Seamless: an exploration of fast fashion and the land by mlermant

[[SEAM]LESS SEAM] SEAM ]LESS Senior Thesis by Marina Lermant Fall 2020 - Winter 2021

Reestablishing a connection between peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clothing choices and the land through exploring fast fashion and discovering a California clothing culture.

1 in every 6 people in the world work in the fashion industry. Every person in the world wears the fashion industry.

Cover art by Sam Shin

contents Part 1 Large Scale Effects

Part 2 A California Focus

Part 4 Application

Context

History

Alternatives To Fast Fashion

Definitions Personal Relevance Convergence Of LA + Fashion Explaining The Problem Concept + Mission Statement

History

Clothing And Textiles Fashion To Fast Fashion

Theory Base

The Body As Landscape Psychology Consumer Culture Goals + Objectives

Industry Practices Sourcing Production Distribution

Social Factors Work Conditions Demographics

Environmental Factors Water (use + pollution) Pollution + Waste

Vernacular clothing Modern clothing

Social Factors

User Profiles Consumption Habits Clothing Culture

Natural Factors Textile Waste Cotton Production

Part 3 Case Studies

Collaborative Consumption Thrifting Upcycling

Informed Purchases Certifications Ethical Supply Chains M-Commerce

Future Fashion

Where Fashion Is Headed A Note On Responsibility Future Project Plans

Bio-Textiles Oranges Seaweed Mycelium

Natural Fibers + Dyes Bamboo Hemp + Flax In California Natural Dyes

Recycled Fashion Textile Recycling Chemical Recycling Sustainable Brands

Context History Theory base Industry practices Social factors Environmental factors

Part 1 large scale ef fects 3

Context Definitions Personal relevance Convergence of LA + fashion Explaining the problem Thesis Mission statement

“The current definition is the production, marketing, and consumption of clothes—an industrialized system for making money.”

definitions

(Thomas, 2019, p.4)

Fash•ion noun a popular trend, especially in styles of dress and ornament or manners of behavior. (oxford languages) Fast Fash•ion noun inexpensive clothing produced rapidly by mass-market retailers in response to the latest trends. (oxford languages)

When someone thinks of fashion, comes to mind first? It may be high fashion on models coming down the runway at Paris Fashion week, it may be sportswear worn by the top athletes, or it could be the clothes on their body at the current moment. Fashion, while being many things, is certainly different for each individual, yet ties each person together. The term “fashion”, given its broad definition, can be applied to nearly everything created by humans for human consumption. For the purpose of this project, fashion will be seen as the physical acquisition of materials to be worn on the body for the purposes of function, protection, aesthetics, and social expectations. This includes traditional clothing one might think of such as shirts or pants, but also extends to things such as bags, shoes, jewelry, swimwear, and that robe you thought you’d wear but never did.

Personal relevance

This project is a manifestation of some of the lived experiences and interests I have developed over the span of my life so far. As so many of us do, I feel a personal connection with nature and love to be immersed in it. However, as a member of Generation Z, I have come to attach a sense of concern over its protection at the cost of my enjoyment. Growing up in the Silicon Valley being surrounded by technology, I was raised in a culture that encourages forward thinking and pressing on with incredible efficiency and speed. From a very young age, perhaps starting with sewing patchwork onto a pillow with my grandma, I remember enjoying sewing and craftsmanship with fabrics and fibers. I occasionally make my own pieces of clothing, slowly improving each time. The field of Landscape Architecture came to me in college, and the world of design and how intentional choices have an effect on how humans move about and shape the world was opened up to me. Design has allowed me to transform intangible ideas into a physical form whether it be detailed site plans or construction of a dress. At the intersection of where these interests and factors that have shaped me into my current self lies this project. I hope to further explore these connections and how I can use them as a force for good through the development of this research and project. .

Shared Design Principles Form the shape and way something appears

Balance the way elements are laid out that uses lighter vs heavier elements that creates symmetry or asymmetry

Convergence

Proportion how the size of elements relate to one another

For People, By People Landscape architecture and fashion. While the two may seem distantly related, they are actually more connected than one might think. It may be better known how basic architecture and fashion intersect, but the same principals along with others can be applied to landscape architecture. Basic design principles can be drawn between the two. Along with acknowledging both of their fields as design oriented, both are evocative of culture as a whole and views of the individual that created them.

Materials what is used to construct the object

Function intended use that informs the design

Unity how pieces of an element come together cohesively

Structure how parts are arranged to form the body of a work (Cline, 2016)

oscar wilde The notion that life, or our ideas of how we view the world are better understood by the art we view and produce. It helps us get a stronger grip on reality and put things together.

“Art immitates life”

aristotle The notion that everything in art is derived at its base from something in nature. Essentially, art is a reflection of the natural world around us. Considering these two viewpoints helps us view fashion and landscape architecture as both forms of art, or creative expression, and life, what is out there in the world. No matter the viewpoint an individual holds, it can be said that there is a direct link between art, life, the landscape, and design.

explaining the problem

“Life immitates art”

The clothing culture today is nothing like it was 50 years ago. Or even 30. You would hear of a sweater that has lasted for decades. Now, a sweater even a couple years old might not be in a closet anymore. Just like during the industrial revolution, new technologies and production techniques have allowed the production of clothing at a rate higher than it ever has been before. The clothing culture of today relies much more heavily on quantity, and a lot of it, versus quality. With universal globalization, you can have virtually any piece of clothing or apparel at your doorstep in a matter of days with a few simple clicks. Clothing is produced at a fraction of the cost of what it once was, and consumers have more choice than ever before. However, this in fact does come at a cost. The fashion industry plays a significant part in the ongoing climate crisis. It may not seem problematic to one person, but when 7.8 billion more people are added to the mix, it becomes a real problem.

So, what makes fashion The environmental effects are seen along every step of the production process from sourcing of materials, production, and distribution across countries and continents. The effects of the industry span from the soils, waterways, and into the skies. Much of the fabric fiber ever produced will end up in the landfills and microfibers in the oceans. A multitude of pollution problems stem from the fashion industry from chemical use to greenhouse emissions from production that add to the climate crisis. Not only does the fashion industry pose threats to the environment, but causes several humanitarian issues. Outsourcing production produces jobs in developing nations, but those jobs often do not ensure fair treatment of workers. These workers may include children and often people who have no other choice but to accept a job that puts their health at risk. A third negative effect of the fashion industry is on the economy. Since so many articles of clothing are now outsourced, imports to other countries from the United States falls well below its exports. In a 20 year span between â&#x20AC;&#x153;1990 and 2012, the US textile and garment industry lost 1.2 million jobsâ&#x20AC;? (Thomas, 2019, p.5). Apparel and textile jobs continue to increase, but the industry has practically become eradicated in the US.

FAST?

The fast fashion principle is a social and economic strategy. Its core components include: Agile production supply chains that are information based, using interconnectivity and networks with large partners that help them be competitive Heavily media/marketing reliant the sale of goods relies on trends that are constantly changing and being advertised and created by social media outlets, movies and TV, and pop culture Inexpensive goods are produced at a low cost and in turn available to the consumer at a low price. High turnover fashion retailers used to operate with a biannual selling season model, but have shifted to smaller collections more frequently, which can be as frequent as new collections every two weeks. Low quality clothes are produced to be purchased, worn, and disposed of quickly with little emphasis on durability or longevity. (Barnes, Lea-Greenwood, 2006)

RUN way

concept + mission

Concept Statement To reestablish a connection between peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clothing choices and the land through exploring fast fashion and discovering a California clothing culture.

Mission Statement [SEAM]LESS aims to be an educational tool that informs people about the adverse effects of fast fashion on the environment and ethical endangerment towards people. [SEAM]LESS hopes to inspire change in individuals that look toward more just choices for people and planet. A broken link between material possessions and their origins is identified and addressed. The project acts as a medium that connects clothing to the land in a way users can value and understand to an intimate degree.

Jacquemus

History Clothing and textiles Fashion to fast fashion

clothing and textiles

Brief history of clothing Clothing and textiles have been closely linked with humans throughout history. From simple drapings to complex synthetic textiles, technological advancements have allowed humans to turn the word “clothing” into many different things. Ancient cultures made textiles from yarn of natural plant and animal fibres such as silk, wool, cotton, felt, and linen to produce textiles and clothing. Cultures took whatever local materials were available and turned them into vernacular dress which evolved and continues to evolve over time. This timeline is meant to identify major markers but is not all encompassing of clothing developments throughout time.

170,000 years ago Evidence from a study done on lice in 2011 by the Molecular Biology and Evolution journal indicates Neanderthals and Homo sapiens starting donning “clothing”. This ancient clothing was most likely used as a defense from the cold and heat and form of protection when being without clothes proved less efficient. The adding of extra layers could have been due to the loss of hair the species were experiencing. Since ancient clothing cannot be wellpreserved from follilization, best guesses for what this may have looked like is animal pelts such as the wolverine’s thick fur. Clothing would have been constructed using simple tools of stone and bone.

30,000 years ago Evidence found of dyed flax garments that would have produced linenlike clothes. This is an indicator that clothing had taken a turn towards being symbolic/ representative. People had presumably been marking their bodies with paints and dyes before clothing. This transfer from markings on the body to clothing shows that clothing has long served the purpose of function and decorative use.

2700 BCE Archeological findings of hard clay have impressions of textiles and basketry and nets.

4200 BCE Naalebinding spreads to Northern Europe. Mesolithic examples were found in Denmark.

6500 BCE Oldest naalebinding examples (textile fabrication technique that arose before knitting or crochet) found in Nehal Hemar cave, Israel, date from 6500 BC. Naalebinding is a technique which uses short separate lengths of thread unlike knitting which uses continuous lengths of thread.

298 AD Earliest footpowered loom was found at Tarsus.

200 BCE - 200 AD “Needle Knitting” first appeared in Peru. It is a form of naalebinding.

1700s Many technological advancements made in the 18th century, with the industrial revolution, modernized textile creation techniques. These advancements included inventions like the flying shuttle, draw roller, spinning jenny, water frame, and power loom in 1784.

500s AD Jia xie method for resist dyeing of silk using wood blocks was invented in China.

1800s In the 19th century textile development was pushed further and made easier with innovations like improving the power loom, the first functional sewing machine in 1830, and improving needles and knitting machines.

Timeline not to scale (History of Clothing, n.d) (Hogenboom, 2016)

Fashion to fast fashion

Modern marketing helped bolster fast fashion in a way it never had before the 1950s and 60s. When businesses were traditionally able to get consumer purchasing power by simply having a quality product, marketing changed the game. Companies have become amazingly precise and effective in targeting their consumers and tapping into their emotional desires. Because of this, people are less likely to value the quality of clothing as long as the brand strikes a positive mental image (De Sawaan Arons, 2011).

1813 1813 Francis Cabot Lowell essentially steal’s Arkwright’s design of the power loom and brings it back to Massachusetts where he opened the Boston Manufacturing Company.

1771 Richard Arkwright opens first water-powered textile mill in Cromford, Derbyshire, England. These mills, during the industrial revolution, revolutionized the fashion industry thereon out. A “Local textile factory owner William Radcliffe observed that between 1770 and 1778, ‘complete change had been effected in the spinning of yarns . . . Wool had disappeared altogether . . . Cotton had become the universal material’”. (Thomas, 2019, p. 22)

1830s Lockstitch sewing machine allowed garments to be produced at a higher rate. However, people continued to make their own clothes until the civil war when mass production was needed.

it all adds up 1931 The New York Garment District, which was America’s busiest port and financial district, “had more apparel factories than anywhere else in the world” (Thomas, 2019, p.24).

1980s 70% of clothing bought in America was manufactured therein in 1980. This would change with Reagan’s North American Free Trade Agreement, encouraging offshoring and cheap production overseas. To counter this, “quick response” manufacturing inception by US Apparel Manufacturing Association to get ahead in the competitive market. This did not benefit Americans long as the QR model was adapted by countries overseas.

Late 1950s Manufacturing jobs moved out of Manhattan into other New York cities and states. This was due to an increase in labor and real estate costs that made it cheaper to produce elsewhere.

2000s By 2006, with the elimination of many tarifs, “NAFTA was responsible for the loss of at least a million jobs—some analysts estimate much more—and had gutted scores of once-virile domestic industries, most notably textiles and apparel” (Thomas, 2019, p.32). 2003-2013 Exports to the US from China multiplied five-fold even though the import tariff was almost 10 times higher than other imports.

2000 “retail spending on clothing and accessories hit approximately $828 billion, or €900 billion, worldwide, evenly split among major markets: the US, 29 percent; western Europe, 34 percent; and Asia, 23 percent” (Thomas, 2019, p.33).

2000s By 2012, only 2.5% of clothes purchased in America were made within the country. In 2018, consumers acquire 68 garments per year on average, amassing to 80 billion items yearly worldwide.

Source: Thomas, 2019

theory base The body as landscape Psychology Consumption habits Goals + objectives

the body as landscape

Here I will discuss a facet of this project that I believe cannot be understood unless the reader can view the body as landscape. Ancient storytelling from many cultures closely ties the human body to nature, such as ancient Greek mythology where gods and goddesses shapeshift in form from their human bodies to elements in nature. The body, after all, is our own physical landscape. The landscape that stays with us no matter where we are or go. As Juhani Pallasmaa discusses in The Eyes of The Skin, our bodies are the central vessel of how we experience the world. And, we experience that world at the center of ourselves. “Our bodies and movements are in constant interaction with the environment; the world and the self inform and redefine each other constantly. The percept of the body and the image of the world turn into one single continuous existential experience; there is no body separate from its domicile space, and there is no space unrelated to the unconscious image of the perceiving self” (Pallasmaa, 1996, p.40).

Since the body and landscape are so intertwined, I argue that the body is in fact a landscape itself. Just like any landscape in nature, the human body is a living system full of complexities and interconnected relationships that make it whole. Pallasma (1996) goes on to discuss thoughts from the book Body, Memory, and Architecture: “What is missing from our dwellings today are the potential transactions between body, imagination, and environment” (p.41). The key element that is missing today from not only our dwellings, but our material possessions, our clothes, is connection to environment; where things come from, and where they will go. People have become extremely detached from their possessions, for example not remembering where they bought their jeans, let alone where they were produced or materials sourced. Viewing the body as landscape might help us reconnect this broken link, and see that body and landscape are and must be intertwined. Photographs by Allan Teger

Painting by Salvador Dali

“I had no choice!”

psychology

One might assume that the majority of people would agree with the statement: “I value the well-being of greater good more than I value personal or selfish interests”. Most people have good intentions and want to be “good people”, but struggle to always make choices that align with their hopeful moral ethics. The same proves true when it comes to shopping and consumerism. Why is this? People want to be responsible and purchase ethically– but their behaviors prove otherwise. While small surveys show that people would like to purchase ethically, the market as a whole does not show this to be true (BeckerLeifhold et al., 2018; Summer, 2018). Models that attempt to understand human behavior are based on three value orientations which are self-enhancement, self-transcendent, and biogenic. Selfenhancement values are represented when a person values self as the driving force of their behavior. Their actions are driven by what is more beneficial to themselves than costly. Self-transcendent behaviors base decisions on the inclusion of others along with self (BeckerLeifhold et al., 2018; Summer, 2018).

Biogenic behaviors act on the intrinsic value of nature itself and its importance independent of humans. However, no one has one type of value orientation at all times. Decisions are heavily circumstance based and people will differ behaviors frequently. They are also influenced by how much a person is concerned or informed about a decision. If there is not much conscious control going into it, habitual behavior kicks in. If a decision requires a lot of cognitive effort, people tend not to put that effort in and act with more automated, hedonistic behaviors (BeckerLeifhold et al., 2018; Summer, 2018). Fashion is heavily influenced by culture, representation, and symbolic weight. Fashion satisfies needs of emotional behaviors such as excitement and sexual attraction and serves as a marker for social status and power. When it comes to making fashion choices, people have shown to display more self-enhancement than self-transcendent or biogenic behaviors in order to maintain social status and expected cultural expectations. For these reasons, ethical concerns often do not push to the forefront enough to change behavior on the grand scale (BeckerLeifhold et al., 2018; Summer, 2018).

Impulse buying leads much of our shopping tendencies. According to Borzykowski (2015), a Nielsen study in 2014 found “impulsivity led 52% of people in Thailand, 48% of people in India and 44% of people in China to buy something they didn’t need”. Impulse buying comes from the primal need to get something while it is still available. Retail therapy is in fact real as well. It gives shoppers a sense of control over a positive outcome. When a person buys something, it releases feel-good chemicals such as dopamine. Purchasing things makes us temporarily feel better because it makes us feel a sense of security, sense of happiness, and the feeling that we are better after the possession of our purchase (Becker, 2018).

Advertisement run by Patagonia for Black Friday on November 25th, 2011 that promoted shoppers to not “buy this jacket” and to instead reflect on their purchases and understand the energy and waste going into the product. The company’s bold statement pushed consumers to think twice before buying.

buy buy buy buy buy buy

Consumer culture

Capitalism

Countries all over the world function on capitalist or mixed capitalist systems. Capitalism can be defined as an “economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state” (oxford languages). A capitalist society relies on consumerism from the public. The systems depend on the fact that “humans are subconsciously driven by an impulse for survival, domination and expansion which finds expression in the idea that economic growth will solve all individual and worldly ills. Advertising plays on those impulses, turning material items into objects of great desire imparting intelligence, status and success” (Scientific American, 2011). Consumption is natural, but it is estimated that the worldwide rate for consumption of materials is 30% higher than what is sustainable (Scientific American, 2011). Consumer culture is a sociocultural practice that can be taught and learned. Consumption takes people away from their everyday lives and adds elements of surprise, play, fantasy, etc.

Branding

Branding is integral to consumerism. It turns needs into desires. Branding renders an object or service unique; special, easily identifiable, and gives it the ability to become more than what it is. The intense effect that branding and advertising has on us is so strong that it acts on subconscious habitually. Markets relying on consumption prey on moments of dissatisfaction in our lives to come in.

“With brand advertising blurring the line between emotional, material, and spiritual satisfaction, we often reach out to shopping to satisfy our unfulfilled desires or to compensate our social needs” (Muratovski, 2016, p.33). Consumer culture pushes us to buy,buy,buy, more,more,more, for the superficial benefit to ourselves, but largely rather for the economic advantage of big business.

goals + objectives

Educate audience regarding the effects of fast fashion

Create a California clothing culture identity

Evaluate project through multiple lenses

• Research and analyze industry practices from reliable sources

• Understand California clothing culture history of past and present

• Avoid placing problems/solutions on one group

• Create research booklet for public reading consumption • Present information in a visually pleasing, legible format

• Identify primary user groups and target information towards them

• Explore economic, social, and environmental attributes • Begin with large scope analysis • Narrow focus to relevant study area

• Produce website for compiled information

• Create garments that reflect an understanding of issues related to fast fashion

• Ensure output is accessible to a wide audience base

• Involve voices from members spanning different California communities

• Communicate synthesized analysis of provided information

• Discover existing needs and desires as a result of community engagement

Propose solutions for improvement of identified problems • Propose solutions at grander industry scale • Provide solutions for individual behavior

Unite concepts of landscape architecture and fashion • Create a communication strategy that displays both fields

• Present case studies of current work

• Draw inspiration from both design fields and communicate to users through website

• Identify concepts that need further development

• Uncover relationships of the two based on geographical aspects • Emphasize connection of how people’s actions shape both landscape architecture and fashion

Prioritize sustainability in production of garments • Avoid purchasing new materials • Use recycled materials when possible • Choose natural rather than synthetic materials • Encourage inventiveness with materials • Understand true cost of individual textile pieces

Industry practices Sourcing Production Distribution

Global Fiber Production 2019 Fiber production is up 20% from 20 years ago and is projected to continue to grow. In the 21st century, the production of polyesters has exploded. The material is highly versatile, durable, and can take on many different forms. Polyesters, or Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), are made from fossil fuels, notably petroleum. Since most polyester isn’t biodegradable due to its plastic composition, it adds to global pollution problems (Hodakel, 2019).

~111 million mt

Polyamide ~5.6 ~5%

Other Synthetics ~6.4 ~5.7%

Manmade Cellulosics ~7.1 ~6.42%

Cotton ~25.7 ~23.2%

Other Plant Based ~6.5 ~5.9%

Wool, Down, Silk ~1.48 ~1.29%

Global Fiber Production (million mt) 150

90 60

2030e

2015

2010

2005

2025e

Source: Textile Exchange, 2020

2020e

Source: Thomas, 2019, p.70

2000

30 1995

(or 121.4 million bales) of cotton are grown each year on roughly eighty-two million acres of land.

120

1990

60 billion pounds

About

1985

Fibers

Polyester ~57.7 ~52.2%

1980

World’s largest cotton producers: China India USA

1975

Sourcing + Production

Cotton is the most largely used natural crop in textile production. “60 percent of all women’s apparel contains it; for men, it’s 75 percent. For blue jeans, it’s 100 percent.”

The journey of a dress

World production of polyester fibers China is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading producer. Asian countries as a whole including Thailand, Malaysia, India, Korea, Indonesia, and Taiwan dominate much of the global polyester market, with 64.6% in terms of chemical fibers. Western Europe and the United States are also top producers (Aizenshtein, 2014; Businness Wire, 2006).

A dress produced by Inditex, the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading clothing company in the world, which owns Zara among other brands, may go through this journey. A single piece of clothing may travel to 5+ countries and several continents before arriving at its final destination. For a human to travel these distances, it would cost thousands of dollars. The dress that has traveled that path might only cost $40.

Europe

Egypt

Spain

2 5

China

Fibers spun into yarn.

Yarn woven into fabric.

Morocco

Spain

Fabric cut and sewn together.

Packaged at distribution center.

Lyocell, sustainable cotton alternative, sourced.

Fabric dyed.

US Sent to shops for sale.

4 7

1 7

46 5

World consumption of polyester fibers Along with being the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest producer, China is also the largest consumer of polyester fibers. China, along with other Asian countries produce much of the global market and in turn use those fibers to produce goods that are then exported within the countries and beyond (Aizenshtein, 2014). Source: Hope, 2017

Russia Canada

Switzerland China European Union South Korea

Japan

Turkey USA Bangladesh

Distribution

India

Cambodia Indonesia

Exports from top import/exporters Exports from top exporters Top exporters Top import/exporters Top importers

Top importers and exporters of clothing, 2019 This map displays relationships between the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s top 10 importers and exporters of clothing, respectively. Top importers in order of value share are China, the European Union, Bangladesh, Vietnam, India, Turkey, Hong Kong China, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, and Cambodia. Top importers in order of increasing to decreasing are the European Union, the United States of America, Japan, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong China, Canada, the Republic of Korea, China, Russian Federation, and Switzerland. Source: Wold Trade Statistical Review 2020

Social factors Work conditions Demographics

work conditions

Rana Plaza Disaster 24 April 2013. People were busy sewing garments in Rana Plaza; a multi-story compound for garment factories in Savar, a town in the Dhaka district of Bangladesh, one of the world’s largest clothing exporters. A day prior, an explosion split the second story floor in two. The next day, extorted workers went back to Rana Plaza and experienced a massive structural collapse of the building, leaving nothing but the cracked bottom floor. Many did not make it out alive. The death toll reached 1,134 people and more than 2,500 were injured. Many were found in the rubble days or weeks after the collapse. The disaster marked the worst garment factory accident in history. Rana Plaza was certainly not the first clothing industry factory incident, for example the Tazreen fashion factory fire in 2010. These were not isolated occurrences; “between 2006 and 2012, more than 500 Bangladeshi garment workers died in factory fires” (Thomas, 2019, p.53). While accidents of negligence on the part of corrupt bosses produced these tragedies in the early 2000s, they will almost certainly not be the last.

People all over the world are at risk of these accidents happening to them by working in sweatshops. Sweatshops can be defined as factories, in this case textile/ garment, characterized by dangerous working conditions that break labor laws, insufficient wages, lack of employee protection, and long hours. While some may argue that sweatshops in developing countries are a great economic boon, it is not always certain that it uplifts the citizens themselves. Workers are often forced to use the entirety of their paycheck to sustain modest lifestyles. At the time of the Rana Plaza collapse, workers’ wages were $38/month which equates to ⅓ of a living wage. In 2019, that number was raised to $95/month, but that is still only ½ of a living wage (Thomas, 2019, p.56).

Sweatshop workers therefore get caught in a cycle of working long days just to pay for basic needs with no upward movement possible. In the wake of people being informed about these injustices, efforts are being made to make the industry more ethical. Organizations like the International Labor Rights Forum aims to advance “dignity and justice for workers in the global economy” (Thomas, 2019, p.52). Charters like The Accord on Fire and Building Safety, signed in 2013, vow to render factories safe spaces for workers. Pushes to enforce stricter regulations have followed, creating safer working environments. However, it is nearly impossible to trace every garment factory and sweatshop to see if it is working under responsible practices, especially when brand giants fail to be transparent.

demographics

Who made my clothes? Chances are, your clothes were made by a woman. In the garment industry, about 80% of all employees are women. However, very few of these women are in high positions. The fashion industry displays this at every level. While roughly 80 percent of graduated Parsons students are female, “of the 50 major fashion brands, only 14 percent are run by women” (Oakes, 2020). Garment industry jobs consist of contract and homeworkers. Homeworkers are paid on a per-piece basis which then bear the burden of production costs. With both types of jobs, workers have little bargaining power or organization amongst themselves (Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing, n.d.). The garment industry can be seen as a double edged sword. Though it does offer the opportunity for so many people, especially women, in developing countries to find work they might get paid more for than doing an industrial job, the jobs are no easy task. Along with potentially hazardous work conditions mentioned above, women may face gender discrimination that is seen accross nearly all field of work. With an overwhelming amount of women, it would make sense for them to be on top; “Women are the industry’s labor force, prime consumers, and target market. Men, however, are the industry’s top executives, the money-makers, and ultimately, the most powerful” (Oakes, 2020).

The majority of garment and textile workers in developed countries are immigrants, mainly from Asia and Latin America. In developing countries, migrant workers come in from rural areas (WIEGO). Sweatshops are able to continue because of populations of undocumented immigrants. Because undocumented immigrants fly under the radar of federal laws, companies are able to perform “wage theft” by paying workers below minimum wage without overtime or health benefits, often in hazardous conditions. Although sweatshops are seen as only a problem in developing countries, they exist everywhere. In 2016, the US Department of Labor charged that Southern California apparel manufacturers such as Forever 21 “violated basic federal protections, such as paying minimum wage and overtime, 85 percent of the time and ordered the suppliers to pay $1.3 million bck in wages and damages” (Thomas, 41).

The majority of garment and textile workers in developed countries are immigrants, mainly from Asia and Latin America. In developing countries, migrant workers come in from rural areas (WIEGO, n.d.). Another issue in the fashion supply chain industry is the kids that give up their childhood to work in factories to help their families. It is estimated by the international labor organization that “170 million [children] are engaged in child labour, with many making textiles and garments to satisfy the demand of consumers in Europe, the US, and beyond” (Moulds, n.d.). Children can be well suited for the grips of fast fashion because of their small size, vulnerability, and ability to slip under the radar and go unseen in the complex web of the production supply chain (Moudls, n.d.).

Environmental factors Water Pollution + Waste

How much does it take? = 100 gallons of water

Water

A thirsty industry The fashion industry is a thirsty one. It is the second-largest consumer of water worldwide after agriculture. Water usage comes at every stage throughout the process. Cotton, though a natural material, is a crop that utilizes large amounts of water. Non-organic, conventional cotton utilizes “on average 2,600 gallons or 10,000 liters of water” (Thomas, 2019, p.71). Since cotton is the most widely-used natural fiber, it amounts to vast quantities. Comparatively, natural fibers such as hemp and flax take about 50% less water to grow, and even less when it comes to processing (Hymann, 2020). Continuous, aggressive cotton farming can have detrimental effects to the land such as in Uzbekistan. Water used from the Aral Sea for crop irrigation including cotton was depleted in 50 years and the massive lake now remains a desert landscape (Thomas, 2019). A major water user in clothing production also takes place during the dyeing process. Dyeing processes and “wet processing” consumes so much water that it could fill around 200 million olympic-sized swimming pools annually (McFall-Johnsen, 2019). However, water consumption doesn’t stop at the hidden amounts during production. Care, such as washing, continuously uses gallons of water for the entire lifecycle of a piece of clothing.

To produce cotton needed for a T-shirt t takes about 700 gallons of water and for a pair of jeans approximately 1,800 gallons. To process the pair of jeans and T-shirt, it uses about 5,000 gallons (World Wildlife Fund, 2013; How Many Gallons, n.d; Thomas, 2019).

Aral sea 1960 vs. 2019. Image credit Nasa

Colors to dye for Not only is water used during garment production- it is then polluted by it. By and large, textile dyeing is the source of the second largest water polluter worldwide (McFall-Johnsen, 2019). Water used during the dyeing process gets dumped into waterways of streams and rivers that lead to the ocean. While this is illegal in many countries, it is often overlooked or strict restrictions are not in place and dumping continues to pollute water. This becomes “responsible for 20% of all industrial water pollution” (McFall-Johnsen, 2019). Right now, about half of the world’s population is wearing jeans. Xintang, China, is the polluted denim mecca that produces about ⅓ of all denim products. Leftover dye was dumped directly into the East River. The chemicals from the dumping have seeped into the riverbed.

Micro plastics, macro problem A Greenpeace survey in 2010 found that at sampling sites, “the amounts of lead, copper, and cadmium in the riverbed exceeded ‘national environmental quality standards’”, with a river mud sample with cadmium levels 128 times over the limit and water samples with a pH of 11.95 (Guang et. al., 2013). While efforts were made to clean up waterways in the province, inspectors found “the rate of compliance with minimum standards [fell] from 85.5 percent in 2013 to 77.4 per cent” in 2016 (Li, 2018). Xintang serves as an example as to what is happening all over the world at smaller scales. Unregulated and unmonitored dumping from textile dyeing pollutes waterways with hazardous chemicals. Chemicals that bleach, brighten, and treat clothes, like “Azo dyes, which account for 60 to 70 percent of all dyes in the industry” are carcinogenic (LaRose, 2017). The chemicals that get into water systems pose threats to humans and wildlife that rely on them.

When we wash our clothes that are made of synthetic fibers, they slowly release microplastics. Microplastics and microfibers are tiny pieces of plastic that often come from larger pieces and do not biodegrade. Due to their small size and large quantities, they are of serious concern. Even if we are not avid plastic bottle users, the equivalent of 50 billion plastic bottles enter the ocean each year from washing clothes that releases 500,000 tons of microfibers. A high percentage, estimated to be 35% by a 2017 IUCN report, of microplastics “in the ocean came from the laundering of synthetic textiles like polyester” (McFallJohnsen, 2019). Of all plastic pollution in the ocean, microplastics account for up to 31% (McFall-Johnsen, 2019). Nearly all of the waters around the globe have been affected by plastic and microplastic pollution. In 2016, “nearly 90 percent of 2,000 fresh- and seawater samples tested by the Global Microplastics Initiative contained microfibers” (Thomas, 2019, p.7). While washing out microfibers might be invisible to most of us, the tiny pieces add up and contribute to detrimental water pollution that is here to stay.

Pollution + waste

Textile waste Most of the clothes we purchase and wear go to the dump. Clothes we once loved but have long forgotten about. But we are not alone; “the equivalent of one garbage truck full of clothes is burned or dumped in a landfill every second (McFallJohnsen, 2019). That amounts to 2.1 billion tons of fashion globally. With the selling model that always has supply in stock, 20% of the 100 billion clothing clothing items made each year never get sold. These unwanted garments usually get buried, shredded, or burned (Thomas, 2019, p.7). Yet, even with all this waste, consumers are still buying more. As time goes on, people are buying more and wearing those items less time. A majority of women’s clothing is worn only seven times, then out of closet, out of mind and into the dump it goes (Cline, 2016).

Greenhouse gasses The emission of greenhouse gasses is the chief factor involved in today’s climate change crisis. The fashion industry accounts for 10% of carbon emissions which is “more than international flights and maritime shipping combined” (McFall-Johnsen, 2019). The industry is expected to keep on its current path of growth. Its share of the carbon budget could grow more than 16% and reach 26% by 2050 (Mc-Fall-Johnsen, 2019). One of the key forces in the industry’s carbon footprint is electricity use. Most of this does not take place during production but instead laundering after purchasing. On crops, production of synthetic fertilizers emit carbon dioxide greenhouse gasses. To produce synthetic fibers, even more energy and CO2 are used (Rana et al., 2015). Stella McCartney 2017 collection shot at landfill

More chemicals In producing new fast fashion clothing, hazardous chemicals are used and released. Just like other crops, cotton utilizes insecticides and pesticides are used for better crop yield. The large amounts of conventional cotton, the nonorganic cotton used in most clothing, comes with large amounts of pesticides. Although cotton is grown on only 2.5% of the world’s arable land, it uses “one-fifth of insecticides—and more than 10 percent of all pesticides” for its protection (Thomas, 2019, p. 70). Invisible, harmful chemicals can be on our clothing without us even realizing it. According to Thomas (2019), “the fashion industry devours one-fourth of chemicals produced worldwide” (p.7). Not all of the chemicals used that make the industry the second-most water polluting leave clothes when they leave the factory. Chemicals are used to treat garments and make them behave certain ways, such as water repellent and wrinkle-free. Phthalates and dimethylfumarate can be harmful to name a few (European Chemicals Agency, n.d.). It is hard to regulate chemical use because there are so many used and effects on humans and the environment are unknown. Factory workers can come into contact with hazardous chemicals and not be protected, then consumers can buy the clothing and get chemical exposure onto their bodies.

History Social factors Environmental factors

Part 2 a california focus 59

History Vernacular clothing Modern clothing

Vernacular clothing

Miwok Tribe

Clothing from the land Before any of the current California fashion existed as we know it, before Spanish colonization in the late 1700s, before the influx of peoples from the Gold Rush in the mid 1800s, Indigenous California peoples had their own clothing styles and culture (Castillo, n.d.). Vernacular clothing of Native Californians had been dramatically pushed out by colonizers and outside groups attempted to eradicate their culture, clothing, and lifestyles. California was home to the largest number of native peoples than any other state. Currently, there are 109 federally recognized tribes with others petitioning for federal recognition (California Courts, n.d.). The state was home to many diverse groups who spoke a large array of different languages and dialects. Some of the largest tribes within current state boundaries are the Karuk in the Northwest, Modoc in the Northeast, Maidu and Miwok in Central California, and Chumash and Serrano tribes in Southern California to name a few (Castillo, n.d.) Each tribe adapted to their natural surroundings to develop tools and clothing that was best suited to what was available.

Dance skirt worn by women in Hupa, Yurok, and Karuk tribes made of buckskin, beargrass, maidenhair, and abalone. (Fenimore Art Museum) Chumash Necklace (Smithsonian Institution)

Because of its mild climate Native Californians did not need much heavy clothing. In the winter months, they used skins and furs from animals they hunted such as rabbits, deer, and antelope. Along with using animal products, plant products were used. Aprons and long skirts were made from grass or bark from willow trees. Ornamental pieces were added to the clothing with elements from the region such as feathers, bone, and shells in coastal areas. When shoes were needed, California natives would wear sandals or moccasins made of tule (Siteseen, 2012). Yurok skirt (Peabody Museum)

Influence from films ruled fashion. Womenswear became more feminine and slender while menswear became less formal (Reddy, 2019).

The impact of social media was massive as fashion developed alongside the new digital age. More acceptance for different types of bodies and skin colors in fashion also started to become more normalized (Krentcil, 2019).

1960s

1940s

This flower-child era was filled full of clothes for and by free thinkers. Optical art with geometric shapes, and fun patterns, colors, and materials could be seen.

W i t h Hollywood at its peak, glamour was the name of the game.

1970s

1990s

Luxe casual brands such as Juicy Couture and a resurgence of Hollywood redcarpet obsession was seen.

The disco era meant sequins, beads, and bodyconscious sportswear. Jumpers and jumpsuits were also very popular, along with denim and “designer jeans” becoming important to the public.

1980s

California designers focused on making casual cool. Laid-back attitudes and actionsportswear were popular with brands like Vans and Esprit.

2000s

Decades of style Fashion is ever changing and evolving as cultures of peoples and mindsets change, clothing choices become more or less acceptable, and the market for clothing pieces changes. Between the 1980s and early 200s, a drastic drop in American manufactured clothing was seen with the inception of NAFTA and cheaper production overseas. With the rise of fast fashion, between 1990 and 2012, “the US textile and garment industry lost 1.2 million jobs.” This accounted for “more than three-fourths of the sector’s labor force” (Thomas, 2019, p.5) While California designed clothing might not predominantly be made within the state anymore, the impact of California’s fashion still has a strong impact on the world. What follows is a brief overview of popular clothing styles in California and the rest of the United States from the turn of the 20th century into the 21st.

2010s

modern clothing

1930s

1950s

“Cool kid” clothes were in with afternoon frocks, cocktail dresses, and high fashion swimwear.

Simpler styles were desired by the public such as slip dresses and garments that fit straight along the line of the body. A streetwear surge came, along with edgier styles.

Source: Bergman & Raymond, 2015

Social factors User Profiles Consumption Clothing Culture

Amancio Ortega, owner of Inditex, the world’s largest clothing retailer, is the 6th most wealthy person in the world with a net worth of $67.4 billion (#6 Amancio Ortega, 2020).

“fashion helps me express my developing personality”

user profiles

Thomas Age: 56 Gender: Male Income: Over $1,000,000 Family size size: 2 Family life cycle stage: Married with 2 grown children Housing Type: Owner of 2 single family homes Place of residence: Pacific Palisades Occupation: Clothing company business owner Education: College + graduate school Religion: Christian Race/Ethnicity: White Social class: upper uppers Personality/Self-image: authoritarian, positive Attitudes: working allows for nice things in life Media: Forbes magazine,Facebook, business platforms, HBO Interests/hobbies: golfing, barbeques with friends, wood-working Usage goals: maintain my business to keep expanding and build for my family’s future while learning how to do it more sustainably Emotional goals: • Being able to feel successful after a day’s work “growth is • Building personal relationships what matters” with others • Meet shopper’s desires

A major group of “impulse shoppers” is young women who may be insecure and identity-seeking. With a “value base more on the materialism side”, these feelings translate to impulse shopping (Becker-Leifhold, 2018, p. 51).

Carly Age: 17 Gender: Female Income: Supported by family income over $100,000 Family size: 3 Family life cycle stage: Only child in family of divorced parents Housing Type: rented single family townhouse Place of residence: Santa Barbara Occupation: Student Education: Highschool Religion: Jewish Race/Ethnicity: Mixed race Social class: Middle class Personality/Self-image: adventurous, helpful, eager Attitudes: keeping an open mind helps learn about the world around you Media used: TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube Interests/hobbies: hanging out with friends, photography, cooking, roller skating Usage goals: understand effects of fashion choices Emotional goals: • Learn how to get creative with repurposing • Collaborate with peers to solve problems • Use clothing to feel included

“i want to work on being a more conscious consumer”

Marisa Age: 35 Gender: Female Income: $30,000- $50,000 Family size: 4 Family life cycle stage: young family with 2 children Housing Type: rented apartment Place of residende: Los Angeles Occupation: garment worker Education: Highschool graduate Religion: Christian Race/Ethnicity: Colombian Social class: Working class

definitions

Personality/Self-image: hard-working, reliable, caring Attitudes: Working hard to give my kids a better life Media used: Facebook, Amazon kindle books, parenting magazines Interests/hobbies: taking children to the park, watching movies, going to cafes Usage goals: Maintaining a steady job Emotional goals: • Feel safe and supported at my work space • Hope for greater visibility of my role in society • Show my kids that I will work to ensure their happiness

Jerome

Most garment workers in the United States are immigrant women coming largely from Asia and Latin America (WIEGO, n.d.).

“i want the world to see me how my children do”

Age: 24 Gender: Male Income: $60,000- $70,000 Family size: 1 Family life cycle stage: Comes from family of 5 Housing Type: rented apartment Place of residence: San Francisco Occupation: Sales representative Education: College graduate Religion: Agnostic Race/Ethnicity: African American Social class: Middle class

The target audience of fast fashion is 15 t0 29 year olds. People in this age group have “significant dis-posable income (or, alternatively, the availability of credit) that allows them to buy fast fashion frequently (Becker-Leifhold, 2018, p.17).

Personality/Self-image: self-confident, forward-thinking Attitudes: the young generation holds the power for change Media used: Netflix, Instagram, NY Times online subscription, twitter Interests/hobbies: playing soccer, playing video games, going out to eat Usage goals: take greater responsibility for my actions as a consumer Emotional goals: • Learn how to make more ethical choices • Bring about change in my personal life • Maintain excitement about fashion

consumption

Where’s the money? Americans buy a lot of clothing. According to data from Statista in the apparel division, revenue in 2020 amounts to $255,865 million. The largest chunk of this comes from women’s apparel. This consumption is not on track to stop anytime soon, with growth of 10.2% projected annually (Statista, 2020). With a growing online market, 24% of revenue can be attributed to online sales. The Statista report notes that a “more cautious” mood for the fashion industry may be seen going forward because of emerging markets and uncertainties. Companies can plan for this by taking “a strong position on social and environmental issues”, as this will play a large part going forward, especially with the younger generation (Statista, 2020). Three of the top 10 biggest US apparel companies based on spending are located in California. Old Navy, Gap, and Levi Strauss are all based in San Francisco (Mau, 2018).

Clothing Spend Per Capita

Even though California is one of the country’s top manufacturers, on a per capita basis, Californians do not purchase much clothing compared to the rest of the country. While West Virginia was the most consuming state with a high of $2,735, California’s spending per person comes to $1,148 (Turk, 2019).

> $2,500

$1,500-$2,000

$2,000-$2,500

$1,000-$1,500

> $1,000

Los Angeles and California in general can be seen as a hub of inspiration for the world. Because of the entertainment industry and strong popular culture in California, it has often been a driver for fashion trends. Residents in Southern California spend $15 billion each year on apparel. Jeff Moore from CBRE (commercial real estate firm) for a Globe St. article proposes that “Hollywood and social media, Instagram in particular, play a role with consumers and millennials as their fashion trends are seen by others and influence shopping habits” ( Borland, 2018). California is also a place for dreamers and innovators. Fashion is allowed to develop more freely, maybe because of a diverse and dense population. Movements that happen in California are also often indicators of what may trend worldwide, for example working towards a circular economy (Sherman, 2018). California is a state that is not a stranger to change, and as the industry shifts in different directions, California might very well be a place to watch for global trends in fashion – from style to production and manufacturing.

clothing Culture

“Skate culture kind of controls every culture. If you think about cool kids, every cool kid is a fucking skater and looks good.” - Evan Mock

California by design

Coast Culture

California culture can be seen as a plethora of things, all influenced by art, architecture, music, film, the melting pot of backgrounds, and of course the physical landscape of the state. The state has landscapes that change every hour as one drives through, from deserts to mountains to beaches, which have shaped and get reflected in the clothing people wear there. The spirit of Californian clothing can be seen as care-free, pioneering, and relaxed. Three styles tied to California’s landscape are denim, activewear + athleisure, and its culture on the coast.

As the state is lined from North to South with the coast, naturally beach culture is a form of the state’s clothing culture. Beaches are the quintessential image that comes to mind when people all over the world hear “California”, people laying out in the sun and tanning. With beach coast culture comes surf and skate culture. Skateboarding as we know it originated in California with the first commercial boards for sale in the 1960s (Hawk, 2020). The less formal/organized, rebellious nature of the sport led to its own fashion subculture. The style can be seen as a fusion of both relaxed beachwear and streetwear, with baggy, oversized pants and T-shirts inspired by workwear and hip-hop scenes. Skate fashion can be seen from the streets to high fashion with brands such as Gucci, Off-White, Louis Vuitton, and Dior nodding to skate fashion culture with the forms and cuts of clothing (Perez, 2020).

Dior Homme FW 16

Mr Porter

The relaxed surfer lifestyle of palm tree images creeps its way into the California clothing culture as well, and reaches much further than the Golden State itself. Surf culture and fashion have always grown throughout time together, from stripes in the 50s to colorful silhouettes in the 60s and psychedelic vibes in the 80s. Some of the most notable surf brands in the world such as Hurley, O’Neil, RVCA, Volcom, and Reef were founded in California. According to O’Neil, “Surfers have adopted different prosaic clothes and integrated them into what has become, over time, a coherent and recognizable style… Surfing has simply proven the most powerfully iconic cultural vehicle for those motifs” (Brannigan, 2018) The effortlessly cool, not-trying-too-hard is a look and fashion statement many brands search for which is characteristic and synonymous to surf and beach culture.

“I wish I had invented blue jeans, They have expression, modesty, sex appeal, simplicity - all I hope for my clothes.” -Yves saint laurent

Activewear + Athleisure

Denim

With California’s active lifestyle comes the market for activewear and athleisure. Athleisure wear can be defined as athletic clothing that is designed to be worn casually so that the user can go from workout to walking the streets without needing to change. Athleisure is based on a lifestyle rather than specific functions. Brand giant Lululemon out of Canada started the major movement in the late 1990s, with California brand Athleta among others becoming major competitors (Belgum, 2015). An iconic brand for California activewear and gear is Patagonia. The brand, whose headquarters is in Ventura, has the motto “Build the best product. Cause no unnecessary harm. Use business to inspire and implement solutions to the environmental crisis”. The brand sells the outdoors in the form of fleeces, weather-ready jackets, and gear for surfing, skiing, fishing, camping, or any other California activities their customers might get up to. Patagonia focuses on social and environmental issues, and the staff that work there “embod[y] the side of California that is outdoorsy, athletic, and eminently casual” (Brooke, 2017).

Right now, half of the world’s population is donning jeans. Denim was once the basis for textile and garment manufacturing in America. Jeans, made of denim, were first created by the partnership of Jacob Davis and Levi Strauss in the early 1870s. Strauss had moved to San Francisco during the gold rush and opened up a dry goods store. The denim pants, jeans, were originally created as work pants that were sturdy and durable. The pants became wildly successful and catapulted denim jeans and apparel worldwide. Now, “the average American owns seven—one for each day of the week—and buys four new pairs every year” (Thomas 69). Jeans have changed a lot since their invention, with their natural indigo dyes, unsanforized denim, and production in America long gone. In the 1970s, designer jeans became the new face of what jeans could be (Thomas, 2019). Jeans can be found in any cut, color, wash, and style desired. Today the denim and jeans industry is a global giant that can be seen sported by people from every nation. However, blue jeans remain characteristic to, and from California.

Illustration by Heather Landis

environmental factors Textile waste Cotton production

textile waste

Away it goes People spend a lot of money on clothes, which get sent into closets, then get sent into… landfills. The amount of clothes being consumed, and then thrown away has doubled in the last twenty years, going from 7 to a massive 14 million tons. When broken down per capita, it is about 80 pounds each year for individuals (Thomas, 2019, p.7). In 2015, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) “reported that Americans sent 10.5 million tons of textiles, the majority of which were clothes, to landfill” (Thomas, 2019, p.8). Although California is one of the states with the lowest clothing consumption habits, it is by no means exempt from the behavior of the rest of the United States and world. In California alone, an estimated 1.2 million textile tons (organic, synthetic, mixed, unknown, shoes, belts, purses) went to landfills from material composition of California’s overall disposed waste stream according to the 2018 Facility-Based Waste Characterization of Solid Waste in California (p.13). Textiles are the 5th most prevalent material type in single-family residential disposed waste by weight, whose grouping accounts for 24% of the state’s municipal solid waste stream (CalRecycle, 2020b).

To understand this at a city scale: “San Franciscans send 4,500 pounds of textiles to landfill every hour” (SF Environment, 2018). Not only does this waste production have negative environmental aspects, but it also costs the state financially. In order to manage this textile waste, over $70 million is spent yearly by California residents. The good thing is, “ninety-five percent of this material is reusable or recyclable” (CalRecycle , 2020a). If the current waste could be transformed and used again, it could take waste out of landfills and benefit the state fiscally. As an eco-conscious state that leads the United States with environmental policy, California is taking steps to make closing the textile loop a more realistic possibility. As a whole, the state set a goal to have 75% “recycling, composting, or source reduction of waste by 2020” (CalRecycle, 2020a). Although this goal might not be entirely met, it shows the state’s commitment to reducing waste, including with textiles. Large cities such as San Francisco and Los Angeles have launched programs through companies to increase textile recycling.

Cotton production

Upland cotton 2019 yield per harvested acre by county

The crop of cotton Cotton is the most widely used natural material in textiles and the US is the world’s biggest exporter which accounts for more than ⅓ of global cotton exports. Cotton consumed in mills from 2010 to 2012 reached 3.6 million bales per year (NCC, 2013). There are about 18,600 farms on which cotton is produced across 17 states including in California (NCC, 2013). The majority of cotton grown in California is in the San Joaquin Valley. Cotton’s production in the US plays a big economic role in agriculture, with the more than 20 million bales of cotton produced in 2017 “representing over 7 billion dollars in total value” (USDA ERS, 2019). The cotton industry is important to California’s economy as it provides 25,000 jobs, and counting jobs outside of direct industry employment, another 137,000 jobs can be added. The industry’s products and services bring in $2.5 billion dollars annually (CCGGA, 2014).

U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agriculture Statistics Service

2020 Cotton planted area (000) Acres and percent change from previous year

U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agriculture Statistics Service

September 11, 2020

Bio-Textiles Natural Fibers + Dyes Recycled Fashion

Part 3 case studies 85

bio-textiles Oranges Seaweed Mycelium

Key Takeways • Industrial ecology: focusing on industrial processes with a lens of natural systems to create a closed loop system • Using waste & byproducts as input • Innovative technologies can be used on simple resources such as orange peels • Find new ways to use abundant and wasted resources: what could this look like in California?

oranges

Orange Fiber Orange Fiber is a company started in 2014 that produces fiber and textiles from citrus juice byproducts. The citrus rinds, a huge resource where the company started in Italy, would otherwise go to waste. Their vision is to “extract cellulose from citrus juice by-product and [transform] it into a refined and high-quality fabric for a totally new standard in fashion and luxury” (Orange Fiber, n.d.). The product reduces waste and pollution by turning it into a new product. With over 700,000 tons of citrus waste produced in Italy every year that cannot be efficiently disposed of, an opportunity was seen to produce a sustainable textile. Orange Fiber believes in the idea of Luxury 3.0: including the future in modernity encompassing wearable design and looking past status. Salvatore Ferragamo was officially the first fashion house to use Orange Fiber in its production, creating high-fashion and sustainable blouses and scarves. Chemical reagents are used to turn it into yarn after the cellulose is extracted (Marchese, 2017).The cellulose yarn can then be dyed and mixed with other fibers and has a silk-like lightweight feel (Orange Fiber, n.d.).

• End of lifecycle: base of organic material can biodegrade

Process Diagram

Source: Orange Fiber

Key Takeways • Look to natural surroundings to develop ecoconscious & renewable materials • Find use for unwanted or excess materials

seaweed

• Draw inspiration from natural material’s colors, textures, physical properties

Seaweed Fiber

• Aim for a zero-waste approach that uses all parts of the source material

Jasmine Linington, a textile designer from Scotland, entirely used seaweed to develop a line entitled “Seaweed Girl” from fabric to embellishments. Linington used SeaCell as the basis of the fabric for Seaweed Girl (Hitti, 2019). Smartfiber AG is a German company that developed SeaCell and smartcel. The company uses a lyocell process in production which results in a closed circuit solvent production system where chemicals are not disposed of as waste. SeaCell incorporates raw material into cellulose fibers rendering them 100% biodegradable and carbon neutral. Seaweed is crushed and can then be combined with the cellulose which is then used for a wide variety of applications. Smartfiber AG claims that its renewable resource textile holds beneficial properties of seaweed against the skin such as the ability to “activate cell regeneration, which in turn can help to relieve skin diseases, reduce inflammation and soothe itchiness”, and protect from free radicals (smartfiber AG, n.d). This is thanks to the vitamins and amino acids found naturally in the plant. The textile can be seen as “wearable technology”.

• Clothes can be beneficial to the skin instead of potentially harmful due to chemical application • End of lifecycle: base of organic material can biodegrade

SeaCell Production

Seaweed

Crushed Seaweed

Ground Seaweed Fiber

Fabric

Cellulose Sustainable Wood

Source: smartfiber AG

Key Takeways • Merging biology, technology, and art will be key in the future of fashion

“changing material and production techniques, instead of changing human behaviour”NEFFA

Mycelium

Fungi Fashion Fungi are amongst the most widely spread organisms on earth. They have been used in medicine, food, and more recently household objects and packaging. So why not in fashion? A handful of companies are thinking the same way. Using the fungi of certain types of mushrooms and their roots, mushroom material is able to be created – or grown. Mycelium can be used as a source for material because it reproduces quickly and with little difficulty (Schipper, 2019). One company taking a luxury approach with mycelium is Bay Area based company MycoWorks with their product “Reishi”. Reishi is marketed as a leather substitute because it holds the same hyde-like properties and texture. The “leather” is made by feeding “agricultural waste such as sawdust to ganoderma, a wood-eating fungus species, to coax it to grow mycelium cells in a dense, intertwined structure” (Wolfrom, 2020). By giving the mycelium a highly controlled environment, it is able to transform the mycelium into sheets instead of mushrooms. MycoWorks tests Reishi on tensile strength and durability to ensure it meets consumer expectations. (Wolfrom, 2020).

• Natural materials can be manipulated with science and technology to create desired outcome • Synthetic materials can have a place in the industry of slow fashion while biodegradable textiles can satisfy needs of fast fashion (Schipper, 2019) MycoTEX prototype

• End of lifecycle: mycelium is biodegradable and even compostable

Another company that works with mycelium is NEFFA. NEFFA is a company that “helps companies, research institutes and universities with the integration of their (bio) technology into textile prototypes and designs to make them more appealing for a specific target group” (NEFFA, 2020). An interesting vein that NEFFA works in is that maybe the “fast” in fashion isn’t so bad, and suggests that instead of trying to reinvent consumer behavior, materials and production techniques can adapt to behavior instead, when done in a responsible way. They have come out with a material called “MycoTEX” that is also made from mycelium. Their production technique uses 3-D modelling to eliminate any source of excess waste. To produce a T-shirt with the material, it would only use 12 liters of water, and no chemicals or pesticides. After a user has worn out their piece of clothing, it can go back into the ground as it is 100% biodegradable and compostable. An advantage of this is that fungi plays a role in carbon sequestering as the organisms can hold large amounts in the soil and also serve as a breeding ground for future organisms to grow (NEFFA, 2018). Reishi Leather

Natural fibers + Dyes Bamboo Hemp + Flax In California Natural Dyes

Key Takeaways • Bamboo as a material holds economic growth for developing countries • It is one of the most sustainable and fastest crops to grow • The textile produced from its fibres is softer than most other natural fibers • Bamboo yarn and cloth can be combined with other fibers as well

bamboo

Bamboo The superplant of bamboo has been utilized for centuries throughout many cultures. It is used for a variety of applications, notably in construction and engineering. While bamboo has always been an important crop and plant to many peoples, it is again being looked at as a sustainable material due to its ability to take many forms, including in textiles. The main reason why bamboo is such a sustainable material is because of its fast growth rate; among the fastest growing plants in the world. Bamboo can grow as fast as more than a meter per day. A fast growth rate means quicker harvest readiness than soft or hard wood trees or trees used for regenerated fibre (Akinlabi et. al, 2017). The plant is native to countries in Asia, Africa, and South America such as China, Brasil, and Ghana. It grows in warm tropical and temperate climates so using bamboo as a textile fibre would be applicable to those regions. Bamboo fiber can be used for most common textile uses like socks, tops, bedding, sweaters, and underwear. The fiber can be seen as a competitive replacement to cotton because it has a very soft, silky feel that can be obtained from spinning processes.

• End of lifecycle: base of organic material can biodegrade Bamboo can be considered as a realistic, comprehensive material in the future textile industry because “the advantages of using bamboo as a raw material for textiles include its renewability, biodegradability, efficient space consumption, low water consumption, organic status, and carbon-sequestering abilities, as well as its sustainability” (Akinlabi et. al, 2017). Since bamboo is a crop that grows naturally in many developing countries, it will hold economic incentive and growth to consider the plant for textiles.

Cariloha Bamboo brand lounge pants made of 67% bamboo viscose, 28% Organic Cotton, 5% Spandex

Bamboo Underwear brand leggings made of 88% bamboo viscose, 12% spandex

Key Takeaways

hemp + flax in California

• Natural fibers may use much less water than traditional cotton

Hemp Bast fibers are plant fibers derived from the phloem or bast and are classified as soft fibers. The hemp plant Cannabis sativa can be grown for its fibers in sustainable textile production. While hemp is traditionally associated with marijuana and its psychoactive compound THC, different strains of non-THC hemp can be grown for food, fiber, and cannabidiols. Decortication takes place to separate phloem from the woody core. In order to then separate the matrix of fibers, degumming processes of heat, water, chemical inputs, or electrical discharge are used. However, “establishing effective, environmentally responsible, and costeffective degumming at a commercial scale is a missing link in US hemp manufacturing”, which is a new process to tackle for companies (Wenner, 2019). Because of the rougher nature of the fibers, hemp was traditionally used for cording and stiffer textiles. In order to get a softer texture, modern degumming processes can be used where the hemp is mixed with other fibers such as cotton or wool. Hemp is a good crop to be grown in California because of its low agricultural requirements and rapid growth. The crop prefers warm climates with well-draining soil and are fairly drought tolerant. It can be used as part of intercropping, grazing, crop rotation, and compost application. Since the legality in the hemp industry is still early in its development stage in the US, loosening regulations and improving the supply chain infrastructure would be necessary. Demand for hemp is increasing, but not many physical processes are in place to turn the crop to textile in the US (Lotus, 2019).

• Using natural fiber crops can play a part in a farm’s agroecology • Approaches should be “place-based, nuanced, and systematic” • Consider bast fiber blends and combinations with other natural fibers • Push for American development of hemp & flax industries and implement stronger frameworks from farmers to processing and manufactures of textiles to fulfill demand • End of lifecycle: base of organic material can biodegrade

Flax Flax is another bast fiber that has been grown for centuries that is mainly used for food, oil, and the production of linen textile. It is quick growing and useful for carbon sequestration in following other crops such as vegetables. Flax is a useful crop in crop rotations because its “high seeding rate suppresses weeds, and once pulled for harvest leaves a clean field for the next crop without the use of herbicides”, along with low water requirements (Wenner, et al., 2019) A company revitalizing the flax textile industry is Chico Flax in Northern California. The farm works with CSU Chico and Mendocino Wool and Fiber Inc. to produce a blended flax yarn. In 2019, they were working on a mechanical brake/scutch that would allow for modern and efficient processing of the plant. Chico Flax serves as an example of how flax can be a useful textile crop in California that involves community and benefits farmers, with goals of a mill and research center (Wenner, et al., 2019).

Natural Dyes

Changing Color Color using dyes has been added to clothing forever. While natural dyes using everything from flowers, roots, fruits, bark, insects, etc were used traditionally, a shift to synthetic dyes was made with fast fashion for their consistency, reliability, and ability to create any color under the sun. However, in the wake of the environmental crisis, textile dyes will increasingly need to shift back in the other direction. As discussed earlier in Part 1, the textile dyeing industry is the second largest water pollutant worldwide, so changes are imperative. Wastewater and and most current coloring techniques release chemicals and heavy metals into the water that will remain in ecosystems in which they do not belong for the foreseeable future. A return to natural dyes would be fundamentally ideal because they come from sustainable and renewable resources. Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) may be the most commonly known natural dye as it was widely used to color blue jeans before synthetic dyes took over. However, countless natural resources can be used to create practically any color, especially earth toned ones. Some of these include beetroot to produce reds/ pinks, turmeric for yellows (which also has antimicrobial properties), henna for oranges/ browns, and common tea for a range of natural colors (Periyasamy & Militky, 2020).

Advantages of natural dyes include their nonhazardous nature, ease of disposal, and reduced carbon emissions. However, some drawbacks with natural dyes can be seen in low color yield, lack of consistency, and use of mordants. Mordants are “metallic compound[s] that [help] to make a bond between a natural dye and a fabric, resulting in better fastness properties” (Periyasamy & Militky, 2020). In this context, biomordants such as alum are important because they are not toxic like their toxic metallic mordant counterparts. Some dyeing techniques can reduce pollution, waste, and use of hazardous chemicals. Enzyme-assisted dyeing may help by increasing dye uptake while making processing more sustainable and environmentally friendly. Continuous dyeing, when compared to batch dyeing, reduces pollution loads. It is done by passing material through an evenly applied, more concentrated dye solution in a continuous fashion. To conserve water, the counterflow washing principle with continuous dyeing can be used. In this technique, washing water from previous zones can be reused (Periyasamy & Militky, 2020). With the combination of using innovative dyeing and production techniques that are more sustainable and the inclusion of natural dyes, adding color does not need to be the plight of the textile industry.

Key Takeaways • A return to natural dyes will prevent waterways from becoming further polluted • Every location has their own unique plants/ organic products that can be used for dyes • Natural dyes may not create uniformity to the same level of synthetic ones • Eco-friendly methodology should be used for dyeing and finishing textiles • Recover and reuse any chemicals during production so they don’t end up as waste products

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recycled fashion Textile Recycling Chemical Recycling Sustainable Brand — Wolven Threads Sustainable Brand — Patagonia

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Key Takeaways • Recycling textiles is one of the most effective ways to reduce new production of textiles from non-renewable and unsustainable resources • Recycled materials can be restored to a quality that matches or supercedes that of the original • Applications for the materials are vast

Textile recycling

• End of lifecycle: materials can be recycled and recycled and recycled again AOIFE brand using Econyl

A Lanfill, A Goldmine Just as with other resources like paper, metal, and plastics, textiles can be recycled, especially knowing some textiles are made of plastic themselves. A key component in reducing textile waste lies in recycling, which currently is seldom done. According to a study by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation in 2015, less than 1% of existing clothing is recycled into new clothing. However, it is estimated that upwards of 95% of all clothing could be recycled (Recovery, 2019). The production of new clothing often ends up in waste streams, and since 95% of clothing can be recycled, it makes sense to be reusing fibers instead of constantly creating new ones. Two companies taking this prospect in their own hands are Pure Waste Textiles and Econyl.

Pure Waste Textiles (PWT), a Finish company, believes in challenging the perception of waste, binding fashion and ecological thinking, and industrializing textile recycling. The company focuses on cotton to create 100% recycled textiles because it is the most commonly used and least recycled fabric. In order to do this, PWT collects scraps from yarn waste from mills and cutting clips from cut, make, trim factories. The waste scraps are then mechanically back opened into fibers and can be blended with other fibers. The fibers are then spun and weaved before the finishing process is done to transform it into a new product (Pure Waste, 2018). PWT also views its social responsibility with high importance by ensuring ethical and fair treatment of their workers, benefiting the village community where the factory is located in India and mitigating for negative impacts. The energy from their factory is 95% windpowered and water is regulated, bringing social and environmental responsibility in their company full circle (Pure Waste, 2019).

Italian Econyl by Aqualfil, a synthetic fiber company, uses nylon as the basis for its recycled textiles. With the recycled nylon sourced from fishing nets, fabric scraps, industrial plastics, and other waste, new products are able to be created. Regeneration and purification processes render the nylon like new and is turned into textile and carpet yarn (Econyl, 2020). Because of its chemical properties, in theory Econyl can be recycled over and over again. Their website states that for every 10,000 tons of Econyl raw material, 70,000 tons of crude oil are saved and 65,100 tons of CO2 emissions are avoided. Eyewear, sportswear, swimwear, and handbags can all be found using Econyl. Some household name brands that have used Econyl in their products are Adidas, O’Neil, Prada, and Speedo (Econyl, 2020). Large brands such as these incorporating recycled materials into their products indicates slow acceptance and change in the fashion industry for sustainable textiles.

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Key Takeaways • Chemical recycling brings fibers back to their virgin state

Closed Vs. Open Loop Recycling

• Almost all fiber types can be separated and used/reused

chemical recycling

• Production would need to be conducted at a large scale to be successful • Chemical recycling can be a solution for closed loop recycling in the textile industry • Naturally chemicals are used- will they be hazardous or dealt with responsibly?

Back To Basics Producing clothes with virgin fabrics uses an exorbitant amount of resources, especially synthetic ones. Synthetic polymers use 98 million tons of oil yearly to produce. No matter how well we may treat our clothing, it will still see the end of its use for us sooner or later. Chemical recycling of textiles can give it new life once again. While mechanically recycling fibers is beneficial, fiber quality is lost as it is impossible to maintain quality in fiber length after shredding. Chemical recycling, or to “chemically break fibres down into their chemical building blocks and then rebuild them into new fibres” has the ability to retrieve the pure form of the textiles to truly use them anew (Notman, 2020). Since different fibers take different chemicals to break them down, sorting is an essential first step. Nearly all types of fabric materials can be separated to be recycled, from cellulosic to synthetics as they have different physical properties and solubility characteristics. Recycling technologies such as those by The Hong Kong Research Institute of Textiles and Apparel include solvent-based and enzyme hydrolysis.

Source: I:Collect GMBH

In order for these, and any other developing recycling technologies to be successful, they need to be able to be done at a large scale as to where large enough quantities can be produced so that the production systems are profitable. Adam Walker, the chief scientific officer at chemical recycling trailblazing company Worn Again Technologies states that “Chemical recycling only makes sense if you’ve got enough throughput through your plant to be able to generate really large quantities – five figure tonne quantities – of output per annum” (Notman, 2020). If steps in chemical recycling are streamlined and mechanized such as in sorting of garments, it could become a new standard and basis for quality clothing that is made from clothing one, five, or infinite life cycles before. Infrastructure is needed in terms of textile waste collection for feedstocks and prioritizing chemical recycling plants over mechanical (GreenBlue, 2017) Chemical recycling offers a solution for closed-loop recycling where clothes become clothes instead of open-loop where clothes become carpet or stuffing.

• End of life cycle: fibers can go through the recycling process repeatedly

Although chemical recycling can play a part in closed-loop recycling, it is also an important player in open-loop as an “open- loop model offers the best chance for building a scalable, efficient and sustainable infrastructure for recycling PET” (GreenBlue, 2017). Textiles can be cycled up or down depending on demand and allows applications in other industries to remain open.Every player in the value chain can do their part to move the shift towards circularity (Ley, 2017). It is important to note that while chemical recycling of PET has a promising outlook, the main focus should still remain on reducing source production of polyester textiles since the long term-effects of chemical recycling are not known, including any toxic substances released that disproportionately put people at risk for negative environmental health risks and impacts (Barbiroglio, 2020).

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Key Takeaways • Sustainability can be a driving force for consumer purchase behavior • Style does not need to be compromised while creating ethical clothing

sustainable brands

• Brand transparency builds customer trust and relationship • If an item can be marketed as multifunctional, it will have wider appeal • End of lifecycle: PET must be taken to textile recycling center to be reused

“make sustainability sexy” Wolven Threads Wolven Threads is a clothing and apparel brand that focuses on activewear based out of Los Angeles, CA. The athletic wear is made from OEKO-TEX certified Recycled P.E.T fabric. The OEKO-TEX certification indicates the absence of harmful chemicals. According to the Wolven website, “producing recycled-PET generates 79% less carbon emissions than its virgin counterpart”. Each pair of leggings carries the equivalent of about 27 plastic bottles. The company also uses carbon-neutral modal fabric from cellulose fiber beech trees that propagate and regenerate naturally. The brand also follows through with its mission of sustainability by delivering packages in recycled poly mailers and biodegradable paper boxes (Wolven Threads, n,d).

A key element in the company’s success in their image towards customers. Wolven proudly shares that they are carbon neutral and a 1% for the planet member. They also focus on transparency within the brand. They share that they have two production lines: the modal fabric being sewed and constructed in Los Angeles, and the RPET products in China. The facilities in China are certified by Intertek’s Workplace Conditions Assessment to ensure ethical “labor, wages, work hours, health, safety, and environmental practices” (Wolven Threads, n.d). Since a majority of RPET production already occurs in China, it makes sense for the garments to be created there closer to their material source. Wolven’s draws customers with their motto “Make Sustainability Sexy”, focusing on demonstrating the importance of sustainability while creating on-trend garments people are attracted to. Wolven can be considered an athleisure brand since its “garments are all transitional pieces with endless opportunity for styling”, which adds to its appeal as customers can find multifunctionality for one item.

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sustainable branDs

Key Takeaways

Patagonia When navigating to Patagonia’s website in late October days before the 2020 election, a moving banner in bold text reads “ELECT CLIMATE LEADERS NOW”. This is representative of Patagonia’s values and mission as a brand. The company takes environmentalism seriously and aims to be activists for change. In 2020, Patagonia created a film entitled Public Trust: Fighting for America’s public lands that informs about the threats to Bears Ears National Monument in Utah, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in Minnesota, and Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The company acts as activists by supporting grassroots groups, giving back with 1% For The Planet, and giving grants to over 1,020 groups fighting for environmental issues (Patagonia Activism). As a company that grosses over $100 million annually, Patagonia releases statements for the California Transparency in Supply Chains Act where they state that “Patagonia has long focused on preventing and, where necessary, remediating a wide range of issues in our supply chain, including forced labor, child labor and other human rights abuses” (Patagonia, 2017, p. 3).

Patagonia also runs a program called Worn Wear that extends the life of used gear by repairing, recycling, selling used Patagonia gear, and the ability to trade in old gear for credit (Patagonia Better). Along with extending the life of gear, Patagonia creates new apparel that is built to last and with intentions of sustainable creation. A large portion of the athleticwear line, 72%, is made of recycled materials from pre- and post- consumer waste such as recycled nylon, cotton, and polyester. With goals of becoming carbon neutral by 2025, investing in regenerative organic agriculture, and taking social and environmental responsibility, Patagonia can be seen as a model brand for the clothing and active gear industry (Patagonia Our Footprint).

• Brands can reach wider audiences through community involvement initiatives • Companies should acknowledge and address their roles and impact on the environment • Encouraging prolonged use of products rather than a fast-fashion model can still be economically viable • Brands have the ability to be more than just materialistic enterprises by taking political and social stances • End of lifecycle: must be taken to textile recycling center such as Patagonia’s own Worn Wear program

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Alternatives to Fast Fashion Informed Purchases The Future of Fashion

Part 4 best practices 113

Alternatives to fast fashion Collaborative Consumption Thrifting Upcycling

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collaborative consumption

A Sharing Economy Borrowing and swapping of clothes has always been common practice amongst family and friends, passing clothes down to younger siblings or neighbors. A network of sharing clothes is then created, but often only with people we directly know. What if this web could be grown to extend entire communities of people? Collaborative consumption accomplishes this by making sharing of clothes on a larger scale possible. A major roadblock to overcome is the idea that clothing should be new to the world when a person obtains it. If social acceptance of wearing clothes second hand is normalized and accepted (especially in developed countries), it allows for greater exchange of clothing without preconceived negative notions of not being the “original” owner attached to it (Derwanz, 2018). Kleideri, in Germany, is an online and brick-and-mortar store that acts like a library for clothes where members can pay a small fee and select curated pieces to own momentarily before returning them, and can opt to buy them after. This creates a circular, sharing economy with less waste and people being able to continue to add new pieces to their wardrobe.

Collaborative consumption is important because it emphasizes “the critical unravelling of established and fixed consumer cycles and therefore the upholding of ownership roles” (Derwanz, 2018, pp. 98). Oftentimes, people buy specific articles of clothing for one-time use and all of the energy going into creating a garment only goes towards a single wear. In order to curb this behavior, clothing rental services have popped up in recent years. Ideal for work attire, special occasions, or designer wear, clothing rental subscriptions can be a good option for those that want to be in and out with their clothing. Companies like Rent the Runway, Nuuly, Banana Republic Style Passport, and Style Lend all operate under the same system where a subscription is paid for and members can then choose specific clothing they want to rent for a specified amount of time before returning it, or potentially buying it (Penrose, 2019). Renting services allow for the excitement of influx of new clothing but avoids accumulation and purchasing of clothing for short term use.

Yet another form of collaborative consumption lies in friendly clothing swaps. Clothing swaps or trades consist of individuals coming together and giving away their unwanted clothing while being able to find a new treasure in another’s. Clothing swaps can often be found out about on social media and foster a sense of community as people from nearby places come out and intermingle clothes, making old become new again. Collaborative consumption builds an alternative supply system into the market, placing power into the hands of consumers instead of retailers earlier up in the supply chain (Derwanz, 2018). Not only does collaborative sharing disrupt a linear supply chain, but has the chance to create stronger bonds between people through clothing.

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Depop Advertisement

Thrifting

Treasures to Find, Money to Make Out with the old, in with the new; new-old that is. Thrifting is a great way to add new pieces to a closet without physically adding new clothing into the world that needs to be produced. While thrifting may be thought of as shopping for old clothing, the current popularization of it proves that thrifting is “cool again”. In the early 2000s, Hollywood stars dipped their toes back into vintage fashion. However, “no one in Hollywood then … chose to wear vintage because it was green” (Thomas, 2019, pp. 249). Since, the realization that vintage can not only be a source of unique, individualized style, but that it is green as well, helped thrifting become popular, with stigmas of used clothing dispelled (Thomas, 2019). Many different types of thrift stores exist, some specializing in specific types of clothing. Thrift stores, such as Goodwill, can be found in most any town or city, offering the possibility of clothes often for the fraction of the price of brand new clothing. Some thrift stores also offer the possibility of buying clothes from store visitors for cash or credit, such as Buffalo Exchange which has stores across the US with 6 locations in California.

While one appeal of thrift stores is their affordable nature, curated thrift stores and consignment stores offer more specialty pieces for slightly more expensive prices. Walking down Melrose Avenue, a shopping district in Los Angeles, shoppers might find clothing in thrift stores that have hefty price tags. For people looking for specific, higher end, or expensive branded items, these thrift stores/consignment shops offer alternatives to buying new. Thanks to a handful of companies, thrifting has transcended the confines of physical stores. Clothing resale apps and platforms are transforming the fashion industry on the consumer end. A few of these platforms include Mercari, ThredUp, Poshmark, and Depop. Depop can be seen as the rising star of the online thrift marketplace world, with “13 million users, revenue growth of 100% year-on-year for the past few years and gross merchandise value of more than $500 million since launch” in 2019, with Depop’s website boasting 21+ million users in 2020. (Lunden, 2019). Depop

is a company started in 2011 in Milan for users to sell, buy and explore clothing. The app follows a format similar to Instagram, with clean, scroll-friendly posts. It has become successful due to its low barrier to entry, social aspect, variety of trends, personalization, and permittance of the view of fluid ownership (Lorenz, 2019). Depop caters to young people, with 90% of users being under the age of 26 (Lunden, 2019). This is important because this is the same and main age group that engages in fast fashion, indicating that the younger generations are receptive to shopping second-hand, especially online/ through m-commerce. Since Depop users can sell, post, and buy easily with Depop taking only a 10% cut, it is truly run primarily by the common consumer. Thrifting not only gives clothes a second life, but allows individuals and smaller businesses to profit off of clothing that most has more often than not likely been the product of fast fashion and big business.

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Upcycling

Time to Reinvent Just like adaptive reuse in architecture which repurposes old buildings, upcycling, or creative reuse, is about taking what preexists and making it into something new, more useful, and inventive. Upcycling can take place with nearly anything, including with clothing. Upcycling gives old textiles the chance to become new again in creative ways. Upcycling has been taken on by brands and individuals alike. RE/ DONE, an e-commerce label, holds the motto “Iconic. Sustainable. Individual.”. The brand takes vintage Levi’s jeans, deconstructs them, and reconstructs them to create new pieces using the old denim, upcycling over 90,000 pairs at this point. Thus, the brand aims to restore individuality to the luxury fashion space, keep heritage brands relevant, and to create sustainable fashion (RE/ DONE, n.d.). Instead of shelling out money for expensive upcycled clothing, people can also do it themselves in a multitude of ways.

All it takes is a little imagination, or a YouTube video tutorial for some inspiration. With a few steps, an old garment can be transformed into a complete new one. The first step is finding old clothing that is no longer of service, and making some changes. For example, cutting jeans into shorts/a skirt, embroidering or painting on old clothing to give it a new look, sewing something new out of scrap fabric pieces, or reimagining the form of an old T-shirt into something exciting and on-trend. Upcycling is a great option for those that like to get crafty. The activity causes people to engage more directly with their clothing, forming a personal attachment while creating something unique that is 1 of 1. There is no better feeling than being able to say “I made it” when someone compliments a garment. Upcycling gives the opportunity to add color, creativity, and style to fashion without further buying and discarding of textiles.

RE/DONE Jeans

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Informed purchases Certifications Ethical Supply Chains M-Commerce

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Environmental + Holistic

Global Organic Textile Standard Processes along supply chain of textiles made of at least 70% certified organic natural fibers. Contains environmental standards + social criteria with the International Labor Organization.

certifications

What It’s Really Made Of With the wealth of advertisements, information, and movements towards more sustainable clothing, it can be easy to become lost and confused when trying to make more responsible clothing choices. It becomes especially difficult when greenwashing occurs, where companies attempt to make their products seem sustainable by using eco-buzz words when in reality a very small percentage of their production aligns with claims of environmental responsibility. Another hard thing is there is no “one size fits all” in the industry. Since there are so many different moving parts, from ethical, sustainable, and transparency standpoints, there are tons of different certifications, some which can be voluntarily taken on by the companies themselves. Normalization of third party certifications would make for a more just textile economy (Davidson, 2019). Certifications can be extremely broad or narrow, and domestic or international. Though there are countless certifications, networks, and programs, listed here are some of the most well-known and recognized certifications to look out for.

OEKO-TEX

Standard 100- tests for toxic and hazardous chemicals for humans.

Cradle to Cradle Focuses on circular economy of products and gives ratings based on material health, material reutilization, renewable energy and carbon management, water stewardship, and social fairness. Organic Cotton Standard “strict chain of custody system from the organic raw material source to your finished product”. B Corp

Measures social & environmental performance for stakeholders, encouraging balance between purpose and profit. Companies must score at least 80/200 in specified criteria for certification.

1% For The Planet Network of companies that gives 1% of gross profit to environmental non-profits to help offset harms and protect earth’s resources.

Just because a company does not have one of these certifications, or others, it does not mean that they can’t be a responsible choice. Some things to remember and look for: Search for transparency Does the company make their practices well known? Are they up front about where they source, manufacture, and produce items or is information difficult to find or convoluted? A tag is more than just a tag A tag saying made in “insert country here” does not show the full story of a garment, but just one step in its process of being made. Natural fibers are better More often than not, natural fibers such as bamboo, hemp, etc. are better for the environment than synthetic polyester ones. However, many engineered fabrics, especially newer ones, are not as recognizable and should be further looked into. Some plant-derived fibers such as many types of viscose rayon are not as natural as they seem because of the hoard of chemicals they are treated with. Go for organic cotton While organic cotton still uses large amounts of water and land comparative to conventional cotton, it does not use hazardous chemicals and pesticides to grow it, producing less C02 emissions and being gentler on the skin.

Source: Davidson, 2019

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Fair Labor

Ethical supply chains

In Good Hands It is well known that there are deep social problems that run throughout supply chains globally. Though the Rana Plaza Disaster in 2013 helped shed light on the harsh realities and enact initiatives for worker protection, problems persist. Without a clear definition of supply chain transparency, and what it should look like, it is difficult to ensure ethical codes and standards on a broad basis. While differing definitions exist among academia and NGOs, transparency can “be defined as disclosing of information publicly about industry specific supply chain practices that include supplier traceability, sustainability conditions and purchasing practices (Bozic & Bateman, 2019, pp.166)”. It has been researched that transparency increases with legal acts binding companies to divulge information, which often do not unless required. Inaccuracies and/ or inconsistencies in supply chain auditing occur due to ineffective communication and incentives for brands, stakeholders, or external evaluators to conceal information that would hurt them. In order to help correct this, digitization in supplier auditing through “diffusion of technological innovations” must take place (Bozic & Bateman, 2019, pp.172). With implementing further legal acts and improving honest communication and traceability in supply chains, the fashion industry can look forward to a more ethical future every step of the way. While analyzing supply chains as a consumer may be difficult, the key is to understand a company’s willingness for transparency. Just like environmental and holistic certifications, certifications exist for social sustainability, some of which are listed here.

Fair Trade USA Sets standards specific to various industries that ensure fair trade between workers, farmers, etc. Includes things like work conditions, financial independence, and audits supply chains for ethical practices. Fair Trade International Just like Fair Trade International, establishes set of high labor and environmental standards including removal of GMOs and toxic chemicals. SA8000

Sets standards for factories that match the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Labour Organization, with topics like child and forced labor, working conditions and hours, safety, and labor discrimination.

Nest Focuses on ethical labor in decentralized supply chains (labor done at home outside of factories), protecting working women in developing countries. Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production

Silver, gold, or platinum certification given to factories for social factors such as labor and descrimination. Source: Davidson, 2019

The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act This act, enacted in California in 2010, was a significant step in requiring social responsibilities for companies in the state. The act pertains to any retailers or manufacturers that do business in California and have annual worldwide gross receipts over $100 million. The act acknowledges human trafficking and slavery within the state and recognizes that it is hard to track and can be hidden in marred supply chains. The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act (CTSCA) aims to render companies accountable and increase the availability of knowledge to consumers about company practices in order to make ethical decisions. If a company falls under the categories in the CTSCA, it must “disclose the extent of their efforts in five areas: verification, audits, certification, internal accountability, and training” (Office of the Attorney General, n.d.). With the CTSCA, it protects workers against human trafficking and slavery within the state and beyond because companies must comply with human trafficking and slavery laws in countries wherein their company’s supply chain is involved. While the act does not cover all companies within the state, and injustice towards humans still often goes unnoticed, it is a good start in ensuring ethical products for consumers and fair treatment for individuals.

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m-commerce

Shopping Online Can Be Fine Making informed decisions can take a lot of time and effort that consumers don’t necessarily have. Ideally, this responsibility wouldn’t be placed entirely on the consumer end but shared with companies themselves. This is especially pertinent to online shopping, as smartphone penetration is at an all-time high and e-commerce continues to gain in the retail sector. Knowing this, it makes sense for “mobilecommerce (m-commerce) ... to be considered as a key communication channel for the fashion industry” (Parker & Henninger, 2018, pp.69). The online landscape is an ideal place to incite change as “potentially the most seductive and emotional platform for purchase behaviour to date” (Parker & Henninger, 2018, pp.70). In response to consumer pressure and demand for more sustainable options, companies have developed corporate responsibility strategies. To gain customer trust, these strategies should be made more clear. In order to shift people’s behavior through m-commerce design, making sustainable choices must be made accessible and readily available. As such, websites and apps should improve search filter capability for sustainable products. If a company is truly trying to appeal to eco-conscious buyers, then they should aim for visibility and showing those facets off. As with all things on phones, interactivity is key in keeping the user engaged, especially when it happens naturally and in an enjoyable matter. There is incentive for brands to do this as it builds an emotional bond with customers and creates a positive public image (Parker & Henninger, 2018).

Though mobile commerce and social media feeds into fast fashion behavior to an extent, it also presents opportunities for solutions. Helpful apps and websites can act as vital tools in helping consumers make educated and informed choices. The app and website “Good On You” serves as an example of using online resources for positive action. The app uses a rating system based on people, planet, animals, and the UN’s sustainable development goal: “Ensure sustainable production and consumption patterns”. Brands are given a score of great, good, it’s a start, not good enough, or we avoid based on scores for each area (Good On You, n.d.). Users can easily browse through and look up brands and get information about them, helping to make decisions while also learning about new companies. Social media, such as instagram, can act as a perpetrator for fast fashion and throwaway clothing culture, yet at the same time a tool for doing just the opposite. Social media can be used to spread knowledge about responsible clothing consumption, as well as being used as a platform by countless sustainable brands that can often be located through the use of a simple hashtag. Social media serves as a way to gather information quickly and efficiently with little effort, and is used primarily by those who are positioned to purchase fast fashion.

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Future Fashion Where Fashion is Headed A Note on Responsibility Future Project Plans

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where fashion is headed

The Future Is Now Fashion in current times is facing an inevitable wave of change that will impact every aspect of the industry from design, sourcing, production, manufacturing, and shopping. Going forward, couture fashion, biology, technology, and architecture will be increasingly one in the same. Digital fabrication appears to be an element of fashion design in the future, and “although fashion innovation is based on traditional craftsmanship, designers no longer live in the machine world but in the era of technology” (Guimapang, 2018). 3-D printing has already proved to be useful in design due to its extreme precision, ability to produce forms difficult to make with human hands, variety of material inputs, and waste exemption. All textile machinery was new technology at one point or another, which has become the standard over time. The industry should welcome technology and innovation as it could prove to be a solution for various previously discussed problems. Digital fabrication, innovations being made in bio-textiles, better technology and research into textile recycling/ manufacturing, and changing views and desires of what fashion should be will continue to push fashion into a more sustainable future.

Future Fabrics Expo London

The industry is slowly becoming more cognizant of the need for change, led with excitement. Events like the Future Fabrics Expo by non-profit The Sustainable Angle showcase thousands of textiles and fabrics “that are safe, renewable, restorative, and apply responsible practices throughout the supply chain” (The Sustainable Angle, n.d.). Where there is excitement and open minds, there is room for change. More and more NGOs and groups are popping up in the defense of a sustainable future for fashion such as the Sustainable Apparel Coalition. These groups are driving the industry to a more responsible and ethical place for everyone. As time goes on, people will continue buying clothes and looking for the next trend, and fashion will need to adapt to meet the needs of the future in all aspects.

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a note on responsibility

Change Is Slow The clothing industry will continue to press on, as well as the fast fashion one in the foreseeable future. Workers will continue to spend their days in sweatshops because they need a steady income to survive. Shoppers will continue to buy marked-down items at fastfashion retailers because they couldn’t pass up such a good deal. Factories will continue to neglect negative impacts because money has the heaviest of hands. Fashion retailers and CEOs will continue to make choices that do not put the health of the planet as a priority because business models do not allow for it. Responsibility does not lie on any one of us, but on all of us, individually and united. A problem so complex and interwoven must be tackled on all fronts in order to see change. Fashion can be that agency for change. Just like many powerful social movements, significant change can come from everyday people who choose to have a positive impact. Ultimately, consumers hold the most power in the persistent laws of supply and demand. We as consumers, and citizens in the 21st century, have the responsibility to tread with caution and act in ways that protect and preserve the planet’s precious resources, along with caring for each other every step of the way. It is everyone’s job to ensure arable land, along with all other natural resources, are being used responsibly.

As “millennial and Generation Z shoppers rank social and environmental responsibility as two of the top five factors they consider before buying a product”, it is time to not only expect more, but demand more from ourselves and the clothing companies in which we trust enough to wear upon our bodies (Thomas, 2019, pp.160). It is time to see clothing as a resource instead of a commodity. There are so many ways to challenge unsustainable industry practices, from cultural and social standpoints to ecological or technological ones (Derwanz, 2018). It would be foolish to set unrealistic expectations for capitalist economies, to believe a singular plant and its fibers can be the answer, or to assume everyone can readily afford to adopt the suggested mindset, but we must start somewhere. Clothing is such an integral part of landscapes and how humans interact within them. One of the first steps people can take in being stewards of the land is to start with something close by, the clothing on their skin, and thinking about where it came from. Fashion can be fun, daring, expressive, comforting, and so many other things, but it doesn’t need to mean that every passing second a garbage truck of textile waste gets incinerated or dumped. Hurry up and spread the news – slow fashion is on the rise.

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Future project plans

seam[less] What Lies Ahead As a landscape architecture student, I intend to use my learned skills to the best of my ability to make positive change. Establishing respect and care for the environment through human design is central to my academic training and views on the world. Through the development of this project and angle I have taken concentrating on the effects of fast fashion, large amounts of information have been collected, in which next steps involve dissemination of this research. I plan to do this through both the creation of a website and design + construction of physical garments. A website has been chosen as the channel for this information as it has the potential to reach the widest number of people, is easily accessible, and will challenge me to learn a new skill set. The website will present information explored in this booklet in a more concise, easily navigable way. Through the formation of garments, I believe I will be able to connect to the project on a more intimate, personal level, and be able to see a physical representation of the knowledge acquired. These garments will bring the project to life, literally. With these two outlets SEAM[LESS] will be shared with the world.

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Part 1 Bibliography Aizenshtein, E. M. (2014). Polyester fibres in 2012. Fibre Chemistry, 46(1), 1+. https://link-gale-com.ezproxy. lib.calpoly.edu/apps/doc/A384780891/AONE?u=calpolyw_csu&sid=AONE&xid=33e9d8e6 Barnes, Liz, & Lea-Greenwood, Gaynor. (2006). Fast fashion. Emerald Group Publishing. Becker, J. (2018, November 27). Why We Buy More Than We Need. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/ joshuabecker/2018/11/27/why-we-buy-more-than-we-need/. Becker-Leifhold, C., & Heuer, M. (2018). Eco-friendly and fair: fast fashion and consumer behaviour. Routledge. Borzykowski, B. (2015, March 18). Why does shopping feel so good? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/ worklife/article/20150318-tame-your-inner-impulse-buyer. Business Wire. (2006, May 4). World Polyester Fiber - Discover All Major Fiber Producing Countries Accounting for 88% of Global Production and 85% In Consumption. Business Wire. https://www. businesswire.com/news/home/20060504005018/en/World-Polyester-Fiber---Discover-All-MajorFiber-Producing-Countries-Accounting-for-88-of-Global-Production-and-85-In-Consumption. Cline, E. (2016, February 16). The Power of Buying Less by Buying Better. The Atlantic. https://www. theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/02/buying-less-by-buying-better/462639/. De Sawaan Arons, M. (2011, October 3). How Brands Were Born: A Brief History of Modern Marketing. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/10/how-brands-were-born-a-briefhistory-of-modern-marketing/246012/.

How Many Gallons of Water Does it Take to Make a Single Pair of Jeans? The Fashion Law. (2019, November 22). https://www.thefashionlaw.com/how-many-gallons-of-water-does-it-take-to-make-a-single-pairof-jeans/. Hymann, Y. (2020, September 27). Material Guide: How Sustainable is Hemp Fabric? Good On You. https:// goodonyou.eco/material-guide-hemp/. LaRose, D. (2017, April 12). To Dye For: Textile Processing’s Global Impact. https://www.carmenbusquets. com/journal/post/fashion-dye-pollution. Li, E. (2018, July 20). Southern China’s million-tonne raw sewage problem. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2087815/southern-chinas-million-tonneraw-sewage-problem. McFall-Johnsen, M. (2019, October 21). The fashion industry emits more carbon than international flights and maritime shipping combined. Here are the biggest ways it impacts the planet. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/fast-fashion-environmental-impact-pollution-emissions-wastewater-2019-10. Moulds, J. Child labour in the fashion supply chain. The Guardian. https://labs.theguardian.com/unicef-childlabour/. Muratovski, G. (2016). Consumer culture: selected essays. Intellect. Oakes, C. (2020, July 17). Fashion Is a Women’s Issue. Fair Trade Certified. https://www.fairtradecertified. org/news/fashion-is-a-womens-issue. Pallasmaa, J. (1996). The eyes of the skin: architecture and the senses. Academy Editions.

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Hogenboom, M. (2016, September 19). Earth - We did not invent clothes simply to stay warm. BBC. http:// www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160919-the-real-origin-of-clothes. Hope, K. (2017, March 22). Has this dress been to more countries than you? BBC News. https://www.bbc. com/news/business-39337204.

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Part 2 Bibliography #6 Amancio Ortega. Forbes. (2020). https://www.forbes.com/profile/amancio-ortega/.

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Perez, L. (2020, January 27). How skateboarding became a high-fashion obsession. HIGHXTAR. https:// highxtar.com/how-skateboarding-became-a-high-fashion-obsession/?lang=en.

Belgum, D. (2015, August 13). Athleisure-Fad or Fashion for the Long Haul? https://www.apparelnews.net/ news/2015/aug/13/athleisurefad-or-fashion-long-haul/.

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Bergman , S., & Raymond, D. (2015, December 23). 70 Years of Style. https://www.apparelnews.net/ news/2015/dec/23/70-years-style/. Borland, K. M. (2018, November 14). Apparel Drives Big Retail Spending in SoCal. GlobeSt. https://www. globest.com/2018/11/14/apparel-drives-big-retail-spending-in-socal/?slreturn=20200911223009. Brannigan, M. (2018, March 19). Fashion Is Coming for Surfing, and Its Lifestyle, at Full Force. Fashionista. https://fashionista.com/2018/03/surfing-surf-culture-lifestyle-fashion-trend. Brooke, E. (2017, February 28). What’s So Alluring About California Style? Racked. https://www.racked. com/2017/2/28/14752056/california-style-myth. California Courts. California Tribal Communities. California courts the judicial branch of California. https:// www.courts.ca.gov/3066.htm. CalRecycle. (2020a, March 2). Textiles. CalRecycle. https://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/reducewaste/textiles. CalRecyle. (2020b). (rep.). 2018 Disposal-Facility-Based Characterization of Solid Waste in California. CalRecycle. Retrieved from https://www2.calrecycle.ca.gov/Publications/Details/1666 CCGGA. (2014, March 24). CA Cotton Facts. California Cotton Ginners and Growers Association. https:// ccgga.org/cotton-information/ca-cotton-facts/. Castillo, E. D. Californian Indian History. California Native American Heritage Commission. http://nahc. ca.gov/resources/california-indian-history/. Hawk, T. (2020, February 28). Skateboarding. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/sports/ skateboarding. Krentcil, F. (2019, December 19). The 2010s: Defining a Decade in Style. Harper’s Bazaar. https://www. harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/a30270087/2010s-decade-fashion-style/. Mau, D. (2018, June 26). The 10 Biggest U.S. Apparel Companies. Fashionista. https://fashionista. com/2015/07/most-valuable-american-brands. www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/cotton-wool/cotton-sector-at-a-glance/.

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Part 3 Bibliography Akinlabi, E. T., Anane-Fenin, K., Akwada, D. R., & SpringerLink. (2017). Bamboo: The Multipurpose Plant (1st ed. 2017.). Springer International Publishing : Imprint: Springer.

Pure Waste. (2018, August 26). The Company Page. Pure Waste Textiles. https://www.purewastetextiles. com/purewastetextiles/.

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Wenner, N. (2019, December 20). Weaving Hemp into the Northern California Fibershed. Fibershed. https:// fibershed.org/2019/12/20/weaving-hemp-into-the-northern-california-fibershed/.

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Marchese, F. (2017, August 23). How Sicilian oranges are being made into clothes. BBC News. https://www. bbc.com/news/business-40946159.

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Notman, N. (2020, January 27). Recycling clothing the chemical way. Chemistry World. https://www. chemistryworld.com/features/recycling-clothing-the-chemical-way/4010988.article. Orange Fiber . sustainable fabrics from citrus fruits. http://orangefiber.it/en/. Patagoinia. Activism. Patagonia Outdoor Clothing & Gear. https://www.patagonia.com/activism/. Patagonia. Better Than New. Worn Wear. https://wornwear.patagonia.com/. Patagonia. Our Footprint. Patagonia Outdoor Clothing &amp; Gear. https://www.patagonia.com/whyrecycled/. Patagonia. (2017). (rep.). Patagonia California Transparency (SB 657) and UK Modern Slavery Act Disclosure Statement (pp. 1–12). Periyasamy, Aravin Prince, & Militky, Jiri. (2020). Sustainability in Textile Dyeing: Recent Developments. In Sustainability in the Textile and Apparel Industries (pp. 37–79). Springer International Publishing. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38545-3_2

Part 4 Bibliography Bozic, D & Bateman, A. H. (2018). Evaluating social transparency in global fashion supply chains. In Heuer M. & Becker-Leifhold C. (Eds.), Eco-Friendly and Fair: Fast Fashion and Consumer Behaviour (pp. 92-100). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351058353 Davidson, A. (2019, July 1). Is There a Sustainable Certification for Clothing? [Guide to Ethical Labels]. Derwanz, H. (2018). Looking backwards and forwards in sustainable fashion. In Heuer M. & Becker-Leifhold C. (Eds.), Eco-Friendly and Fair: Fast Fashion and Consumer Behaviour (pp. 92-100). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351058353 Ecocult. https://ecocult.com/eco-friendly-ethical-sustainable-labels-certifications-clothing-fashion/ Good On You. FAQs. Good On You. https://goodonyou.eco/faqs/. Guimapang, K. (2018, December 28). The future of couture is a blend of fashion, technology, and architecture. Archinect. https://archinect.com/news/article/150112199/the-future-of-couture-is-ablend-of-fashion-technology-and-architecture. Lorenz, T. (2019, June 16). Why Teens Are Selling Clothes Out of Their Closets. The Atlantic. https://www. theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/06/depop-live-selling-clothes-influencers/591595/. Lunden, I. (2019, June 7). Depop, a social app targeting millennial and Gen Z shoppers, bags $62M, passes 13M users. TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/06/depop-a-social-app-targeting-millennialand-gen-z-shoppers-bags-62m-passes-13m-users/. Office of the Attorney General. The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act. State of California Department of Justice - Office of the Attorney General. https://oag.ca.gov/SB657. Parker, C.J. & Henninger, C.E. (2018) Enabling sustainable behaviours through m-commerce app design: Focus on the fast fashion industry. In Heuer M. & Becker-Leifhold C. (Eds.), Eco-Friendly and Fair: Fast Fashion and Consumer Behaviour (pp. 92-100). London: Routledge. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781351058353 Penrose, N. (2019, November 13). The 10 Best Clothing Rental Services Money Can Buy. Elle . https://www. elle.com/fashion/shopping/a29761499/best-clothing-rental-services/. RE/DONE. About Us. RE/DONE. https://shopredone.com/pages/about-us. The Sustainable Angle. About. The Sustainable Angle. https://thesustainableangle.org/about/. Thomas, D. (2019). Fashionopolis: Why What We Wear Matters. Penguin Press.