as wider structural economic factors, especially with regards to the unknown effects of Brexit, greatly affect the delivery and market of affordable housing (Raynsford Review, 2018).

Local Development Frameworks (LDF) are crucial to support the delivery of affordable housing. Planning at a local level through the introduction of the Localism Act, 2011, has enabled communities to take planning into their own hands. As argued by Goodwin (1998), the local governance structure has enabled residents, as well as voluntary and private sectors to participate in the planning process, promoted through community development initiatives. Local communities are encouraged to express their views in the decision-making process which will affect their neighbourhood. Neighbourhood Planning a policy initiative, where a local plan is designed by a community, setting out planning policies for their neighbourhood. Neighbourhood Plans are highly influential in delivering affordable housing as the people who know and live in the area, develop the plan, rather than the Local Planning Authority (LPA). Such plans are a powerful tool, used to ensure the community gets the appropriate kind of development, in the right place for the community, assisting the national objective to promote an approach reflecting localism. Policy initiatives outlining Neighbourhood Planning are highlighted in the CDC Local Plan (2011-2031), include; Section 106 (s106), RHEs, RES and Planning Policy Statement 3 (PPS3).

However, ever-changing government policies greatly affect the delivery of affordable housing through cuts to grants for housing associations resulting in a lack of investment in affordable housing within the CDC. To conclude, to plan proactively for future generations, planners must increase the supply of affordable housing, and LPAs should set sustainable targets to meet economic, social, and environmental needs. More government intervention is necessary to make funding available in order to deliver more affordable homes (Shelter, 2016) and to free up and identify suitable sites in communities.

2.2 Economic and Social

It is worth considering the impact of second homes on small rural communities, and the significant economic barrier to affordable housing they pose. As argued by Meacher (1999) and Monboit (2006) second homes and long-term empty properties, deprive locals of the right to their home village. A clear example of the damaging effects of second home ownership in the Cotswolds is the village of Kemble, with its attractive rail link to London Paddington. According to Savills (2019) half of those purchasing

homes in the Cotswolds over ÂŁ1.25m work in London.

Figure 2: High Speed Train train from London on platform 2. (Urban75, 2012)

Figure 3: Illustration of a new ‘luxury’ home at the site in Ullenwood. (Churcham Homes, 2019)

Housing developers are becoming increasingly unwilling to contribute through section 106 agreements to build affordable housing on their ‘luxury’ developments. For example, in Ullenwood (Coberley Parish), in a recent development, by Churcham Homes, of 26 new ‘luxury homes’, the developer has been able to develop maximum market price houses without developing affordable houses nearby. As a result, the lack of affordable housing has pushed potential local residents, especially young couples, further away from entering the market, especially as first-time buyers. Similarly, families on median incomes wishing to use the local village primary schools and elderly people who cannot afford to buy are increasingly unable to stay in their local community having to move away from their support networks.

Jane Jacobs (1961) and Herbert Gans (1968) highlight how place making and attachment, plays a pivotal role in the planning process. The decisions made in the community are largely influenced by the emotional bond between peoples ‘sense of place’ and are explored in environmental psychology. Tuan (1974) suggests the strong link to landscapes in relation to the community’s attachment to an area as ‘topophilia’, greatly influencing community life. Those in positions of power in the community, through the role of social groups, such as the PC, should not be overlooked and can be highly influential in the planning process. Sturzaker (2010) argues that power “exercised

by rural elites” prevents much needed housing development in rural area, producing social hierarchies, prejudice and sometimes racism. (p.1001) Sturzaker (2010) further explains this through Stephen Luke’s ‘three dimensions of power’ (1974), utilising power in three forms; decision-making, non-decision making, and ideological power.

Figure 4: Cotswold Voluntary Wardens in Coberley. (Coberley PC, 2019)

The ability rural landowners have in the planning process should not be overlooked. Powerful landowners, as well as LPAs and Registered Social Landowners (RSL), can play a pivotal role in alleviating England’s rural affordable housing crisis (Carmona, M. et al., 2001). Landowners who do not release land for development act as “local opposition” to development. (Sturzaker, 2010, p. 1004) In the Cotswolds, landowners are critical to ensuring the ready supply of RES in community led planning, but are often influenced by factors inhibiting them from releasing their land to developers. Certain factors include; price, business requirements and wider social and economic interests. A recent survey carried out by RICS for the Taylor Review (date) found that, “landowners would welcome a scheme that enabled them to make land available for affordable housing whilst retaining some control over occupation, management and long-term ownership”. (Taylor, 2008, p. 109) The idea of landowners releasing land for affordable housing and being able to have a degree of control over the tenancy of those houses needs to be explored in further research, as this would free up more suitable RES for affordable housing development. The Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE) has proposed ideas for landowners in order to solve affordable housing shortages by encouraging the release land for affordable housing development. This is achievable through fewer tax barriers and ensuring landowners that land will be beneficial to people with local connections to the community. However, further research carried out by RICS (2016) shows that certain schemes to release the land can be counterproductive, as they increase the ‘hope value’ of the land, resulting in the release of fewer RES in the Cotswold District. A report by Shelter (2016) states that “some landowners may consider it prudent to

hold onto their land until land values stabilise or rise” (p. 12). There are voices calling for the protection of the rural character of the countryside, proposing other possible ways to meet housing needs. The CPRE strive to protect green belts, as they are of high environmental value, used to reduce urban sprawl and believe that housing needs can be met by using suitable brownfield land, empty homes, and house builders sitting on land with planning permission. (CPRE, 2011) It has also been argued that many green belt campaigners act as barriers to affordable housing in the Cotswold District and have highly influential power in the planning process and are thus able to prevent development in rural areas in urgent need of need housing. Shaun Spires (2018) has noted green belt campaigners have a “narrow intransigence”. (p.41) enhancing conflict and debate in the ever-contested countryside. To conclude, it is important to question further the social barriers to development, as they can be highly influential in the planning process and deliverance of affordable housing.

2.3 The impact of Environmental Regulation in delivering Affordable Housing Strict environmental regulations in rural areas, especially in AONBs act as powerful barriers limit-ing the supply of affordable housing in the CDC. AONBs cover 15% of England’s land surface and are considered areas worthy of long-term preservation, and some argue they should be ‘listed’ for scenic and environmental value (CPRE, 2017). It is in the nation’s interest to safeguard these areas in order to protect their natural beau-ty. Relevant policy regarding AONBs duty of regard is evident in Section 85 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act (2002) as well as the Government’s national policy and principles in the NPPF, paragraphs 11 and 172, and Planning Policy Guidance (PPG). The Cotswold Conserva-tion Board (2018) highlights the pressures faced by AONBs, which include development pres-sures, such as LPAs reaching housing targets, changes in and the intensification of land manage-ment, erosion of natural beauty and the increased questioning of AONB designation. Blacksell and Gilg (1977) claim that a small number of AONBs have higher planning approval rates than areas outside the AONB, suggesting that AONBs do not carry particularly strong environmental importance, and are relatively weak in limiting development, especially when compared with Na-tional Parks. According to Satsangi and Dunmore (2003), tight planning controls on rural land has severely impacted planning guidance, rather than social sustainability, creating a barrier to development in the district. However, RES provide an opportunity for landowners and developers to build af-fordable houses in areas where planning permission for such development would not usually be considered. Paragraph 166 in the NPPF, states that planning permission should be refused in all cases, except in ‘exceptional circumstances’ and where it can be demonstrated that development is in the public interest,

further complicates the provision of RES. Richards and Satangi (2004) note the confusion surrounding what is meant specifically by ‘exceptional circumstances’, creat-ing conflict in the countryside where “tensions are greater in areas with higher ‘environmental value’ due to more restrictive planning policies” (Richards and Satangi, 2004, p. 251). The con-cussion surrounding the understanding of the term ‘exceptional circumstances’ stems from the lack of statutory definition of the term. The independent Review of Housing in England’s AONBs (2012-2017) found that pressures on the Cotswolds AONB included a growing number of planning applications of all sites, a significant increase in market housing approvals, as well as social housing approvals being at a five year low (2015/16). This leads to question the impact of these developments on the AONB if numbers continue to increase. To conclude, the research proposed intends answer the question of how to address the affordable housing shortage and boost supply whilst continuing to protect the natural environment of AONBs. There is a gap in the research in how planning policies and planning decisions relating to the Cotswolds AONB vary between the local authorities within the AONB and how they compare to the equivalent policies and decisions in other protected landscapes, particularly national parks.

3 METHODOLOGY

The research in this paper specifically involves assessing housing developments in neighbouring villages in the Cotswolds AONB and the importance of schemes such as RES and CLTs. Semi-structured interviews with housing officers and planning officers from the local authorities, rep-resentatives of RSLs in the District, RHEs and representatives of PCs were conducted to gain insights from stake-holders and professionals. These individuals included local councillors from the CDC such as, Lisa Spivey, Joe Harris and Julia Judd, as well as John Mills, Planning & Land-scape Officer at the Cotswold Conservation Board. In depth studies of policy documents at a national, regional, and local level, including England-wide Planning Policy Statements and Guid-ance notes, Regional Spatial Strategies (RSSs), and local plans/ Local Development Frameworks (LDFs) for the Cotswolds District were also completed. Along side this, an in depth studying of HNS and housing-market assessments were carried out.

The research has identified the problems arising from a lack of affordable housing development in villages in the Cotswolds through an extended ended research period beginning in July 2019 and ending in March 2020. The methods used include qualitative primary research through the study of field-notes and observations, as well as qualitative research in the form of interviews with key stakeholders. Secondary research included detailed critical analysis of relevant literature, as well as national policy documents, CDC plans and housing developments and planning applications data.

3.1 Research Plan Task: Research into the topic Duration: 3 months Description: • Research site visits that are appropriate to the area of research. • Literature relating to the topic, including past and future trends, as well as theories from sociologists, environmentalist, planners, architects and economists. • Planning policies relating to past and future projections set by the government, local authorities and parish councils. • Data collection from websites: council, government, local districts and governmental bodies. • Proposed development from developers (international, national and local) through planning applications.

local authority planners, housing associations, estate agents and local developers. Location specific questions will be used for specific sites. • Interviews were in open and closed format: Open questions enable an unlimited range of response from participants which can be expanded from closed questions that lack in detail and personal opinion. However, closed questions were used as they are quick and easy for people to answer, and improve consistency of responses, thus easily comparable with other participants • Interviews were important for understanding topical issues and engaging in the field was helpful in obtaining a range of personal opinions which cannot be found elsewhere. Interviews were be conducted Face-to-face, over the phone or via online..

Task: Fieldwork and site visits

Task: Interviews Duration: N/A

Duration: N/A

Description:

• Semi-structured interviews with local authority councillors, community council representatives,

• Site analysis at each site. • Photographs of Rural exception sites

3.2 Data Analysis Drawing on the findings of the data collection, summaries and conclusions will be constructed to support the hypothesis. Visualising the data will enable the data to be communicated in an in-formative way through tables, graphs and pie charts to explain and compare my findings and to predict future trends in the development process. There is an understanding that there will is cer-tain limitations to the research. Positionality factors including age, gender, class and ethnicity has influenced the outcome of the research to a certain extent. It is also necessary to consider the im-portance of research ethics in my dissertation, as there are reputations I must maintain when working with the public. 14

4 RESULTS / FINDINGS 4.1 Who is affordable housing for in the Cotswolds?

In this section I attempt to understand who affordable housing in the Cotswolds is for. There are many different forms of home ownership within affordable housing which include; affordable housing for rent, starter homes, discounted market sales housing and other affordable routes to home ownership. A wide variety of home ownership is needed to meet local people’s demands in rural villages within the District as affordability has become a major concern for local residents. In Gloucestershire, the annual medium income, before tax, is £26,000 per working adult, which is substantially lower than the national medium (£30,400) (Plumplot, 2019). This is mainly due to the large number of jobs in the agricultural and tourism industries, as well as part time and low-paid full-time employment. Furthermore, future projections by the Gloucestershire County Council (2015) show the Agriculture, forestry & fishing and Mining, quarrying & utilities sectors are both set to contract. This will have serious impacts for the future of local residents who are reliant upon these sectors for their income.

Issues of affordability are also reflected in the Districts average high house prices, which is not a reflection of local residents’ incomes.

This is mainly due to District’s attractive historic architecture and character of its traditional housing, its proximity to London for ‘flexible working, county-house buyers’ (Younes, 2020), which has generated a highly competitive market. Furthermore, ongoing improvements to rail and road infrastructure has led to many working people commuting for work to surrounding urban areas such as Swindon, Bristol, Birmingham, Oxford and London.

Figure 5: The Cotswolds in realtion to its surrounding urban areas. (Cotswolds Tourism Partnership, 2020)

The findings suggest that home ownership is too expensive for a significant proportion of people wanting to live in a typical Cotswold village. It is extremely challenging for two people on an average starting salary in their twenties, earning around £21,000 a year, looking for a house to buy or rent. Findings in the Cotswolds Conservation Board Position Statement (2006) show the ratio of average house price to average gross income in Cotswold District to be over 16:1, the third highest in the South West Region (Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, 2006). The Na-tional Federation of Housing (NHF), suggests that rural communities face the consequences of unaffordable house prices in a more severe way than urban areas. South Gloucestershire Council research has found two key barriers to housing, ‘geographical barriers’ and ‘wider barriers’, such as lack of affordable housing. For example, severe geographical sub-barriers such as long distanc-es to essential services exacerbate the levels of depravation in the district. It is stated in the anal-ysis of the English Indices of Deprivation 2019 for South Gloucestershire, there is a, “difficulty of access to owner-occupation or the private rental market, expressed as the inability to afford to enter owner occupation or the private rental market” (South Gloucestershire Council, 2019: p. 41).

Figure 6: District deprivation as a proportion of district population, split by domain of deprivation with supplementary indices, 2010 and 2015 (South Gloucestershire Council, 2019)

Making affordable housing available to all is extremely difficult, especially in the Cotswolds, which is in desperate need of such homes in order to re-balance the local housing supply. Policy H2 in the Cotswolds District Local Plan 2011-2031 highlights the Districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s affordable housing need, which is currently estimated to be 157 net additional affordable homes per year between 2015-2031. More affordable homes are needed especially due to the lack of affordability for the 24-34 age bracket as suggested in the CDC Local Strategy Plan 2011-2031. Lack of affordable housing in rural areas creates a dilemma where young residents move away from villages, with ageing communities, in search for further education and employment to surrounding economic hubs such as Cheltenham or further afield to London. This results in fewer young local residents to support the ageing local community and services. Therefore, in order for affordable housing to thrive in the Cotswolds, it must accommodate the needs of local people, especially those who work locally. Helping residents in these situations is extremely important to keep future generations of local people close to where they live and work, supporting sustainable communities. As stated in the Local Development Strategy Plan 20112031, leaving the issue of affordability unchecked will have long-term economic and social effects for the future of the District.

4.2 Role of Parish Council: Localism Powers A

This section will analyse the role of the Parish Council in influencing the planning process. There are currently 87 parish and town councils in the district, (CDC, 2020) which influence local plan making decisions. PCs are required follow a code of conduct in order best represent the interests and views of the community as a whole. If implemented in the right way, PCs can be highly effective in participatory engagement. (Willet and Cruxion, 2019)

Collaborative and fully dedicated PCs are extremely influential in the CDC as research suggests that PCs are required to initiate and support affordable housing schemes. Therefore, it is the role and responsibility of the PC to work with Rural Housing Enablers (RHE) to actively seek out suitable sites for affordable housing developments, thus acting as the catalyst in the planning process by community engagement. They can also work with with other PCs in sharing information to help identify and locate potential RES for development. For example, in the case of Bagendon and North Cerney Parishâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s deliverance of 12 new affordable homes, policy maker such as Jenny Ford from North Somerset Council, was instrumental in the Churnbridge Row project and was involved in the early stages of planning and implementation.

Figure 7: Churnbridge Row Foundation works : First phase works in July, 2019. (Harper ,2019) Figure 8: Churnbridge Row development nearly complete, March 4th 2020. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Own, 2020)

The project was a success, and it included many public consultations with parishioners to fully understand their local housing needs, which was facilitated by Gloucestershire Rural Community Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rural Housing Enabler. The two PCs were able to fund and implement a joint project with a grant from Cirencester Housing and Cotswold District Council, in delivering 12 affordable homes on the site â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 10 houses and flats for affordable rent and two houses for shared ownership. Regular consultations ensured the appropriate materials were used in the construction of the homes, which. reflected the findings from the local consultations. Similarly, the right mix of houses and flats was found to meet the community needs. Recommendations and conclusions from surveys suggested the site to be in close proximity to surrounding infrastructure. Therefore, the chosen location to build in North Cerney was due to the walkable distance to public transport and local amenities, such as; the 51 bus route from Cirencester to Cheltenham, the North Cerney Primary School, the Bathurst Arms pub and North Cerney village hall.

However, regardless of a highly supportive and cooperative community, the process of delivering affordable housing is not necessarily as simple as is seen here, as it it takes significant time and strenuous negotiation between a wide range of local groups and organisations, especially in highly sensitive and visible sites within the AONB. The proposed site had difficulties in being granted planning permission, as selective materials were necessary to approve planning consent. However, the homes designed by Quattro Architects have been designed to enhance the outstanding rural area, which was helped by ideas from the local community during the consultation process (Harper, 2019).

Figure 9: Churnbridge Row- 12 affordable homes in a range of sizes to meet local residents needs. ( Cirencester Housing, 2020)

As statutory consultees, it is evident that within the District, the PC can have a significant influence over local planning decisions and in delivering affordable housing. In order to do this successfully, the PC must be diverse and represent a wide range of local views. Councillors are responsible for representing their communities fairly and must be fully representative of the community as a whole and not just the interests of a powerful few, in order for the PC to be an example of participatory democracy. However, PCs are not always successful as a part of the diplomatic process as research shows there are fewer applicants to become Parish Councillors, and many are older residents and retirees (Willett & Cruxon, 2019). Therefore, young residents feel their needs are not fully represented by local councils.

4.3 Community engagement and Community-Land Trusts

This section will analyse the strengths of Community-Led Housing (CLH) through the success of community-led planning schemes in the Cotswolds, which have been instrumental in delivering quality affordable houses to buy or rent. The homes are owned by the local community and de-signed specifically to meet the community housing needs.

Under the CLH, residents can help build homes in the right places, and at lower than market prices, thus CLH has in recent years become a more realistic and popular option in the planning process across the UK. Residents can identify potential small sites, which would normally be dif-ficult to develop on, off limits or of no interest to developers. For that reason alone, it is argued that CLH groups have a significant advantage in approaching landowners over traditional devel-opers, who are not usually permitted to develop on land outside of development zones. There-fore, CLH represents a significant ‘delivery vehicle’ used to provide more affordable homes in rural areas, as outlined in the 2007 Housing Green Paper. The provision of affordable housing has

gained increasing support in many communities, provid-ing it meets local needs, is well designed and is affordable for local people. One of the top CLH priorities set out in the report on Community-Led Housing (2017) is “empowering communities so that they became more selfsufficient, cohesive, resilient and sustainable” (CCIN 2017: p, 10). This has meant that rural areas have been able to keep local residents in the area through mixed CLH tenure schemes. Action with Communities in Rural England (ACRE) promote and support CLH schemes, particularly on Rural Exception Sites, in collaboration with CLTs (Community Land Trusts). CLTs are community-driven and controlled organisations, providing land and buildings to meet the needs of their communities, where “local residents and businesses partici-pate in and take responsibility for planning and delivering redevelopment schemes” (Shelter, 2016: p, 25). CLTs also provide a wide range of other buildings, including work units, communi-ty halls, shops and pubs, and work with housing associations to improve people’s quality of life, on a non-profit basis. (National CLT Network, 2011)

Community-Led Affordable Housing (CLAH) is supported by the objectives of the Community Housing Fund (CHF) which aims to increase housing supply in England by increasing the number of additional homes delivered by the CLH sector. (Homes England, 2018) Therefore, CLAH schemes must be affordable, for people with a local connection with evidence of a housing need, and appropriate in scale and style. As explained by CDC Cabinet Member for Housing Cllr, Lisa Spivey, one of the CDCs highest priorities is, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the provision of more affordable housing across the District, and the growing movement of community-led schemes can play a huge part in achieving that aimâ&#x20AC;? (CLA, 2019).

Figure 10: Forming a CLT. (NCLT, 2020)

It is apparent there are numerous benefits to CLH schemes in the Cotswolds, which include; local residents having the ability to design and develop appropriate housing, as well as supporting smaller-scale building companies making the housing industry more diverse and resilient. Similarly CLH schemes have often been instrumental in developing high-quality and sustainable housing which incorporates modern prefabrication methods rather than the poor-quality housing often associated with affordable housing.

4.4 Rural Exception Sites

Regarding RES, the NPPF Paragraph 77, states that, “local planning authorities should support opportunities to bring forward rural exception sites that will provide affordable housing to meet identified local needs, and consider whether allowing some market housing on these sites would help to facilitate this.” (NPPF, 2019: p. 21). The affordable housing provided on RES is used to meet a clearly identified local housing need, required for house prices to remain affordable ‘in perpetuity’. The reference to the financial viability of the scheme is important to understand as market housing achieves a much higher value than affordable housing on the same site. There is a presumption that 100% of housing on RES will be affordable as stated in local plans, unless there is evidence provided by the applicant concerning the viability of the project. Therefore, market housing is a necessity in order deliver the project as financial implications can hinder the delivery of the project.

Permitting a certain percent of market housing, may encourage the landowner to sell the land for development, as they will gain financially, playing a significant role in areas with limited supply of potential sites for development. To help increase the supply of affordable homes across the countryside, The Country Land and Business Association (CLA) called on the Government to introduce Permitted Development Rights (PDR) to build more affordable homes to rent on Rural Exception Sites. According to the CLA, between 2011 and 2017, 7,884 afford-able homes were built on RES (CLA, 2018). The use of PDR however is controversial in the cur-rent planning system as it brings unforeseen consequences such as local planning authorities hav-ing less power in planning applications and less regulations on building standards. However, the removal of PDRs in other areas has help speed up the delivery of rural housing development, as well as reducing significant upfront development costs.

It is evident that a high proportion of RES in Gloucestershire contain a majority of affordable housing and consist of no more than 49% market housing. It is the CDC that decides the appro-priate percentage of affordable housing, depending on the financial viability of the development, regarding whether the planning proposal is acceptable subject to the CEC local planning authori-ty. The housing association and landowner are the two main parties involved in deciding which site to build on and what to build on RES. Whereas, the local community and PC have less pow-er in decision-making and merely influence development. There is lots of engagement with the Ward Counsellor on RES development and the District Counsellor.

To conclude, there is an urgent need for new ideas to help solve the shortage of affordable rural housing in the Cotswolds as recent trends show that the number of available RES are slowly de-creasing. RHEs must therefore work with local communities to give local people the very best chance to be able to live in affordable homes.

4.5 Housing Needs Survey: Producing a robust and influential rural Housing Needs Survey A

For a community to be eligible for affordable housing delivered via a Rural Exception Site, the Council must undertake a parish Housing Needs Survey (HNS) to identify a local need. The Rural Housing Alliance (RHA) has 10 core principles used by Rural Housing Enables (RHEs) to follow when producing a HNS, which identifies the need for; affordable housing to rent, affordable housing to buy, Starter Homes, downsizing and adapted and or housing with care support (RHA, 2017). Findings show that in the village of Coberley, the PC has requested Gloucestershire Rural Community Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (GRCCs) assistance in undertaking a Figure 11: Map of Coberley Parish. (Parish Link, 2019) HNS.

Figure 12: Satellite image of Coberley. (CNES, 2020) 25

Some of the responses were adamantly opposed to affordable housing in the Parish. Such re-sponses included the opinions that there is no site available in the village, issues concerning in-creased traffic, that development could spoil the village aesthetic and there were not enough lo-cal amenities in the area for people requiring affordable housing. Furthermore, there were envi-ronmental concerns relating to the possible impacts on the AONB. However, those in favour for affordable housing in the Parish replied that affordable housing is necessary as long as it includes improvements in local public transport. They claimed affordable housing was vital to the neigh-bourhood and would be best situated as close to the village centre as possible. This could specifi-cally bring more children to keep the local school in operation. Some respondents however said that affordable housing should be dispersed throughout the parish rather than all built in one place, unless there were fewer than 4 houses built. Therefore, a small expansion of Coberley vil-lage would be desirable to encourage the potential development of local services, such as a local shop and post office, which would be seen as a benefit to the community as a whole. Figure 13 shows the HNS for the Coberley Parish which was sent to the community in 2017. The survey had a 45% response rate and analysis of the data revealed that, there are 6 households which fall within the parish who have identified themselves as eligible for and in need of affordable housing.

Figure 13: HNS survey for Coberley Parish (GRCC, 2017)

The Coberley HNS successfully determined the need for 6 households by identifying residents with a local connection in need of affordable housing in the parish. However, changes in local demographics and the impact of Government policies, as well as numerous other factors will con-tinue to change local housing needs. Therefore, it is important to provide people with a local con-nection to the District in the greatest housing need priority to affordable housing, not just resi-dents in Coberley.

4.6 Eastington S.18/2202/FUL. Proposal: 23 affordable units for rent and associated infrastructure on existing farm land. A

Eastington residents decided to produce a highly influential Neighbourhood Plan in 2016 for the local community, providing people with clarity and a better understanding of planning. Eastingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Neighbourhood Plan in Section 8, Policy EP5, encourages the promotion of exception sites for Affordable Housing, within the provisions of SDC Policy HC4, with regards to good accessibility to local services and public transport. Therefore, the use of the Neighbourhood Plan provides information as to why there is a need for more affordable housing in the area, as well as the information collected by the HNS in 2013 which indicated there was a need affordable housing in the parish, as households with a local connection selfidentified themselves in need of affordable housing. (Easington Neighbourhood Plan Independent Examinerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Report, 2016)

Figure 14: Aerial view of Eastington Parish. (Bomberg, 2019)

Figure 15: Average property price by dwelling type. (OCSI, 2016)

Figure 16: Displays at one of the drop-in days in June and July 2014. (Northleach with Eastington Neighbourhood Plan 2016-2031)

Figure 17: Early sife assessment work being carried out by community volunteers. (Northleach with Eastington Neighbourhood Plan 2016-2031)

The Eastington Community Land Trust (ECLT) project began with an extensive Housing Needs Survey (2013) that identified a need for 23 new homes. A total of 855 questionnaires were distributed with questions that asked a range of questions. Such questions asked included, â&#x20AC;&#x153;are you in favour of a small development of affordable homes for local people if there was a proven need?â&#x20AC;? (Northleach with Eastington Town Housing Needs Survey Report, 2013, p.8) Respondents replied with 83% indicating they were in favour, 15% were not in favour, and 2% did not answer. From the HNS in 2014, it was evident that there was a need for smaller homes, therefore the majority will be 2-bed 4-person houses, as well as 5 bungalows, 4 flats, and 3 larger houses for families.

Figure 18: ECLT Site boundary. (Eastington, 2020)

Figure 19: Junction 13 of M5 motorway, near to site. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Own, 2020)

Figure 20: April 2017 Layout . (Eric Cole Ltd, 2018)

Eastingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s CLT project took seven years to win five planning appeals through the determina-tion of local residents that identified a number of potential sites and talked to the planners at Stroud District Council (SDC). After a great deal of effort by all actors the full planning applica-tion was approved by SDC on the 11th June 2019. The community effort and financial resources required in order to make the CLT project a success was not insignificant. The main funding for the project was secured through Homes England, as well as a wide range of stakeholders, which include 8 housing associations, as well as contributions from the Gloucestershire Rural Housing Partnership group. The group includes the following councils; CDC, SDC, Forest of Dean and Tewksbury Bourgh Council. Furthermore, more participatory involvement was required by local volunteers in the community, which helped in the coordination of 65 ECLT board meetings, held on a regular basis during the planning process.

Figure 21: Early construction works on site in February. (ECLT, 2020)

Figure 22: Most recent site development in early March. (Author’s Own, 2020)

To conclude, the aims and objectives of the ECLT are very simple; 1. To build homes for open market sale and shared ownership 2. Reinvesting the profits to develop homes for affordable rent. All of the houses are owned by the Community Association and let to local people due to its status as a RES. This is a case study of a community taking control in shaping its future, by providing affordable homes for the community. However, it is important to note that there are ever-increasing pressures for housing, infrastructure needs, which must also be in line with efforts to protect the AONB. These include key findings from the The Northleach with Eastington NP (2019), concerning the “physical constraints on development land, the loss of rural character and landscape, lack of local employment and jobs, the loss of the close-knit community feel if the town grows too quickly, and worries that the infrastructure will not cope, especially schools, the overloaded sewage system and the busy main road”. (Northleach with Eastington NP, 2019, p. 15) ECLT is currently looking for funding for Phase Two from a wide range of sources. The success of the project has led to ECLT becoming the blueprint for innovative CLTs within the District. As CLTs gain traction in the district, there will undoubtedly be increased pressure on local services and infrastructure.

Figure 23: Stroud DC Leader Doina Cornell, Tom Morrison, ECLT chairman, and Jane Gallifent, Director of Aster Housing Association, celebrating the start of construction. (ECLT, 2020)

Figure 24: The ECLT Trustees on the site (ECLT, 2020)

5 CONCLUSION

To conclude, a wide range of local and national policy solutions in delivering affordable housing in the Cotswolds are required in order to plan for a sustainable and balanced housing solution benefiting rural communities. Encouraging rather than preventing affordable rural housing by having realistic targets to meet local housing needs, and by retaining a more flexible housing market which is adaptable and reflecting the needs of the economy is the key to the survival of rural communities. Also, the unlocking of surplus public sector land and enabling cross-subsidy on RES will help rural areas achieve a higher percentage of affordable housing, enabling the CDC to meet affordable housing requirements in the AONB, within the constraints of the AONB’s landscape capacity whilst minimising the overall amount of market price housing development. Having a robust and highly influential Housing Needs Survey to identify local needs is essential ink understanding the needs and views of local residents. Therefore, a successful HNS must be of a robust nature based on evidence from reliable sources, as shown in the case of Northleach with Eastington HNS (2013), in order to correctly identify the need for affordable housing to rent or to buy. Local and innovative approaches, such as the promotion of RES, as suggested by Gallent et al (2002), through the exceptions approach, are equally important in delivering affordable housing and meeting local housing needs, as local authorities have adopted a positive RES policy to deliver affordable housing, at a much lower cost non-RES land (Shelter, 2016). Furthermore, the growing support for Community Land Trusts (CLTs), through changing people’s views and reducing the stigma associated with affordable housing has been widely

implemented, as shown in case studies from the District. However, it is important to note the long-term barriers to development, such as building in sensitive environments, will undoubtably continue to affect the delivery of affordable housing within in the Cotswolds and other areas in the UK. As a result, to meet the Governments ambitious targets of building 300,000 homes a year, all parts of the housing sector are required to increase output. With the appropriate Governmental and public support, there is no doubt that, over a long period of time, CLH schemes will play a significant role in meeting housing needs, as well as providing long term benefits to provide local facilities or services. Nonetheless, there is no ‘one policy fits all’ in fixing the current housing market, especially in rural areas where CLH is a growing success, with the dedication from many volunteers, raising the money needed to build the affordable housing. CLH requires a considerable amount of community participation, as it is a lengthy process, which many are not all are willing to commit to. Therefore, unless there is already a strong community ethos, committed to keep the village maintained and alive, the village will see a lack of appropriate housing, forcing local residents move elsewhere in search of affordable housing to meet local needs. However, as evident in the case study of ECLT, the main factor for success in securing affordable housing development for a RES, is the combination of local knowledge and the provision of a comprehensive Neighbourhood Plan. However, Neighbourhood Plans are sometimes criticised for creating a ‘not in my back yard’ charter in certain areas, exercised by rural elites, as argued by Sturzaker (2010). Which in turn produces social hierarchies in 38

local communities, inhibiting much needed affordable housing development. This is apparent in areas of high second home ownership, as argued by Meacher (1999) and Monboit (2006). Further political powers, such as PCs are seen as significant barriers to development. Refusing development for affordable housing in parishes and supporting the development elsewhere is not good planning practice to follow. It is not fair for certain PCs continuing to avoid developments as other PCs receive a higher proportion of development, resulting in people living further away from their family or work as there are not the correct housing provisions for them, leading to people moving to even more remote rural areas where house prices may be lower. The research has suggested that securing affordable housing through community led initiatives in the Cotswolds is a highly complicated subject as the rules to implement such schemes are complex in planning terms. The aim is extremely simple; to provide homes that people want and can afford, as well as having the ability to live near their family network and place of work.

5.1 Recommendations

There is undoubtedly going to be increasing challenges in the future addressing the supply of affordable housing in rural areas. Challenges for the future, with regard to the Cotswolds might include; and ageing population, dispersed family networks and increasing second-home ownership. Therefore, recommendations for the future are important to consider as the planning system is constantly amended and changed due to Government plans and policies. Actions such as Governmental encouragement of using planning obligations effectively by local planning authorities to improve the delivery of providing affordable housing, are essential for the future planning system. There should be better incentive systems for landowners to release land for affordable housing and for developers to increase the share of affordable housing they build. Other recommendations include better helping to identify and raise awareness of rural housing needs by supporting and providing advice to rural communities and district councils undertaking needs surveys. Also assisting in the identification of sites suitable for affordable housing development can help overcome the barriers

which hinder the provision of rural affordable housing, as well as providing advice to housing and planning authorities to help develop strategic policies essential for bringing sites forward and securing funding. New approaches to deliver affordable housing in rural areas are required to help meet rural local needs, for the successful management of sustainable rural communities. Politicians must consider the needs of rural residents just as much as urban needs, as more government intervention is necessary to make funding available in order to deliver more affordable homes, as well as help free up and identify exception sites. Therefore, this research has shown that the importance of CLH should not be underestimated in the provision of rural affordable housing.

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