Future Perspectives for Smart Textiles in Footwear by issam yousef

Future Perspetcives for Smart Textiles in Footwear

Future Perspectives for Smart Textiles in Footwear

Matilda Linde Dellrud Master of Art Realisation of Innovation 13th of August 2010

Acknowledgments Issam Yousef Anders Dahlstrรถm Mark Timmins Prof. George Stylios Prof. Robert Christie Dr. Britta Kalkreuter Lovisa Andersson Samuel Andersson A special thanks to all of you that participated in my survey and interviews

Course: Master of Arts Realisation of Innovation Title: Future Perspectives for Smart Textiles in Footwear Author: Matilda Linde Dellrud Supervisor: Mark Timmins Date: August 13th 2010

Key words: Smart Textiles, Wearable Technology, Performance, Hiking Footwear, Chromatic Materials, Photochromic Colours, Hydrochromic Colours, Shape Memory Materials, Shape Memory Alloys, Shape Memory Polymers, Hydrogels & Membranes,

ABSTRACT This project researches and investigates, both

Many sketches and ideas of how to apply smart

theoretically

technologies,

textiles to hiking boot were made and discussed

applicable to textiles, which can sense and

throughout this project. New designs were

respond to stimuli; so-called Smart Textiles, and

created, with the potential usage of the related

electronics

that

smart technologies in mind, for both functional

wearables

for

and

can

practically,

part

and purely aesthetical applications. Also, a video,

discusses the future potential of Smart Textiles as

created using Autodesk Maya 3D animation

part of hiking footwear, and footwear as such. The

software, illustrates and clarifies the visual ideas

aim is to incorporate and propose smart textile

and

solutions

technologies.

design-based

intelligent It

for

applications

footwear.

ideas

gained

throughout this research. To determine this, a wide range of literature from articles, websites, books and interviews was reviewed, in which the different technologies of smart textile were described and discussed. Moreover, a literature review of the anatomy of the foot and hiking boots as such was prepared, in order to determine and explain if, where and why these technologies have a potential of being used in footwear in the future.

potential

some

the

proposed

This project concludes that the technologies that can be stimulated by parameters surrounding the inner and outer climate of footwear, while providing for the health, welfare and pleasure of the human body are the once with the greatest future potential for footwear, but as hikers value functionality higher than the aesthetics, its applications need to be aiding the wearer in some way rather than having purely aesthetic purposes, for smart textiles to have an as large future potential as possible in hiking footwear.

Chapter 1 Background & Aims & Objectives The implementation areas of smart materials are endless; this makes them a growing and very important field of research that engages engineers and designers alike, and many other disciplines, throughout the world. Today most scholarly research is done focusing on medical and protection purposes; however there is a strong demand from the textiles industry to find more commercially viable applications for smart textiles in the future. The purpose of this project is therefore to research and investigate,

both

theoretically

and

practically,

technologies, applicable to textiles that can sense and respond

stimuli;

so-called

Smart

Textiles

and

electronics that can be part of intelligent wearables for application to footwear. I intend to research and propose a number of technologies and discuss their future potential and applicability to footwear. The aim is to incorporate and propose Smart Textile solutions for the design-based ideas gained through this research. The outcome will be conceptual and I will not make, or test, any actual textile samples. 11

The

practise-based

outcome

will

explain

and

communicate the design-based ideas for the proposed technologies, incorporated into footwear. The designs; shape/form, trims, colour and graphic applications, will reflect each technology and requirements based on performance. Emphasis will also be laid on the needs of the wearer, foot and body. Since the research is from a smart textiles perspective I will not put emphasis on designing ergonomically correct footwear or focus on details, such as mid- outsole, lacing mechanisms or other non-textile technical parts of the shoe; such as heelheight, toe-spring etc, or textile components other than smart textiles. I hope to gain thorough knowledge of technology development

specific

smart

textiles,

wearable

technologies and technical attributes of performance; product materials also specific to wearable devises and production techniques specific to footwear. I will identify research and propose designs, technologies, prints and/or patterns as a way of fully understanding the potential of smart textiles within footwear. I have chosen to apply and display these technologies on footwear for hiking. It is essential to narrow the application area down to one type of footwear, this is the basis for a more beneficial and rewarding research, since every type of footwear and sport has special functional and technical requirements that need to be identified and 12

evaluated. Hiking and Trekking is a sport that is close to me, I am personally familiar with the requirements of the equipment and experienced with these types of footwear and people within the hiking community.

Research Questions 1.

What technologies are available and how can they be applied to footwear?

How do these technologies respond to design and vice versa?

What design issues need most consideration, in relation to performance, when designing with Smart Textiles?

What can be done in the area of Smart Textiles to make these more feasible with footwear?

Chapter 2 Context and Literature review 2.1 The Hikers Foot There are 24 bones plus 33 joints and over a hundred muscles, tendons, and ligaments and 250,000 sweat glands in the human foot. The height of arches and the shape of the toes vary from person to person. (McKinley Health Centre, University of Illinois; National Institutes of Health, 2010) The shape of the toes is usually defined as three different types (fig. 1): the Greek type (a); the second toe is the longest, Egyptian type (b); the big (first) toe is the longest and Square type (c) which has even length toes. (Bordeaux) Depending on the height of the arch the foot can be either a normal foot, a flat foot or high arch foot (se fig.2). Normal feet (a) have normal healthy gait, the foot lands on its heel and rolls forward towards the big toe when walked on, whereas feet with flat arch (b) are likely to be pronators, meaning that they roll inwards as they walk. People with high arch feet (c) are likely to be supinators and have a very rigid foot, which means that they walk on the outside of the foot (Manning, D.; Whitesides, B.,) 15

Wearing the shoes that fit poorly can lead to: sprains, corns, heel pain, neuromas, fungus infection, blisters, hammertoes, bad arches, heel spurs, plantar fasciitis etc. (American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society) Since there are more types of feet then there are of footwear it would be good to have a shoe that adapts to the foot it protects, this will be discussed in section 4.

2.2 Hiking boots* Hiking boots are used by hikers to protect themselves from the possible damages the outside world can do to their feet. There are generally 4 different classifications of Hiking boots that range from very light and flexible to heavy and rigid footwear: sandals (A), cross-country trainers (A), hiking shoes (A-B), cross hikers (B), off-trail boots (C), mountaineering boots (D) to name a few.

2.2.1 Characteristics Hiking Boots have a couple of characteristics that determine how they perform in Hiking: •

Weight

•

Water Resistance

•

Lateral Rigidity

•

Longitudinal Rigidity

•

Arch Support

*This section was found, and taken,, with its structure and paragraphs, from http://www.abc-of-hiking.com

The lighter the boots, the easier the walking will be. It is generally agreed that one pound extra footwear weight can be compared to five pounds of added backpack weight. Moisture is one of the biggest enemies when it comes to hiking. Moisture causes blisters. There are a couple of things that can improve the chances of keeping the feet dry. Breathable and watertight materials will allow moisture to leave the inner parts of the boots but will not let water enter. Fully gusseted tongues should cover the openings of the uppers. The boot should support the feet and ankles from twisting on uneven surfaces. Higher boots with stiff ankle supports provide a big part of the lateral rigidity. The boot should support the feet from over-bending when placing too much weight on the toe or the heel side of the foot, to prevent strains. At the same time, the boot should have enough longitudinal flexibility to support the arches' natural spring action. The boot should support the arch of the feet in a way that the feet are not flattened out under heavy pressure.

2.2.2 Anatothe & Parts A Hiking Boot consists of different elements and body parts that work together to provide protection for the feet. (Fig. 3)

The Upper is the entire upper part of the boot. It is usually made out of leather or synthetics. This is the part that I will focus mostly on because it is textile based. It should protect the foot with an all-over snug fit and give it the necessary support and absorb shocks. It should be water repellant/proof whiles being able to breathe. This is to prevent excess moisture from causing blisters and other discomfort. Tongues are the flaps that cover the inlet of the upper. Most Hiking Boots have gussets connecting the tongues to the upper. The gussets make sure that water, dirt, and debris are not able to enter the shoe. With the laces tightened, the gussets and the tongue should fold nicely together to conform to the shin and ankle without causing pressure points. Boots have lining and padding to provide more protection and comfort to the feet. Foam is often used for padding and it protects the feet from the cold and pressure. There should be little to no foam padding in the toe and heel of the boot. The innermost layer is called the Liner. Synthetic fabrics have replaced leather liners, as they are more durable and better in redirecting moisture. On higher boots, the Achilles tendon and ankle need protection from chafing and that is where the scree collars come in. At the back of the outers, a lower cut is made and foam padded rolls protect against chafing.

Insoles are the bottom part of the inner where the feet rest on. Soles should be shaped perfectly for the feet to ensure maximum support and balance. Most in-soles are removable from the Hiking Boot, which enable you to compare them to the shape of the feet. People with certain feet conditions can often compensate by using specially made insoles. The outer-sole should give the needed friction on all expected surfaces. The sole should absorb and redirect shocks and cushion the soles of the feet. The part that runs along the side of the shoe, right above the outer-sole, is the midsole. It is mainly the part that gives most of the comfort. It is used to cushion and provide support and protection for the foot. Midsoles are often constructed of a combination of materials but Polyurethane, and Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) also called â&#x20AC;&#x153;foam rubberâ&#x20AC;? is commonly used. The rand is a wide stripe of rubber, which functions is to protect the hiking boot and make it more rugged and waterproof.

2.3 Smart Textiles There are numerous different views on how to define Smart Textiles. Some say that Smart Textiles are textiles that are able to sense changes in their environment and can act upon this in a predetermined way (Pu, et al, 2000) (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005). Other choose to give a wider definition; saying that Smart Textiles are simply 19

textiles that are able to sense changes in their environment. (Tao and Zhang, 2001a,b,c) I have chosen the later definition as I find the previous one to exclude important technologies that could have a large future potential for footwear; this will be discussed later. Breathable, waterproof membrane fabrics, such as Gore-Tex, Carbon fibres or super strong bulletproof aramide fabrics like Kevlar are by this definition not Smart Textiles, as their properties are static, and will therefore not be discussed in this work. The different parameters than can be sensed by Smart Textiles are thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical. The response carried out by Active Smart and Very Smart textiles can be either direct visible or indirect. The direct visible responses include property changes, such as change in colour, or size/location changes like shape, geometry and volume. Indirect responses may include property changes or energy exchanges at a molecular level, magnetic or electrical level that may not be visible to the naked eye, but are able to trigger other controlled reactions or functions (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005). Tao and Zhang (2001a,b,c) concluded that Smart Textiles can be divided into three subgroups; Passive Smart Textiles, Active Smart Textiles and Very Smart Textiles. (Fig.4)

Passive Smart Textiles are materials with a textile nature that can be included in a textile structure. They can be used a sensors as they can detect and transform signals into electric signals. Examples are: •

Optic fibres

•

Conductive materials

•

Thermocouple

Active smart textiles are materials that can sense and react to environmental conditions or stimuli. This makes them both sensors and actuators. Addington and Schodek, (2005) have divided these materials into two classes. The first class contains those who in direct response to a stimulus undergo a change in one or more of their properties (fig. 5). The second class contains those that transform energy reversibly from one form to an output energy on another form (fig. 6). As Addington and Schodek (2005) have identified the term “material” can be slightly misleading as many of the materials in this class are made up of several more basic materials. Examples of Active Smart Materials are: TYPE 1 •

Chromatic Materials

•

Shape Memory Materials

•

Phase Change Materials

•

Hydrogels & Membranes 21

TYPE 2 •

Luminescent Materials

•

Photovoltaics

•

Electric Polymer

Very Smart Textiles are units, which with the help of integrated devises and technologies, can sense, react and adapt themselves to environmental conditions or stimuli. Examples of such units are: •

Space Suits

•

Thermo Regulating Clothing

•

Health Monitoring Apparel

2.4 Intelligent Wearables Intelligent wearables are able to sense changes in the environment and act upon this in a predetermined way. These changes can be thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic and optical. Intelligent Clothing can be divided into three categories: clothing assistant that store information in a memory and carry out complex calculations, clothing monitors that record the behaviour and the health of the wearer and regulative clothing, which adjusts certain parameters, such as temperature or ventilation. (Concar, et al, 2000) 22

Five Functions can be distinguished in an intelligent suit: sensors,

data

processing,

actuators,

storage

and

communication; however all are not always present (Langenhove and Hertleer, 2004). Data processors are only required when active processing is necessary, and today, there are no textile materials able to perform this task (Van Langenhove), therefore this will not be discussed in this project. By Storage, Langenhove and Hertleer, (2004), mean to store data or energy. Data cannot be stored in any textile devises today. Phase Change Materials and Shape Memory Materials could conceptually store thermal energy, but the movement is not fast enough to make a considerate amount of power (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 25 May, 2010). Sensors, actuators and communication can all be smart textiles and will be discussed later. Examples of intelligent wearables are Very Smart Textiles, like the Georgia Tech Wearable Motherboard (GTWM),

which

provides

extremely

versatile

framework for the incorporation of sensing, monitoring and information processing devices. It provides, for the first time, a very systematic way of monitoring the vital signs of humans (Park et al,. 2002).

2.4.1

SENSORS

A sensor is a device that detects or responds to a physical or chemical stimulus. (Addigton and Schodek, 2005) There are numerous different kinds of sensors sensitive 23

to different types of stimulus; light, motion, thermal, magnetic, gravity, humidity, touch, vibration, pressure, position, electrical field, sound, proximity, stretch and biological and chemical sensors. Active

Smart

responsive

Materials

materials

and

are

called

their

inherently

own

sensors.

Chromatic materials are sensor by detecting a change in light, electricity field, stress and/or deformation, electron beam, humidity, chemicals or pressure. Shape Memory Material by detecting a thermal change or resistance to an electrical current. Phase Change Materials by detecting a change in temperature. Smart Garments that do not deriver their â&#x20AC;&#x153;smartnessâ&#x20AC;? from inherently responsive materials require added sensors to detect physical stimuli and process them into electronic signals. (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005) Passive Smart Textiles, as in Optical Fibres and Conductive materials, can be used as such, but also some of the Active Smart Textiles like Piezoelectric polymer fibres for example, or chromatic colours which, among other, can detect changes is pH (Mohr and Wolfbeis, 1994; Coyle et al, 2008).

2.4.1.1 OPTICAL FIBRES Fibre Optic Sensors (FOS) is made out of polymeric materials. The various physical parameters usually measured

with

fibre

optics

are

strain/stress,

deformations, pressure, temperature, or refractive index (Cochrane et al., 2007). Rothmaier et al, (2008) have successfully developed pressure sensitive textiles based on thermoplastic silicone fibres. When pressure at a certain area of the textile is applied to the fibres they change cross section reversibly, due to their elastomeric character, and a simultaneous change in transmitted light intensity can be detected. I see a potential use for this in gait monitoring. Many papers discuss the use of optical fibres as sensors in combination with chromatic materials, where the optical fibre picks up a colour change, caused by the measured stimuli. Coyle et al, (2008) has presented a sensor for measuring sweat during exercise, using a pH sensitive dye incorporated into a fabric fluidic system. This could be very interesting to use in footwear, since the feet produce a lot of sweat. This could be used to give instant feedback to the wearer of health conditions as sweat changes PH when the body is dehydrated or before muscle fatigue. The advantages of FOSs, are flexibility, stability, lightweightness, high temperature capacity and no heat production, insensitivity to electromagnetic radiation and have no susceptibility to electrical discharges. (Rothmaier et al, 2008).

They can also be easily embedded in a

variety of composite materials without compromising the host structures, and they provide an effective means for 25

monitoring physical parameters along a single fibre path (Cochrane et al., 2007).

2.4.1.2 CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS Conductive materials are used as flexible sensors. They can

take

many

different

forms,

such

fibres,

incorporated into flexible skin-tight garments to measure joint motion, strain, as the resistance of the garment changes (Gibbs and Asada, 2004), polymer, yarns, fabrics, polymers, inks, coatings and stitching or embroidery (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005), easily made on a computercontrolled embroidery machine (Tao and Zhang, 2001a; Post and Orth, 1997). The electro conductivity of these materials varies depending on stress, temperature variation, UV radiation and humidity, which can be used as a measuring parameterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. (Cochrane et al., 2007) Since conventional wires are very stable they are most frequently used, however conductive polymers (CP) are on the upswing and several research projects are taking place (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 25 May, 2010). They are organic polymers that conduct electricity (Inzelt, 2008). Such compounds may be true metallic conductors or semiconductors. It is generally accepted that metals conduct electricity well and that organic compounds are insulating, but this class of materials combines the properties of both. Conductive polymers have mechanical properties, such as flexibility,

toughness, malleability, elasticity, etc., and high electrical conductivities. (Naarmann, 2002). CPs can be made into composites (CPC), which, for instance, can be used to measure strain (Cochrone et al, 2006), pressure or sweat (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005). Flexible

pressure

sensors

are

based

various

mechanisms. Quantum tunnelling composite (QTC), a CPC, has had a large hype recently, they are still at an experimental stage, but with large future potential. (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 25 May, 2010). Due to the properties of textile structures; being stretchable, elastic, highly flexible and lightweight, they are constantly in movement and easily deformed, even under very low stresses. It is therefore important that the integrated

sensor

does

not

modify

their

general

behaviour (Cochrone et al, 2007). Optical fibres are rather stiff compared to standard textile fibres (Rothmaier et al, 2008), where as Conductive Material sensors can be manufactured without losing the general characteristic behaviour of a textile. However this might not be of significant importance as footwear are made out of rather stiff materials in comparison to garments.

2.4.1.3 Thermocouples Thermocouples are sensors used to measure temperature, which can be integrated into textile structures. They primarily measure surfaces exposed to a fast changing 27

heat flux in the industry (Heichal, et al, 2004). Hikers however, and most people in general, are not exposed to such high temperature or fast temperature changes. They are therefore not useful for hiking footwear but perhaps applicable with the footwear of firefighters, they are already present in firefighter suits.

2.4.2 Actuators substances,

ACTUATORS convert makes

energy noise,

into and

motion, many

releases

other

(Van

Langenhove and Hertleer, 2004). The energy can come from mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, radians or chemical changes. Active Smart Materials are actuators; Piezoelectric materials by passing an electric current through the material to create a force (Addigton and Schodek, 2005), Hydrogels by swelling in response to a change in the stimuli (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005), Shape Memory Materials by changing molecular state and shape in response to a stimuli and Phase Change Materials by changing phase due to a temperature change.

2.4.2.1 Chromatic materials Chromic materials can change their colour according to external stimuli, as they are printed or/and dyed with chromic colours, this makes them both sensors and activators.

This

could

functional purposes. 28

have

both

aesthetical

and

There are several different types of chromatic materials that

all

respond

different

kinds

stimuli.

Photochromic colours respond to light, thermochromic colours respond to temperature changes, eletcrochromic respond to electricity, mechanocromatic respond to stress and/or deformation, ionochromic, to different pH, carsolchromic to an electron beam, solvatechromic to liquid, chemochromatic respond to chemicals and the external stimuli energy for piezorochromic is pressure change (Sudhakar, 2010). â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;In the medical field, garments that can detect and warn of the presence of infections, bacteria or viruses or any change in physiological functions of the wearer can assist in support, diagnosis and treatment of patients. In the fire-fighting sector, thermochromatic dyes have been engineered to change the protective clothing to white under extreme temperatures in order to reflect the heat away from the body (Hibbert, 2001)â&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Lam Po Tam and Stylios, 2005). If used together with Fibre Optics, chromatic colours can be used as sensors to trigger reactions in smart garments as in the Georgia Tech Wearable Mother Board or sweat sensors, as mentioned in section 2.4.1.1. As optical fibres both transmit and absorbs light they can be used even in a

dark

environment

(R.,

Christie,

Discussion

technology, Galashiels, 1 July, 2010) such as footwear.

Chromatic colours could be used, for aesthetic purposes, on its own or, as Kerri Wallace (2005) do, in combination with conductive fibres to change the coloured surface of sportswear using the correlation between heart rate and body

temperature

trigger

for

the

visual

representation of the activity level. For footwear chromatic colours could be used for both performance and visual purposes. I would like to use these colours to warn the wearer of the strength of the sun as he/she climbs to higher altitudes and to create patterns using stimulus from the surrounding of the hiker.

2.4.2.2 Phase Change Materials Phase Change Materials (PCM) are latent heat-storage materials, which can be integrated into textiles structures, in numerous ways, as microcapsules. Examples of PCMs are paraffin waxes, hydrated salts, fatty acids and eutectics of organic and inorganic compounds (Farid et al., 2004) Most commonly PCMs go from a liquid to a solid state, and back, at a predetermined temperature, but they can also go from liquid to gaseous state, solid to gaseous state and even solid-to-solid state (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005). â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;When the temperature increases and reaches the melting point of the PCM, the melted PCM absorbs heat, inhibiting the flow of thermal energy through the fabric, and maintaining its temperature constant (ying et al., 30

2004; Hartmann, 2004). When the external conditions and the PCM cools down and solidifies, the reverse occurs, and heat is released to keep the wearer warmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005). PCMs are widely used within both apparel and footwear, wherefore I will not expand this technology in the project any further.

2.4.2.3 Shape Memory Materials Shape Memory Materials (SMM) are able to regain their original

and

pre-programmed

shape,

after

being

deformed, when exposed to a certain stimuli. The stimuli can be thermal, magnetic, mechanical or electrical. This occurs because the material changes its internal structure at, for instance, a certain temperature. (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005) SMMs are most commonly alloys and polymers but they can also be, ceramics, gels and glasses. Except for it shape memory effect; some SMMs also have properties such as, pseudoelasticity, high damping capacity and adaptive properties (Chan Vili, 2004).

2.4.2.3.1

Shape Memory Alloys

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are a special class of adoptive materials that can convert thermal energy into mechanical motion (Shakeri and Noori et al; Chan Vili, 2004). SMAs are usually Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) Alloys or Cupper (Cu) based Alloys. 31

NiTi alloys can easily be fabricated into a variety of forms and sizes, which makes it technically possible to use them as an active element in various composites. They have successfully been fabricated into thin films, fibres, particles and porous bulks (Chan Vili, 2004). ‘The Shape Memory treatments for NiTi alloys are simple, “The formed product is placed into a jig and heated in an electric furnace. The heat-treated alloy is allowed to recover the memorise shape and obtain the shapememory property; the alloy is then known to be ‘trained’ or ‘thermally treated’ with the prescribed shape” (Chan Vili, 2004). SMAs are strong enough to lift the body weight of a person as it changes state (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010).

2.4.2.3.2

Shape Memory Polymers

Shape Memory Polymers (SMP), which have higher extensibility, superior processability, lower weight, a softer handle (Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005), and different colour variations (Chan Vili, 2004), than SMAs, can be applied to a textile structure as solution, emolution, film, fibre, foam and bulk. (Hu et al., 2009). Even though they are cheaper than SMAs (Van Langenhove and Hertleer, 2004), and can be controlled with the use of heating, light or chemicals (Chan Vili, 2004), they are not used as frequently due to the fact that they cannot be loaded very heavily during the recovery process, this might not be of great importance to footwear as the recovery stage would most probably 32

occur when the footwear has been removed from the foot, and the SMP is therefore unloaded. Shape memory fabrics with in-built shape memory fibres can be used to create self-adaptable textiles with selfregulated structures that can performer in response to changes in environmental temperature (Hu et al., 2009). They can be used as temperature and moisture management (Russell, et al, 1999), examples of usage is; waterproofing, windproofing, breathability. SMP can also be made into hollow fibres. The internal diameter of the hollow fibre can change and recover under thermal stimulation. This can be used to affect the physical properties of textile products, and be used for thermal management (Hu et al., 2009). These fibres can also adapt to the bodies contours, similar to the function of memory foam, and adjust a garments size according to the size of the wearer.

2.4.2.4 Hydrogels & membranes Hydrogels and membranes are able to release drugs or other chemicals when required, by swelling in response to external stimuli such as pH changes, electric field, temperature, ionic strength or other chemicals (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005). They can also be programmed to release their substances at pre-programmed intervals, which make them very interesting for footwear for health and sanitary reasons. 33

2.4.2.5 Luminescent Luminescent textiles are textiles coated (Mรถhring et al., 2006), or printed (Gimpel et al., 2004), with luminescent paste, or textiles with luminescent cords woven or knitted into their textile structure, which can, with an electronic

(electroluminescent),

photonic

(photoluminescent), chemical (chemo-/bioluminescent), or thermal, stimuli (Addington and Schodek, 2005), be activated to light. They can be integrated into footwear, for aesthetical and functional reasons, but hiker do not often move about when it is dark so the use of luminescent colours have no big future potential for hiking footwear.

2.4.2.6 Photovoltaics Photovoltaics (PVs) are arrays of cells containing a solar photovoltaic material that converts solar radiation into direct current electricity. Materials presently used for photovoltaics

include

monocrystalline

silicon,

polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide (Jacobson, 2009) As they are flexible they can be incorporated into smart textiles which gives them a great future potential, but the foot is not the ideal place for such technologies therefore

will

not

discuss

this

further.

Also,

temperatures above room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics (Brian and Ray 2005), so 34

they are not ideal to use close to the body or in hot climates.

2.4.2.7 Electric Polymers Electric Polymers have the ability to produce an electrical energy or a current. Piezoelectric polymers have the ability

convert

mechanical

energy,

such

deformation induced by force, into electrical energy and vice-versa, pyroeletric polymers produces an electric current out of thermal energy, thermoelectric polymers converts thermal differentials into currents and viceversa (Addington and Schodek, 2005). This could be used to trigger reactions in other smart materials that react to currents, like shape memory materials for example.

2.4.3 Communication With communication Langenhove and Hertleer, (2004) reefers to communication taken part within one element of the suit, between the individual elements within the suit, from the wearer to the suit, to pass instructions, and from the suit to the wearer or his environment, to pass information. Optical fibres can be used as communication within the suite (Park and Jayaraman, 2002) and so can Conductive yarns (Van Langenhove, et al., 2002), as they can transfer electricity or light from one place, within the structure, to another. 35

When a textile switch is used for the wearer to act on functions within footwear, it is, for functional and comfort reasons, essential for the switch to be located close to the wearers upper body rather than on the footwear. Bluetooth® is one way of communicating from the wearer to the suit and a new low energy technology has been announced by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) that could be interesting. (Bluetooth press release)

2.5 Advances in E-Footwear* Smart Textiles are not often used within footwear, probably due to high cost. A few examples however are Dr.Scholl®s Shape Memory foam insoles, Memory fit™ work and PCM materials that have been used, quite extensively in winter footwear and hiking boots, in the form of Sympatex® or Outlast®, to create thermal balance and increase thermal insulation properties. However studies has shown that a layer of PCM does not minimize the risk of cold injury (Mekjavik et al., ???). Wearable electronics within footwear has not been researched as extensive as in E-garments. Some studies on wearable sensors for gait monitoring (Morris and Paradiso, 2002; Edmison et al., ???) has been made and some research on computer interfaces for interactive *E-Garments is a frequently used term; so far I have never come across ‘EFootwear’, which I think is a valid term to describe footwear incorporated with wearable electronics.

dance and the capture of high-level podiatric gesture has been done (Paradiso et al., 2000; Paradiso and HU, 1997; Hu, 1999). These sensor systems incorporate numerous different kinds of sensors. ‘The Expressive footwear’ is a electronic musical wearable that measures continuous pressure at 3 points near the toe, dynamic pressure at the heel, bidirectional bend of the sole, height of each foot off conducting strips in the stage, angular rate of each foot about the vertical, angular position of each foot about the earth’s local magnetic field, as well as their tilt and low-G acceleration, 3 axis shock acceleration (from kicks and jumps, and position (via an integrated sonar)’ (Paradiso et al., 2000) Wearable electronics within footwear on the commercial market is fairly limited. However a trend to integrate different wearable electronics both for functional and performance purposes can be seen. In 2005 Adidas® launched the Adidas_1™ Smart Ride shoe. This shoe has a microprocessor and sensors that adjusts the cushioning of the shoe as you run. Nike® has in collaboration with Apple® launched ‘Nike+ipod’, a wearable sensor which connects to your iPod/iTouch or phone and tracks your exercise as you go. The sensor can be integrated in the sole of specific Nike shoes, or attached to any pair of shoes in a specially designed pouch.

Chapter 3 Research Methods Gray and Malins, (2004) say that ‘The Preliminary stages of ‘planning the journey’ include taking advantage of the knowledge of explorers who have visited similar areas, so that you can acknowledge their ‘trailblazing’ and not waste our valuable energy going over old ground or travelling towards a dead end.’ The initial stage of this project will for me be to summarise and define smart textiles and intelligent wearable, in order to fully understand the subject and identifying the most up to date research in the field. This involves a lot of desk-top research, including: browsing the Internet, researching library databases, such as old and recent issues of relevant journals and publication, as well as any books in a verity of fields. The abstract and conclusion sections of articles in journals and books often include the author's suggestion of the need for future research. The reference list of any publication is a good place to find further books and journals to read. Speaking to specialist such as researcher and scholars, as well as companies is another way of getting an understanding

the

field;

technologies,

current

research, market, etc. Another group of specialist are the end consumers; therefore a survey that collects 39

information about consumer habits and functional and aesthetical preferences will be made at a early stage. Information about the human foot and hiking boots characteristics and parts are essential for the work. I also need to identify the parameters surrounding the hiker that could stimulate the different smart materials. Technical

limitations

each

technology

will

practically explored and discussed as a foundation for the visual and technical designs. The practise-based outcome will explain and communicate the design-based ideas for the proposed technologies, incorporated into footwear. The aesthetic design decisions are combinations of the results gained throughout the survey and interviews, technological knowledge gain throughout the literature review and practical exploration of technology and considerations around clearest communication. The designs; shape/form, trims, colour and graphic applications,

will

reflect

each

technology

and

requirements based on performance and technical limitations. Emphasis will also be laid on the needs of the wearer, foot and body. Since the research is from a smart textiles perspective I will not put emphasis on designing ergonomically correct footwear or focus on details, such as mid- outsole, eyelets or other non-textile technical parts of the shoe; such as heel-height, toe-spring etc, or textile 40

components

other

than

smart

textiles.

In the designs I will consider the target groups preferences, market and trends and technical design issues, both in regard to what is technically possible but also in regard to usability and clarity of communication. The outcome will be very conceptual and I will not make, or test, any actual textile samples. Values in the smarttextile area will be obtained through the choice of material and textile techniques, which I will research primarily theoretically.

The final designs will be

simulated, get a clearer view of the expected motion of the technologies within the shoe, using Maya 3D animation softwear. The visual work is to be built on a foundation of aesthetics, ergonomics and usability. Surface and shape will be developed simultaneously in order to create a dialogue between aesthetics and technology, shape and surface, function and decoration. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Visual research covers two main theme when related to what might be termed analytical and propositional methods â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the deconstruction of existing visual work and the development of new design strategies and methods.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Noble and Beatley, 2005) Preliminary I will make a mood and inspiration board, to be used as a foundation for the sketching. The practicebased research will consist of a series of visual investigation

using

two-/and

three-dimensional 41

experimentation with in a set of precise guidelines, delineating the intention and context of the experiment. The first thing I need to do is identify what technical limitations and possibilities each technology has. The limitations will be identified through the theoretical research where as the possibilities will be identified through practical work. I will sketch focusing on technical details to start with, and then from the mood and inspiration board looking at the aesthetic as a whole, but I dialog between the two will be consistent, as both will be inspired by the technology being researched. “Design is not an abstract theoretical discipline – it produces tangible artefacts, expresses social priorities and carries cultural values. Exactly whose priorities and values are at the core of the debate.”(Howard, 2001) I think having a dialog with the end consumer is important during the design processes, as, as a designer, you always work towards a company’s design brief with a specific target group, and it is important to never lose track of the end user and go to much astray with your own aesthetic preferences. Therefore I will continuously, throughout the sketch process, make some qualitative interviews to help me determine which designs and design ideas are the most suitable for the target group and each technology. 42

‘The <Context-Experiment> model will inevitably lead to a number of ‘failed’ experimental outcomes, as each small ‘test’ is an attempt to gain feedback in the definition of the project focus. In fact, if an experimental piece of visual communication is unsuccessful when tested with a target audience or in a specific context, then this should still be seen as an appositive exercise in gathering

information

the

project

focus.

determining what does and does not work, as well as what potentially does, the designer is in a far better position to arrive at a more successful resolution.’ (Noble and Bestley, 2005) I will visualise and research the ideas by sketching using different mediums and materials in order to get as much as

possible

out

the

sketch

process.

Initially

unpretentious paper sketches will be made moving on to different appropriate mediums. Building models are a very good way of sketching. It really helps to visualize ideas. They do not have to be in scale 1:1 however as footwear has quite convenient size I think it will be beneficial in this case. The final stage of this practice-based research will be to conclude and finalise some of the footwear. This will be done in Illustrator and Rhinoceros. I would also like to make them as paper models as I find this to be a fun and quite explanatory

way

displaying

something

three-

dimensional without making actual prototypes. 43

Chapter 4 Technical & Visual design & Application When designing with smart textiles, it is important to think about the parameters surrounding the body that can stimulate the textile (fig. 7). The technologies that can be stimulated by these parameters while catering the needs of the human body and foot are the ones with the greatest future potential for footwear. It is also the parameters surrounding the foot, which can stimulate the smart textiles, amongst others, that are the key

issues

comfort,

performance

and

welfare

management within footwear. In this section I will discuss the technical issues and limitations of these technologies and explain the technical design process and how technical design issues were converted into visuals.

4.1 Applications Performance and welfare requirements of hiking boots are, as discussed in section 2.2, the fit of the boot, moisture management, breathability, cleanness, the

weight of the boot,

water resistance, lateral rigidity,

longitudinal rigidity and arch support. The most important aspect of the hiking boot is the fit as it can affect the long-term health of the feet and lead to permanent damage. The shoe should be comfortably loose, but in order not to rub against the feet and cause friction, the foot should be fixated in the shoe without causing pressure points. It needs to have lateral and longitudinal rigidity and suitable arch support. The occurrence of such aspects, that can cause discomfort, enables the mechanical parameters that can stimulate smart textiles, present on the side of the boot such as friction, pressure, strain and abrasion. Moisture

management/breathability

and

water

resistance is also very important as discussed in section 2.2, as the lack of such easily causes blisters, bacteria and fungus. This enables parameters such as moisture, originating from the body and/or the surrounding environment, bacteria and temperature. Parameters that can stimulate the outer of the shoe, such as sunlight, can be of both performance and aesthetical value. It can for instance be used to warn the wearer of the amount of UV in the environment, which will be discussed further later on.

4.1.1 Shape Memory Materials We all have unique feet, as discussed in section 2.1, and as there are more variations of feet than hiking boots, most people also have different size feet and some people different foot shapes, it can be hard to find a perfect fit. Shape memory materials, with a two-way memory effect, can adjust the size of the textile components within footwear and the structure of the textile to aid the wearer; this will be discussed in the following to sections. Parameters surrounding the foot and shoe that can stimulate

shape

memory

materials

are

thermal,

mechanical or electrical (when using a textile switch). This means that body temperature or pressure of the foot can activate shape memory materials

4.1.1.2 Shape Memory Polymers Shape Memory Polymers can be made into hollow fibres, as discussed in section 2.4.2.3.2. The internal diameter of the hollow fibre can change and recover under thermal stimulation. This can be used to affect the physical properties of textile products, and be used for thermal management (Hu et al., 2009).

Hollow fibres can be

placed evenly throughout the upper of the boot, as the climate within the shoe is consistent to create a microclimate within the shoe. (fig.8 a) 47

Since feet have 250,000 sweat glands, they tend to sweat more than other parts of the body. Sweaty feet can cause rashes and eczema, fungus and infection. There is also a good chance you will encounter rain, snow, wet ground and streams when hiking. Wet feet in general will add to your discomfort and cause blisters. Shape memory fabrics with in-built shape memory fibres can be used to create self-adaptable textiles with selfregulated structures that can performer in response to changes in environmental temperature (Hu et al., 2009). They can be used for moisture management, as it adjusts the breathability of the fabric (fig.9).

4.1.1.2 Shape Memory Alloys It is possible to make a shoe that expands with your feet as they swell when you walk. Shape Memory Alloys can be programmed to expand at a curtain rate when activated, either by temperature or by an electrical current. (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010) (fig.10). In this case a mould of your feet before and after swelling would be made and the SMA would then be programmed to change in between these two moulds as you walk. Shape Memory Alloys can be used for thermoregulation as it can make a shape creating an increased air layer within a structure. They can for example be made into spirals (fig. 8b) (Hu., et.al., 2009). If you attach each end to 48

different layers of fabric the spiral can expand and contract

adjusting

the

insulation

thickness

when

stimulated making it a thermal regulation material. For a lesser effect half circles or other shapes can be made (fig. 8c). The best stimuli would in this case be temperature, when hot she spiral contracts and when cold the spiral expires to increase the insulation. This could also be used for the insole of the shoe; as the body temperature heats the insole, when you put the shoe on your feet, it swells and gives a moulded perfect fit. Materials with Shape Memory Alloys can adapt to the contours of the foot, similar to the function of memory foam, and adjust the size according to the size of the wearer. This means that the boot can mimic the shape of the foot and give it a perfect fit. As SMM can be activated by mechanical motion, such as pressure or friction, this could also be used to eliminate pressure points and areas where rubbing occur. (fig. 11) Shape memory can, due to their good damping property at glass transition temperature (Yang et al., 2004), be used to absorb impact energy. While hiking you walk both longer and shorter distances and the different grounds change the movement of the foot and the need of different cushioning. SMA spirals can be used as a shockabsorbent sole that adjusts according to ground surface. This could be controlled with a textile switch as the wearer chooses or automatically by using different 49

sensors, but it can also be done using temperature changes. Friction between two bodies, in this case the foot and the sole, will release energy in the form of heat, which can stimulate SMA (fig. 12). SMAs are strong enough to lift the body weight of a person as it changes state. (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010). Insoles made out of SMA could therefore change the height of the different sides of the insole, and correct the angle of the foot to compensate for pronators and supinators. (fig.13)

4.1.2 Hydrogels & membranes Hydrogels and membranes are able to release drugs and other chemicals when required, by swelling in response to external stimuli. For Hikers this could be pH or temperature change (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005), or electrical stimuli if a keypad is used. They can also be programmed programmed

release

intervals.

their

substances

(Stylios,

Discussion

preof

technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010) Sweat is odourless unless the presence of bacteria. Hydrogels could be used to release perfume or antibacterial in the shoe to decrease smell. This could be done

automatically

according

predetermined

schedule or can be acted up by the wearer as he/she 50

chooses using a keypad. Most of the sweat the foot produce comes from the foot sole, which makes the insole of the shoe a good place for hydrogels. Hydrogels could also be used to release other substances, like antifungal substances, since sweaty feet may lead to fungal infections, or other medicals when needed. (fig.14)

4.1.3 Chromatic Colours Chromic materials are both sensors and activators. Stimuli surrounding the foot and shoe that can stimulate chromatic colours are light, temperature, stress and/or deformation, pH, liquid and pressure change (and also electrical if in combination with textiles switch and chemicals if present in the soil, air or water). Therefore photochromic, mechanocromatic,

thermochromic, ionochromic,

eletcrochromic, carsolchromic,

solvatechromic, piezorochromic and also chemochromic can be used on footwear. Since chromatic colours go through a visible change they are best used on the outside of the boot (unless used as sensors, in combination with optical fibres). The hiking boots has a fairly limited surface and only small parts of the boots a direct visible to the wearer at all times. It is also important, in the purpose of clear communication, not to have too much going on at the same time. Therefore I have chosen to limit the use of chromatic colours to those stimulated by the most obvious stimulus surrounding the outside of the shoe; water and light. 51

4.1.3.1 Hydrochromatic colours There is a good chance you will encounter rain, snow, wet ground and streams when hiking. A purely aesthetical use of chromatic colours would therefore be to make patterns based on hydrochromatic ink. Since all hiking boots today strive to be waterproof this does not really have a functional purpose. If used on nowaterproof boots this could be used to warn the wearer of potential moisture penetrating the surface of the boot causing the inside to moist and in the long run cause blisters. Hydrochromatic colours changes repeatedly from white to transparent when lubricated and changes back to its original white as it dries. The fact that this effect only goes from white to transparent makes the design possibilities fairly limited.

I have distinguished three different ways of how hydrochromatic ink could potentially be used: ∴

Lighter (and white) patterns can disappear (fig. 15a)

∴

Darker patterns can appear (fig. 15b) ·

If the surface is un-patterned when dry, or the surface is any other colour then white, the design can only be monochromatic.

∴

Underlying colour can become visible (fig. 15c1-3) ·

If the surface is un-patterned when dry, patterns

with

underlying

colour could

appear. If the dry design is a plain white any colour can appear when lubricated. ·

If the surface should be coloured when lubricated the design will be a blend of the underlying colour and a darker version of the

original

colour.

e.g:

dark

blue+red=purple, dark blue+yellow=green, white+dark blue= light blue etc. ·

If the surface is printed with a colour and have visible white pattern when dry, the pattern can change colour when wet without leaving any colour rests in the remaining pattern.

4.1.3.2 Photochromic colours Photochromatic

colours

could

used

for

both

performance and visual purposes. I would like to use these colours to warn the wearer of the strength of the sun as he climbs to higher altitudes or the amount of UV absorbed through out a day of hiking. Sunburnt is a frequent injury hikers suffer that can easily be avoided. They go from colourless to coloured and can have a variety of colours. They can be both screen and digitally printed

(Christie,

R.,

Discussion

technology,

Galashiels, 24 June, 2010). This means that they are fairly unlimited in terms of visual expression: â&#x2C6;´

The surface can be one colour and patterns can become visible when stimulated by UV. (fig. 16a)

â&#x2C6;´

The surface can be patterned and any darker colour will cover the pattern when stimulated by UV. This could be used to create multiple effects of different

colours

disappearances

colours/patterns (fig. 16b). Photochromatic colours react to very little sunlight; the colour change is very rapid and at very small doses of UV-light. They would therefore not work as a UVindicator. However one way to get around this is to use UV-absorbers. UV-absorbers can be printed on top of the photochromic colour in different thicknesses, to create a 54

gradual UV-changing pattern (Christie, Discussions on of technology, Galashiels, 24 June, 2010). This could be done in many ways however here are three possible solutions: ∴ The amount of pattern will increase (fig. 17a) ∴ The dimensions of the pattern will grow (fig. 17b) ∴ Different colours can symbolise different levels of UV (fig.17c)

4.1.4 Other considerations Heavyweight hiking boots, which are more suited for carrying heavy loads, create more work for the hiker and are somewhat clumsy. As when doing all sports, there are curtain times when you will have less energy than other, combine this with wearing a heavy backpack and your balance will definitely be affected. For those smart textile solutions that need a textile switch this one should not be placed on the boot but on the arm or any other place close to the upper body.

4.2 Aesthetic Design My aesthetic design decisions are combinations of the results gained throughout my survey and interviews, technological knowledge gain throughout my literature review and practical exploration of technology and considerations

around

clearest

communication

4.2.1 Survey The initial stage of the practical work was to make a survey to determine aesthetical preferences within the target group. I also wanted to find out how important they found the aesthetics to be and what they thought of the selection of hiking boots that are on the market today. These questions were asked (and multiple answers were given) (Appendix one): ∴ How important is the design and aesthetics for you when buying hiking boots? (fig. 18a) ∴ How do you find the present selection of hiking boots? (fig. 18b) ∴ Which colours would you consider when buying hiking boots? (fig. 18c) ∴ Which pair of footwear (picture A-C) appeals to you the most and why? (Appendix one) The design and the aesthetics turned out to be important to all sexes and age groups. Women tended to find this slightly more important than man however it was equally important to all age groups. Comments made were: “It’s not so important to me, but at the same time I would never buy something hideous!” (Answer given: neither or). Most people found the current selection of hiking boots to be satisfying however a will for more patterns/prints 56

and colour could be found. (Fig. 18b) Comments made were: “I would like zebra prints!”. According to the survey, the four colours preferred by hikers on their boots are black/greys, brown/beiges, blues and reds (fig. 18c) Comments made were: “When hiking I want to wear neutral colours, which blend in with the environment, not to scare wildlife away. Then mountaineering I prefer more colour for safety reasons.” (Answer given: black/greys, browns/beiges, reds, greens, khaki colours). “I would wear any cool colour!”. (All colours selected) When asked to choose the pair of footwear that appealed the most, comments made were: “They look like they can survive.” (Option C) “This one has the most colours out of the two that looks functional.” (Option C) “They have the

least

amount

seams,

which

gives

better

waterproofing.” (Option B) “I like this one because it has more colours than B and less than A”. (Option C) The most frequently given response was however: “They look lightest” (option C) “Option A reminds me of a fashion shoe”. (Option C) “I prefer the looks.” (Option C)

4.3 Mood board One of the comments made about colour preferences was that the colours should reflect the environment and blend in with the surrounding nature. The mood/inspiration board (fig. 19) is therefore built up of the three elements hikers are most likely to come across; water, earth and wind. The technical considerations of smart materials have also been built in; the gradual colour change of hydrochromatic colours, that goes from white to transparent, shape memory materials that swell like mountains. Also the different stimuli that can cause a change in smart materials, such as moisture and UV are present. As mentioned in section 4.1, according to the survey, the four colours preferred by hikers on their boots are black/greys, brown/beiges, blues and reds.

4.4Visual Investigation/Design The visual work is built on the technical possibilities, distinguished

section

4.2,

and

limitations

hydrochromic and photochromic colours, together with aesthetical preferences the target group expressed during interviews and the initial survey. For functional reasons there will be no spatial changes to the visible, outside, of the shoe, as could have been done using shape memory materials. 58

During the interviews I asked the participants to give each design a number from 1-5 (appendix 2). I also asked for general opinions.

4.4.1 Interview 1 Shoe no. 1-6 (fig. 21) was shown during the first talk. Three sportier models and three more classical was shown to the participants, where of two showed the shoe after a stimuli. The design was graded as in fig 20; however I found the comments that were made to be more relevant than the scores. Initially I intended for figural motifs to be visual as the sun shone on them. However when shown to the target group the responses were mixed. Al though some thought the idea was very cool, most said they disliked it. The different coloured shoe laces were popular, I concluded, when asking further, that the shoe laces was just enough colour to prevent the shoe from looking just like “all the rest” without being “too much”. This extra colour could however be on other parts of the shoe too. Some commented on the diagonal lines on shoe no.1, no.2 and no.6. So I decided to put them up against some other alternatives during the second interview.

4.4.2 Interview 2 Seams During the second interview I asked the participants what kind of seams they preferred. (Fig 21 shoe 7-13) Shoe nr.7, which has the same lines as the participants in the first interview preferred, and nr.9 got the highest score. However when I asked, the reason for not giving nr.7 higher score was the grey being unevenly painted. This was of course interesting as I had one visual idea where the entire surface, dyed with hydrochromatic colours, would change colour when wet, like wet stains. After this second interview I decided not to sketch any further with this. Other comments about shoe no. 7 (average score 3,7) made were: ‘I like lines in red, they stand out!’ ‘I like the colour combination. ‘I don’t like the straight rubber line’.

4.4.3 Interview 3 Colour Combinations Shoes no. 14-21 (fig. 21) display “un-stimulated” colour combinations. Shoe no. 16 and no. 14 got the highest score. However since patterns can completely change the balance of the design I decided not to limit theself to one or two colour combination, but to keep sketch using a wider colours range.

One interesting comment made, was about shoe no.21 (average score: 3,5): “I like this one because it looks stable and secure”. This is also something that was mentioned during the initial survey, were participants mentioned going for shoes that look sturdy.

4.4.4 Interview 4 Chromatic Patterns During interview 1 some participants commented on liking the squares on some of the designs. This fits very well with the mood/inspiration board. Therefore I decided to do different combinations of squares (fig. 21 shoe no. 22-33). Some shoes shows hydrochromatic patterns, darker patterns appearing, and some show photochromatic patterns, in red, none in combination with each other. The conclusion from this interview was that designs are now too similar for the participants. Most of the designs received high scores and no useful comments were made. The designs that scored highest were all: ∴ Black/grey with red details ∴ Patterned with squares

4.4.5 Visual design ideas Built on the information gathered throughout the interviews, shoe no. 34-51 (fig. 21) shows further visual investigation,

combining

hydrochromatic

and

photochromatic colour changes.

4.4.5.1 Hydrochromatic colours Waterproof or water resistant boots does not absorb any moisture. However to achieve this affect one could use hydrochromatic colours. Since hydrochromatic colours go from white too transparent, as discussed in section 4.1.3.2.1, they can be used to darken areas exposed to hydrogen, just like actual water stains. I find this very interesting decided therefore, only to use hydrochromatic colours in this way as I continued working with the visual expression of shoe no. 34-51 (fig. 21) but in a more controlled way than shoe no. 7 (fig 21).

4.4.5.2 Photochromatic colours As discussed in section 4.1.3.2.1, technical considerations for phototchromatic colours, there are two different ways of using these colours (or combinations of the two); the surface can be one colour and patterns can become 64

visible when stimulated by UV or the surface can be patterned and any darker colour will cover the pattern when stimulated by UV. When communicating with symbols, simplicity is of utter importance, I have therefore chosen only to work with the first of the two in order to simplify the designs (fig. 21 shoe no. 34-51). As photochromatic colours change colour very rapidly and at very small doses of UV, a UV-absorbers must be printed on top of the photochromic colour in different thicknesses, to slow down the effect. For design ideas no. 34-51 (fig. 21) I have chosen only to work with two of the possibilities to achieve this, as discussed in section 4.1.3.2.1; the amount of pattern will increase or the pattern will grow, this to limit the amount of different colours used in the designs as preferred by the participants in the survey and interviews. To make the warning as clear as possible, one of the ideas is to print a grid with photochromatic colour. The grid will be visible as soon as the hiker steps into the sun. As the amount of UV increases the squares will fill one by one (se fig. 22a) or all squares at once in a gradual effect (se fig. 22b). Combinations of the two would not be as effective as they would distract each other.

It is important to place these squares visible to the eye. Placing them on the sides of the boots, as seen in fig. 21 shoe no. 36 for example, is not as functional as placing them on the shoe-box, as seen on shoe no. 48. Combinations of the two are possible to create interesting pattern combinations, for aesthetic purposes rather than functional. I also found that if the squares should be filled â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;square by squareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; it is more affective as a warning, if they are filled in groups (fig. 23a) rather than individually (fig. 23b).

4.4.5.3 Overall design Today almost al hiking boots class C-D have a black rubber rands. This is an area that could be worked with. Shoe no. 34-51 (fig. 21) all show different simple possibilities for this area. As mentioned; during the initial survey I found that consumers are more likely to buy footwear that look durable and stable. It is therefore important to consider this in the design of the rand/outer sole. The bottom should look stable and secure while pushing boundaries and being commercial. The fact that the design of the rand in the designs is Vshaped plays a major role in whether the boot will be understood as stable or not. Darker colours look heavier than lighter. Comparing shoe no. 47 & no.51; shoe no. 47 66

looks much more stable than no.51. To make the shoe look as stable as possible the heel should be darker than the rest of the boot, as when you walk you put most of your weight on the heel before rolling forward. None of the participants in the initial survey chose shoe (A) when asked which footwear appealed to them the most (se section 4.1). Some even mentioned that they didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t like their hiking boots to look like sports shoes. Therefore the design must not have a too sporty impression. The sole of shoe no. 45 (fig. 21) for example has a very distinguished Nike swoosh design. However shoe (C) was chosen before shoe (B) as it had a more sporty and modern look, so this must still not be lost.

4.4.5.4 Final design Ideas The last four shoes of fig. 21 shoe no. 52-56 (or fig. 24) are the final designs. They show one potential way of how photochromatic and hydrochromatic colours could be used visually. Shoe no.52 shows the shoe, as it would look indoors with no particular UV present. Shoe no.53 shows the shoe, as it would look when exposed to sunlight. Shoe no.54 when the amount of UV in the air is very high and shoe no.55 when it is in contact with water and in the absence of sunlight. Shoe no.56 is perhaps an early morning when the sun is shining and the grass is still full of dew.

Chapter 5 THE PROCESS In order to finalise this project, there were number of different stages I had to go through. Literature review, technical design which included finding out technical limitations of each technology, visual design and also the final out put: the written work and the animated video. Preparing the literature about smart textiles and the hiking boots was the first stage in this project. A wide range of related literature including articles, PhD thesis, interviews, books and websites was scanned and prepared to be the guiding line to the next stage the implementation of technology. This was the hardest part to me, since most of the literature is written for and by engineers. Since I do not have an engineering background I needed a lot of help with the technological part of the research from staff and researchers at Heriot Watt University. The help I received made it easier for me to understand how smart textiles can be used today and how they could possibly be used in the future.

This projects final design was a hiking boot, which incorporates the design ideas based on the requirements of technology, the target groups preferences, usability and clarity of communication. I did not find it necessary to make more then one final design, as I only se this as one potential way of using chromatic colour. The process leading on to the final design was very interesting to me. Applying the technologies practically and sketching on design ideas with technical limitations in mind (fig. 25) helped me gain a greater understanding of each technology. First of all, technical sketches, in order to simplify the smart textile concepts were evaluated by Prof. George Stylios. These sketches were done according to the design ideas and the kind of technology I thought was suitable for hiking foot wear. Different ideas of the usage of these technical concepts were proposed too. The interviews and getting an immediate response to the design was a new way for me of sketching. I found it very rewarding and I would definitely use this method again. Also making three-dimensional models is very useful when working with shape, both on a small and large scale (fig 26). Getting the opportunity to learn and use Autodesk Maya (fig. 27), was made possible with the help from 3d animator Anders Dahlstrรถm. I am more then thankful for 71

al the time he has invested in me, helping me understand and use this very advanced software. I really feel that making the animation was vital in order to fully explain the design ideas with photo- and hydrochromic colours. The final work of this project is this written work, which contains the aim and the objective of this project, the literature review, the methodology, the practical work: the implementation of technology and aesthetic and finally a conclusion discussing the findings I have made throughout this project and suggestions for future research.

Chapter 6 Findings& Conclusions The technologies that can be stimulated by the parameters surrounding the hiker and also provide for the health, welfare and pleasure of the human body are the once with the greatest future potential for footwear. Hikers value functionality higher than the aesthetics, for smart textiles to have as large a future potential as possible in hiking footwear, its applications need to be aiding the wearer in some way rather than having purely aesthetic purposes. Shape memory materials can adjust the size of the textile components within footwear and the structure of the textile to aid the wearer. They are strong enough to lift the wearer as they change and can therefore be used on insoles. Parameters surrounding the foot and shoe that can stimulate mechanical

shape or

memory electrical.

materials This

are

means

thermal,

that

body

temperature or pressure of the foot can activate shape memory materials. SMP can be made into hollow fibres and the internal diameter of the hollow fibre can change and recover 75

under thermal stimulation. This can be used to affect the physical properties of textile products, and be used for thermal management (Hu et al., 2009). Hollow fibres can be placed evenly throughout the upper of the boots, as the climate within the shoe is consistent. These fibres can adapt to the bodies contours, similar to the function of memory foam, and adjust a garments size according to the size of the wearer. This means that if soft enough, the boot can mimic the shape of the foot and give it a perfect fit. As SMM can be activated by mechanical motion, such as pressure or friction, this could be used to eliminate pressure points and areas where rubbing occur. This could be used for the insole of the shoe, as the body temperature heats the insole it swells and gives a moulded perfect fit. This could also be used as cushioning as it would spring back as the pressure of the foot decreases and increases as you walk. Shape memory fabrics with in-built shape memory fibres can be used to create self-adaptable textiles with selfregulated structures that can performer in response to changes in environmental temperature (Hu et al., 2009). They can be used as temperature and moisture management. Shape memory alloys can have a two-way memory effect. It is therefore possible to make a shoe that expands with your feet as they swell when you walk. They can be 76

programmed to expand at a certain rate when activated, either by temperature or by an electrical current. (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010) SMAs are strong enough to lift the body weight of a person as it changes state. (Stylios, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010). Insoles made out of SMA could therefore change the height of the different sides of the insole, and correct the angle of the foot to compensate for pronators and supinators. SMAs can be made into spirals. If you attach each end to different layers of fabric the spiral can expand and contract

adjusting

the

insulation

thickness

when

stimulated. The best stimuli would in this case be temperature, when hot she spiral contracts and when cold the spiral expires to increase the insulation. (Hu, et al. 2009). While hiking you walk both longer and shorter distances and the different grounds change the movement of the foot and the need of different cushioning. SMA spirals can be used as a shock-absorbent sole that adjusts according to ground surface. This could be controlled with a textile switch as the wearer chooses or automatically by using different sensors. As shape memory alloys can be programmed to change state at a different stimulus or time intervals it is possible 77

to use this to give the feet a massage or to press different acupunctural points as you walk. As for now Shape memory alloys cannot be coloured (Chan Vili). Future work for designers could be to integrate SMA into other textile structure for an aesthetically pleasing visual experience.

Future work

would also be to determine which fibres are best suited, as performance fibres mixed with SMA/SMP. This research would also be beneficial to create spatial patterns on the outer surface of the boot. When it comes to chromatic colours they are not made for textiles. Since there has been no strong demand from the textile market, more application areas need to be investigated for the industry to see that they can be commercial, and more research need to be focused on this. Technical considerations for photochromatic colours, there are two different ways of using these colours; the surface can be one colour and patterns can become visible when stimulated by UV, the surface can be patterned and any darker colour will cover the pattern when stimulated by UV, (or combinations of the two). When communicating with symbols, simplicity is of utter importance; the first of the two is therefore more suitable when used to warn the wearer of high amounts of UV.

As photochromatic colours change colour very rapidly and at very small doses of UV, a UV-absorbers must be printed on top of the photochromic colour in different thicknesses, to slow down the effect. To limit the amount of different colours used in the design as preferred by the participants in the survey and interviews, I find two of the possibilities to achieve this to be most suited for hiking footwear: the amount of pattern will increase, the pattern will grow. To make the warning as clear as possible, a grid, which becomes visible as sun as the shoe is exposed to UV, can be printed with photochromatic colour. As the amount of UV increases the squares will fill one by one, or all squares at once in a gradual effect. Combinations of the two would not be as effective as they would distract each other. It is important to place these squares visible to the eye. Placing them on the sides of the boots, is not as functional

placing

them

the

shoe-box.

Combinations of the two are possible to create interesting pattern combinations, for aesthetic purposes rather than functional. I also found that if the squares should be filed â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;square by squareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; it is more affective as a warning, if they are filled in groups rather than individually.

Photochromatic colours can be both screen printed and digitally printed. R., Shah, a researcher at the Heriot Watt University, has done a series of test with digitally printed photochromatic colours on a small scale, which has shown that these two technologies are feasible. The result, when digitally printed, has quite weak colours (R., Christie, Discussion of technology, Galashiels, 1 July, 2010).

This

area

needs

research.

Since

photochromatic colours are very light sensitive today more light stable colours need to be developed as well. One

interesting,

photochromatic

but

colours

purely in

aesthetic,

combination

use with

of UV-

absorbers would be to create animations on the surface of the boot, as the amount of UV-absorption can be varied. This could be great on childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s footwear or other wearable items, apparel or curtains. Hydrogels and membranes are able to release drugs or other chemicals when required, by swelling in response to external stimuli. For Hikers this could be pH or temperature change (Lam Po Tang, Stylios, 2005), or electrical stimuli if a keypad is used. They can also be programmed programmed

release

intervals.

their

substances

(Stylios,

Discussion

preof

technology, Galashiels, 3 June, 2010) Sweat is odourless unless the presence of bacteria. Hydrogels could be used to release perfume or antibacterial in the shoe to decrease smell. This could be 80

done

automatically

according

predetermined

schedule or can be acted up by the wearer as he/she chooses using a keypad. Hydrogels could also be used to release other substances, like antifungal substances or other medicals when needed. The use of a rand is of functional value, but can also be used visually to make the shoe appear more functional; shoes with dark rands and soles look more stable than those with lighter ones and a darker heal looks more stable than a darker front. Dividing the rand with lines makes it looks sportier. The ideas could be commercial if the smart textiles were cheaper, for the future, when the demand will increase of smart textiles in general, and the prices go down, the designs and ideas particularly, as functional and achievable design-ideas will participate in increasing the demand for smart textiles, and similar products using smart textiles as main principle. In order for the prices to go down the demand needs to increase and for this to happen more application areas, both functional and aesthetic, are needed.

Hikers

however value functionality higher than the aesthetics, for smart textiles to have an as large future potential as possible in hiking footwear; its applications need to be aiding the wearer in some way. It can be both comfort and performance purposes or, like in the use of photochromatic colours, to warn for high UV in the air. 81

The design-technology relationship has been the key issue through out this project, however the ideas are only conceptual; to find out what will actually work technically and what is commercially viable more interdisciplinary research is needed. This project is the basis for further research into smart textiles and their applicability and future potential in footwear from a design perspective.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND & AIMS & OBJETCIVES

CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

THE H IKERS FOOT

2.2

H IKING BOOTS

2.3

S MART TEXTILES

2.4

INTELLIGENT WEARABLES

2.5

ADVANCES IN E-FOOTWEAR

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODS

CHAPTER 4 TECHNICAL & VISUAL DESIGN & APPLICATION

4.1

Applications

4.2

Aesthetic Design

4.3

Mood Board

4.4

Visual Design Ideas

CHAPTER 5 PROCESS

CHAPTER 6 FINDINGS & CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSORY

List of Appendix APPENDIX ONE - INITIAL SURVEY APPENDIX TWO - GRAPHS FROM INTERVIEWS APPENDIX THREE - EXCERPT OF CURRENT MARKET AESTETHICS APPENDIX FOUR - FRAMES FROM EPLANATORY ANIMATION VIDEO

List of Illustrations

All Figures are copyright of the writer

FIG.1 – DIFFERENT TOE SHAPES

P.15 FIG.14 – SCHEMATIC DIAGRAME OF STIMULI-

FIG.2 – DIFFERENT FOOT TYPES

P.16

FIG.3 – PARTS OF THE HIKIG BOOT

P.17

FIG.4 –SMART TEXTIELS

P.20

FIG.5 – 1ST CLASS ACTIVE SMART TEXTIELS

P.21

FIG.6 – 2ND CLASS ACTIVE SMART TEXTILES

P.22

RESPONSIVE HYDROGEL & MEMBRANE

FIG.7 – PARAMETERS THAT CAN STIMULATE SMART TEXTIELS

P.45

FIG.8 – THERMOREGULATION USING SMM

P.47

FIG.9 – BREATHABILITY REGULATION SCHEMATIC P.48 FIG.10 – SHAPE OF THE FEET EXPANDS AS THE FOOT SWELLS

P.48

FIG.11 – SMM ACTIVATED BY MECHANICAL MOTION

P.51

FIG.15 – HYDROCHROMATIC COLOURS CHANGES P.53 FIG.16 – PHOTOCHROMATIC COLOURS CHANGES P.54 FIG.17 – GRADUAL UV-CHANGING PATTERN

P.55

FIG.18 – RESULT FROM SURVEY

P.56

FIG.19 – MOOD BOARD

P.59

FIG.20 – COMMENTS ON SHOE NO. 1-6

P.60

FIG.21 – SHOE NO. 1-56

P.61

FIG.22 – AMOUNT OF UV INCREASES – GRID

P.65

FIG.23 – AMOUNT OF UV INCREASES – INDIVIDUALLY & IN GROUPS

P.66

FIG.24 – SHOE NO. 52-56 FINAL DESIGNS

P.67

P.49

FIG.12 – SCHOCK ABSORBTION

P.50

FIG.13 – INSOLES CORRECTS FOOT ANGLE

P.50 FIG.27 – MAKING OF EXPLANATORY ANIMATION P P P.73

FIG.25 – EXTRACT FROM TECHNICAL SKETCH PROCESS FIG.26 – 3D SKETCHES

P.72

Cavanagh, P.R., Hewitt, F.G., Jr., Perry, J.E. Inshoeplantar pressure measurement: a review. The foot. 2(4), 1992, pp. 185-194

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February 2010] Thomsom, R., 1986. Making Shoes. London. Franklin Watts. TFRG Associates, Research Associate, [Online], Available at: http://www.tfrg.org.uk/node/10897 [Accessed 24 January 2010] Varadan, V.K., 2000. Smart Electronics and MEMS. SPIEThe International Society for Optical Engineering Van Humbeeck, J., Non-medical applications of shape memory alloys. Material Science and Engineering, 1999, pp 134-148 Von Laagenhove, L., Hertleer, C., 2004. Smart clothing: a new life. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. ½, 2004, pp 63-72 Whitesides, B., Selecting a running shoe, [Online] Available

at:

http://injuredrunner.com/running_shoe.htm [Accessed 01 July 2010] Ying, B-A., et al., 2004. Assessing the performance of textiles incorporating phase change materials, Polymer Testing, Vol 23, pp. 541-9

Footwearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, which I think is a valid term to describe footwear incorporated with wearable

GLOSSORY

electronics. Electric Polymers: Electric Polymers have the

Active smart textiles: materials that can sense and

ability to produce an electrical energy or a

react to environmental conditions or stimuli. This

current.

makes them both sensors and actuators.

Eletcrochromic colours: Colours that respond to

Actuators: Convert energy into motion.

electricity.

Carsolchromic colours: Colours that respond to

Fibre Optic Sensors: Sensors made out of

an electron beam.

polymeric materials

Chemochromatic colours: Colours that respond

FOS: See Fibre Optic Sensors

to chemicals.

Hydrogels and membranes: They are able to

Chromic materials: Materials that can change

release drugs or other chemicals when required,

their colour according to external stimuli, as they

by swelling in response to external stimuli.

are printed or/and dyed with chromic colours.

Intelligent wearables: are able to sense changes

Conductive materials: Material which contains

in the environment and act upon this in a

movable electric charges.

predetermined way.

Conductive Polymers: Organic polymers that

Intelligent Clothing: clothing assistant that store

conduct electricity.

information in a memory and carry out complex

Conductive containing

Polymer organic

Composites: polymers

that

Materials conduct

electricity.

calculations, clothing monitors that record the behaviour and the health of the wearer and regulative

clothing,

which

adjusts

certain

parameters, such as temperature or ventilation. CP: See Conductive Polymers Ionochromic colours: Colours that respond to CPC: See Conductive Polymer Composites E-Footwear:

E-Garments is a frequently used

term; so far I have never come across â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;E-

different pH. Luminescent textiles: Textiles coated or printed with

luminescent

paste,

textiles

with 7

luminescent cords woven or knitted into their textile structure.

QTC: See Quantum tunnelling composite Quantum tunnelling composite: A Conductive

Mechanocromatic colours: Colours that respond to stress and/or deformation.

Polymer Composites Sensor: a device that detects or responds to a

Passive Smart Textiles: materials with a textile nature that can be included in a textile structure. They can be used a sensors as they can detect and transform signals into electric signals.

physical or chemical stimulus. Shape Memory Alloys: A special class of adoptive materials that can convert thermal energy into mechanical motion

PCM: See Phase Change Materials.

Shape Memory Materials: Materials able to

Phase Change Materials: Latent heat-storage

regain their original and pre-programmed shape,

materials, which can be integrated into textiles

after being deformed, when exposed to a certain

structures.

stimuli.

Photochromic colours: Colours that respond to

Shape Memory Polymers:

light.

SMA: See Shape Memory Alloys

Photovoltaics: Arrays of cells containing a solar

Smart Garments: See Intelligent Clothing.

photovoltaic material that converts solar radiation Smart Textiles: Textiles that are able to sense

into direct current electricity

changes in their environment. Piezorochromic colours: Colours that respond to SMM: See Shape Memory Materials.

pressure changes. Piezoelectric polymers: Piezoelectric polymers

SMP: See Shape Memory Polymers

have the ability to convert mechanical energy,

Solvatechromic colours: Colours that respond to

such as deformation induced by force, into

liquid.

electrical energy and vice-versa, Pyroeletric

polymers:

Pyroeletric

Thermochromic colours: Colours that respond to polymers

produces an electric current out of thermal energy.

temperature changes.

Thermocouples:

Sensors

used

measure

temperature, which can be integrated into textile structures. Thermoelectric

polymers:

Thermoelectric

polymers converts thermal differentials into an electric current. Very Smart Textiles: units, which with the help of integrated devises and technologies, can sense, react and adapt themselves to environmental conditions or stimuli.

APPENDIX ONE

INITIAL SURVEY

APPENDIX TWO

GRAPHS FROM INTERVIEWS (Total score for shoe 1-33)

APPENDIX THREE

EXCERPT of CURRENT MARKET AESTETHICS

APPENDIX FOUR

FRAMES FROM EPLANATORY ANIMATION VIDEO

….…The animation describes the Hydro- and Photochromatic pattern change. (se attached dvd for full animation)

APPENDIX FIVE

Extract from Sketch process - 2D, 3D & ANIMATION