Developing Effective Learners by Solution Tree

—Angela Grove Literacy Coach, West Perry School District, Elliottsburg, Pennsylvania

In Developing Effective Learners: RTI Strategies for Student Success, author Toby J. Karten details a multitiered system of support to best assist K–12 teachers in addressing all students’ diverse needs: response to intervention (RTI). She presents a framework for identifying students in need of support, collecting data to justify intervention, and then implementing research-based instructional strategies and assessment of progress. Real lessons show educators how to best apply these interventions in their classrooms. Using Developing Effective Learners, and transitioning to the RTI process, teachers can impactfully respond to learners’ academic, emotional, and behavioral challenges. Within this book, readers will find tiered lessons; practical resources; instructional and staff scenarios; student vignettes; and responsive, evidence-based interventions for students’ diverse learning needs.

K–12 teachers will: • Gain an overview of the RTI process and its goals

D E V E LOP I NG E FFE CTIVE LEARNERS

“A great overview for educators from new and preservice teachers to instructional coaches and administrators who are leading teachers through the RTI process. The author provides excellent examples, strategies, resources, and samples.”

• Learn a ten-step RTI plan • Understand how to identify struggling students and use ongoing assessment to intervene when they need support

• Discover how to initiate engagement and strategies for engagement • Examine how instructional support targets diverse learners • Find an extensive list of additional resources for RTI implementation

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/RTI to download the free reproducibles in this book.

SolutionTree.com

TOBY J. KA RT E N

• Learn the benefits of evidence-based interventions within RTI

Copyright © 2017 by Solution Tree Press Materials appearing here are copyrighted. With one exception, all rights are reserved. Readers may reproduce only those pages marked “Reproducible.” Otherwise, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without prior written permission of the publisher. 555 North Morton Street Bloomington, IN 47404 800.733.6786 (toll free) / 812.336.7700 FAX: 812.336.7790 email: info@SolutionTree.com SolutionTree.com Visit go.SolutionTree.com/RTI to download the free reproducibles in this book. Printed in the United States of America 21 20 19 18 17

1 2 3 4 5

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Karten, Toby J., author. Title: Developing effective learners : RTI strategies for student success / Toby J. Karten. Description: Bloomington, IN : Solution Tree Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017003941 | ISBN 9781943874651 (perfect bound) Subjects: LCSH: Learning disabled children--Education--United States. | Response to intervention (Learning disabled children)--United States. | Inclusive education--United States. | Interdisciplinary approach in education. Classification: LCC LC4705 .K367 2017 | DDC 371.9/046--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017003941 Solution Tree Jeffrey C. Jones, CEO Edmund M. Ackerman, President Solution Tree Press President and Publisher: Douglas M. Rife Editorial Director: Sarah Payne-Mills Managing Production Editor: Caroline Cascio Senior Production Editor: Suzanne Kraszewski Senior Editor: Amy Rubenstein Proofreader: Evie Madsen Text and Cover Designer: Abigail Bowen Editorial Assistants: Jessi Finn and Kendra Slayton

Table of Contents About the Author. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Intro duc tion

Response to Intervention and the Characteristics of Effective Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Effective Learner Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Characteristics of Effective Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 General Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Literacy Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Mathematics Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

About This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapte r 1

The ABCs of RTI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 A Focus on RTI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Tier 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Tier 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Tier 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

A Ten-Step RTI Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chapte r 2

Preassessment, Vigilance, and Ongoing Assessment . . . . . . . . . 17 Preassessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

vii

viii

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS

Vigilance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Ongoing Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Domains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Screen and Intervene: Literacy-Based Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Dyslexia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Dysgraphia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Screen and Intervene: Mathematics-Based Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Screen and Intervene: Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges. . . . . 31 Emotional Disturbance and Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Use Self-Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Classroom Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Chapte r 3

Evidence-Based Interventions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Scaffolding for Analytic, Creative, and Practical Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Classroom Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Elementary Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Middle School Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 High School Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapte r 4

Instruction That Engages and Motivates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Initiating Engagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Engaging Students in Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Stories and Storytelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Humor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Current Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Table of Contents

Chapte r 5

Lessons for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Grade 2 Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Group One: Word Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Group Two: Text Citations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Group Three: Cooperative Pairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Grade 5 Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Vocabulary Forum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Historical and Cultural Forum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Game Forum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Final Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Grade 10 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Grade 1 Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Grade 4 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Grade 9 Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Af te r word

Positive Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 App e n dix

Additional Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

About the Author Toby J. Karten, a staff developer, an instructional coach, an educational consultant, an author, and an inclusion specialist, has taught learners ranging from preschool to graduate school. She is an adjunct professor with Monmouth University, College of New Jersey, and La Salle University. In addition, Toby has designed online courses and professional development units for preservice and practicing educators and related staff for the Regional Training Center in Randolph, New Jersey, and online platforms across the United States. She has collaborated with administrators, staff, students, and their families to ensure that students are educated in their least restrictive environments, looking at inclusive placements as the first option of service with the specially designed interventions in place. Throughout her professional career, Toby has helped staff translate research into practical applications for preK–12 classrooms. She has spoken with and coached administrators, staff, students, and their families at local, national, and international school sites and educational conferences. Toby’s ongoing professional goal is to help learners to achieve successful inclusion experiences in schools and ultimately, in life. The Council for Exceptional Children and the New Jersey Department of Education recognized Toby as an exemplary educator, giving her two Teacher of the Year awards. She earned a bachelor of arts degree in special education from Brooklyn College, a master of science degree in special education from the College of Staten Island, a supervisory degree from Georgian Court University, and an honorary doctorate degree from Gratz College. To learn more about Toby’s work, visit her website at www.inclusionworkshops.com and follow @TJK2INCLUDE on Twitter. To book Toby J. Karten for professional development, contact pd@SolutionTree.com.

Introduction

Response to Intervention and the Characteristics of Effective Learners Educators today face many challenges—instructing students with diverse needs and simultaneously meeting high benchmarks for student achievement, all while keeping students engaged and learning at different levels within one classroom. The intervention process can be overwhelming for teachers and other school support staff. This book—Developing Effective Learners: RTI Strategies for Student Success—is designed to help support the intervention process. It focuses on steps teachers and support staff can take to lead learners from their baseline skills to high achievement through intervention. Students are not passive recipients of this intervention; rather, they take an active role in the learning process. Educators and students both must respect and accept differences and learning challenges, share responsibility, and increase accountability to improve student outcomes in school and ultimately in life. What schools need today is a framework for identifying students in need of support, collecting data to justify intervention, and then implementing a collection of research-based strategies for intervention followed by assessment of progress. A system of support that is delivered with fidelity and a focus on individuality should seek to reach students who require assistance in three areas: (1) literacy, (2) mathematics, and (3) social, emotional, and behavioral skills. These areas all require content-specific skills as well as organizational skills and self-regulation. Response to intervention (RTI) is a multitiered approach educators can use to identify and support students with learning and behavior needs (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2012; National Center on Response to Intervention, 2013). The basic premise of RTI is that students should receive support in a timely, targeted, and systemic way (Björn, Aro, Koponen, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2016; Buffum et al., 2012; Buffum, Mattos, Weber, & Hierck, 2015). The RTI process is made up of three tiers, beginning with high-quality core instruction and screening of all students in the general education classroom (Buffum et al., 2012). Tier 1 instruction is general instruction for the whole class that includes universal supports. However, not all learners master the learning with synchronization in Tier 1. Therefore, Tier 2 intervention provides supplemental instruction in small groups, as needed. Tier 3 intervention provides more intensive

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS

instruction for individual students who require additional scaffolding and practice. A multitiered system of support such as RTI recognizes that diverse learners require differentiated tiered instruction to achieve mastery. The levels of supports of each tier are driven by student need. The research tells us that RTI is responsive to learner levels and the diversity that each student exhibits, whether academic, behavioral, or cultural (Björn et al., 2016; Fan, Denner, Bocanegra, & Ding, 2016; Klingner & Hoover, 2014; National Center on Response to Intervention, 2013).

The Effective Learner Framework The Effective Learner framework in this book outlines a list of characteristics of effective learners. These learners are self-regulated, task oriented, focused on goals, and motivated to achieve, and they take responsibility for their learning (Lin, Lai, Lai, & Chang, 2016; Wang, 2011). Teachers and school staff must work together to provide interventions that focus on developing these learning characteristics so that all students succeed—academically, socially, and emotionally. Effective learners are primed to learn, and their teachers and families work together with them in their learning, which includes fidelity to the RTI framework from preassessment to the selection of evidence-based practices used during instruction, to progress monitoring, and through the assessment that determines whether learners have achieved the desired outcomes. All students benefit from RTI and the Effective Learner framework—those with and without classifications, those who have individual education programs (IEPs), and 504 plans, English learners, and so on. Responsive intervention within the framework provides students with opportunities for whole-class, small-group, and individualized instructional interventions designed to increase their knowledge and skill sets from baseline levels.

The Characteristics of Effective Learners The characteristics of effective learners in this section fit into four categories: (1) general characteristics, (2) literacy characteristics, (3) mathematics characteristics, and (4) social, emotional, and behavioral characteristics. These characteristics are drawn from my years of experience teaching and coaching in general and special education K–12 settings and a review of the evidence-based practices in the literature (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013; Freire, 2000; Gagné & Parks, 2013; Hattie, 2012; Marzano, 2009; Morcom, 2016; Partnership for 21st Century Learning, n.d.; Spangler, 2017; State University of New York at Plattsburgh, Center for Teacher Excellence, n.d.; Tomlinson, 2002; Vygotsky, 1987; Willis, 2007; Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2011). By focusing on teaching and reinforcing effective learner traits in addition to teaching content within the tiers of RTI, students are poised to achieve more than just academic standards—they become aware of the skills they need to be able to master the content. For example, a learner who needs intervention with short vowel sounds, how to infer an author’s point of view from a nonfiction text, or how to solve a multistep word problem cannot achieve these objectives if he or she does not listen to feedback, connect to the content, or develop practices to apply the learning.

Introduction

General Characteristics Effective learners know that learning is a process that is unique to them. They are aware that mastery and perfection cannot happen in a day, but information and learning gains occur through trial and error and guided reflection. Effective learners self-reflect and gauge their level of progress based on effort, not by comparison to other students. The following are some general characteristics of effective learners. 1. Effective learners understand their learning profiles; they know their strengths and weaknesses. They are aware of the steps they need to take to increase their proficiency. 2. Effective learners transform mistakes into something positive, understanding that learning is sometimes messy, and sometimes getting it wrong takes them one step closer to getting it right. 3. Effective learners are self-directed. 4. Effective learners are aware of the need for repeated practice. 5. Effective learners know that learning has no finish line. 6. Effective learners connect to the content; they value not just what they learn but how they learn. 7. Effective learners absorb, express, and engage in content and information in multiple ways. For example, if a learner does not understand a vocabulary word in a novel, he doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t skip over the word, but instead uses an online or a handheld dictionary and checks to see if the word makes sense in the context. Other examples include watching an instructional video to better understand how to solve a geometric theorem, listening to a mathematics rap song to learn a concept, engaging in game-based learning, or cooperatively writing a research report. 8. Effective learners know where they need to go before they begin (their learning goals) and offer evidence of their learning along the way. 9. Effective learners use the feedback they get to catapult their learning forward. 10. Effective learners evaluate their mistakes to construct a learning schema, a mental framework for understanding and retaining information. 11. Effective learners transfer their learning from one subject to another, from one grade level to the next, and from school to real-world situations. 12. Effective learners play with concepts and skills in creative ways to make them their own. 13. Effective learners ground concepts in reality by adapting their learning to real-life situations.

Literacy Characteristics Effective learners are not intimidated by the use or study of language. The following are some characteristics of effective literacy learners. 1. Effective learners relate to stories and make connections during oral and silent readings. 2. Effective learners hear the rhythm of words.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS 3. Effective learners do not view reading and writing as chores, but as fun activities. 4. Effective learners plan their writing; they construct, revise, and edit sentences to organize their verbal and written expressions. 5. Effective learners, from the early grades onward, examine the similarities and differences of text through organized and diverse formats that range from online articles to persuasive essays, editorials, fiction, poetry, and books from a variety of genres. 6. Effective learners capitalize on their stronger modalities to achieve literacy gains. There is more than one way to manipulate letters to decode and encode words, read and apply comprehension skills, and extract relevant information, and effective learners take advantage of their strongest skills. 7. Effective learners gain information from multiple sources to establish inferential skills. 8. Effective learners take an active role during the reading process, from decoding the letters, listening to read-alouds, asking questions during guided reading, contributing to collaborative discussion, and responding to text-based questions, to name a few. 9. Effective learners analyze complex text ideas, convey information, organize content with valid verbal and written expressions and arguments, and require the scaffolding of appropriate interventions to do so.

Mathematics Characteristics Effective mathematics learners calculate, think logically, and follow step-by-step procedures with precision and care to analyze, compute, and solve expressions and word problems in all operations. The following are traits of effective mathematics learners. 1. Effective learners are self-directed and aware of the steps they need to take to increase their mathematics proficiency. 2. Effective learners do not allow their mathematics deficits to escalate. They analyze their errors and identify patterns. 3. Effective learners do not give up; they know that there are multiple ways to compute and solve problems and multiple ways to engage in mathematics, includes valuing concrete, representational, and abstract presentations. 4. Effective learners embrace abstract mathematics concepts and think logically across many curriculum domains.

Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Characteristics Effective learners recognize and apply social, emotional, and behavioral traits across the domains and environments. 1. Effective learners reflect on their behavior. 2. Effective learners acknowledge and take responsibility for their emotions.

Introduction

3. Effective learners are the ones who sculpt the clay. This means that students are active participants in their learning process to develop, formulate, and hone their skills. 4. Effective learners know how to ask for help and interact and collaborate with peers and adults. 5. Effective learners are proactive and independent in their learning. They do not wait to be told that they do not know something before seeking help. 6. Effective learners infuse cognitive buy-ins to personalize their learning, leading to increased interest, relevance, competence, and ownership. 7. Effective learners accept and respect their differences as a norm—not a deviance—realizing that everyone possesses strengths and weaknesses. 8. Effective learners do not point fingers; they hold hands. 9. Effective learners smile and laugh. 10. Effective learners understand that learning accommodations are not an excuse to stop listening or learning. 11. Effective learners understand that accommodations present opportunities for growth. 12. Effective learners think about the now, then, and next (in other words, they are mindful of what is, what was, and what could be). These characteristics are goals to keep in mind throughout the RTI process so students can develop as effective learners while also receiving initial instruction and support through the tiers of RTI using a collaborative and planned approach that involves preassessment, vigilance, and ongoing assessment.

About This Book Developing Effective Learners is written for both beginning and veteran teachers and staff who often know what they want to do to design and teach excellent lessons, but are frustrated by the fact that their learners are not achieving progress. This book is organized into five chapters starting with an overview of RTI and ending with specific lesson ideas for educators to implement with diverse learners. The afterword and appendix provide additional resources for educators. Readers will find the following within these pages: nn

Chapter 1, “The ABCs of RTI,” sheds light on the RTI process, highlights the goals of RTI using the ABCs as an acrostic, and provides a ten-step RTI plan. Chapter 2, “Preassessment, Vigilance, and Ongoing Assessment,” looks at the process of identifying struggling students and using ongoing assessment to intervene when they need support. Chapter 3, “Evidence-Based Interventions,” discusses the benefits of evidence-based interventions within an RTI framework.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS nn

Chapter 4, “Instruction That Engages and Motivates,” looks at engaging students in instruction—how to initiate engagement and strategies for engagement. Chapter 5, “Lessons for Diverse Learners,” examines how instructional support targets diverse learners in RTI’s tiered system. The afterword, “Positive Outcomes,” wraps up the book with additional RTI applications and a focus on how educators can collaborate with families and one another so that students achieve positive outcomes. The appendix includes a list of additional resources for educators as they implement RTI in their classrooms.

Content is important, but the most important component in teaching is the learners themselves. Educators and other staff seeking to develop effective learners in their K–12 classrooms will find this book’s strategies and processes valuable additions to their teaching repertoire.

Chapter 1

The ABCs of RTI Farfrum Fluent, a fourth-grade student, has excellent visual memory and fared well in his prior grades; he was even able to name the letters of the alphabet at an early age. Now, when he is asked to read a passage, he panics and sometimes misbehaves. For example, he takes delight in making the class laugh in order to distract the teacher and other students from noticing his reading difficulties. Farfrum has learned to get by by memorizing words; he has not learned how to decode words or recognize their individual sounds. His reading difficulties went undetected in earlier grades because he dutifully completed his assignments with the help of his teachers and his family. Farfrum now struggles to decipher the unfamiliar words coming at him at a rapid pace. Without direct systematic instruction in phonemic awareness, Farfrumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reading difficulties will escalate. Stella Rusher, a second-grade student, has 100 percent oral-reading accuracy, but when asked to retell a story in her own words, she is lost. She can share vocabulary from the story, hoping it will sound right; however, her retelling of the passage or text often has little connection to the central ideas or important details of the story. Even though Stella reads fluently, her reading comprehension is below grade level. Victor Reid, a ninth-grade student, is fidgety and inattentive during classes that require him to sit still for longer periods of time. Victor has an attention span that, on most days, averages about ten minutes at a time. When he reads, he often skips over words, leaves off word endings, and loses his place. Writing is tedious for Victor since he continually struggles with spelling and grammar rules. He has good comprehension of stories and informational text when words are read aloud; however, his dysfluency interferes with his comprehension. For students like Farfrum, Stella, and Victor, the classroom has not been a place filled with success. Their teachers have not created curricula that respond to their skill levels or their individual and diverse learning characteristics. Their teachers may have been unsure about how to implement a multitiered system of support that acknowledges individual skill levels and characteristics. They may not be a part of a school community that uses the RTI process.

Every student comes into the classroom with a unique collection of prior knowledge, skills, motivating factors, methods of retention, and behavioral characteristics. This is evident in the following classroom scenarios.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS

A Focus on RTI Austin Buffum, Mike Mattos, and Chris Weber (2012) assert that RTI is the best hope for providing every student—like Farfrum, Stella, and Victor—with the additional time and support he or she needs to learn at high levels. They explain, “Schools should not delay providing help for struggling students until they fall far enough behind to qualify for special education, but instead should provide timely, targeted, systematic interventions to all students who demonstrate the need” (Buffum et al., 2012, p. xiii).

RTI includes three tiers of instruction and intervention: (1) the core program, (2) the supplemental program, and (3) the intensive program (Buffum et al., 2012; see figure 1.1). It is designed with the ultimate goal of improving achievement levels across the K–12 grade-level spectrum (Lenski, 2011), with educators choosing evidence-based interventions based on student data.

Tier 3 The Intensive Program

Tier 2 The Supplemental Program

Tier 1 The Core Program

Source: Adapted from Buffum et al., 2012.

Figure 1.1: RTI tier model.

The RTI process values rigor and relevance for every learner. All students—from every skill level—are expected to achieve at a high degree. This RTI system of support must include administrative support, collaborative planning time, fidelity to high expectations for students with and without disabilities, multitiered lessons, personalized learning goals, student ownership of the learning process, motivating research-based engagement opportunities, and home supports.

The ABCs of RTI

At the base of the pyramid is Tier 1. This is the grade-level core instruction that all students receive. Tier 2 in the middle of the pyramid includes supplemental support that is targeted. Tier 3, the tip of the pyramid, includes intensive student support. The shape of the pyramid illustrates the number of students served in each tier. All students receive core instruction; the hope is that this best first instruction at the core level means fewer students will need supplemental support and intensive support at Tiers 2 and 3.

Buffum et al. (2012) look at the research on effective teaching (Bloom, 1968; Guskey & Pigott, 1988) and create a simple formula that ensures student learning: Targeted Instruction + Time = Learning

This is what schools need to provide every student for success in reaching learning goals. Buffum et al. (2012) note: It is a universally acknowledged truth in education that all children do not learn the same way. Because learning styles and instructional needs vary from student to student, we must provide each student targeted instruction—that is, teaching practices designed to meet the individual learning needs of each student. We also know that all children do not learn at the same speed. Toddlers do not learn to walk or talk at the same rate, nor do students learn to read, write, or solve equations at the same time. (p. 8)

Targeted instruction is instruction that is aligned to student ability levels. It takes into account what students know and do not know; it meets them where they are. The following sections include additional information about the focus of each tier of the RTI pyramid.

Tier 1 Tier 1 involves core instruction for the entire class and can include a combination of whole-class learning and cooperative peer-group learning of the core concepts. Initial preassessment is an integral part of Tier 1 instruction. Learner ability varies; therefore, a differentiated instructional approach is necessary to address individual learner skill sets. RTI is a prescriptive, problem-solving approach that values the differentiated instruction that all learners require. To develop effective learners, teachers must ensure that representation, action and expression, and engagement during teaching allow each learner to absorb the concepts in the best way that he or she learns. In order for learners to achieve automaticity

Buffum et al. (2012) note that within an RTI framework, a school must create an intervention system “that is fluid, flexible, and sensitive to the needs of each child” rather than a “rigid, protocol-driven program” (p. 11). They go on to observe that in many schools attempting to implement interventions, the upper tiers are not aligned with the core instruction; school resources and responsibilities are not appropriately focused; and the bottom two tiers are focused on general education while the top tier is designated as special education.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS

of concepts (whether that is to decode or encode words, answer comprehension questions, or solve multistep word problems), responsive instruction must be a part of instruction in Tier 1 and all levels of the RTI pyramid.

Tier 2

Tier 3 Tier 3 is where learners receive more intensive intervention, often with specialized and trained personnel. If students do not make progress with Tier 3 intervention, then school staff and related service providers determine the next steps, which may include more intensive evaluation and alternate interventions. At all three tiers, teachers monitor students’ progress on an ongoing basis (Buffum et al., 2012). Diagnostic assessment occurs before instruction to identify a learner’s profile. This process documents a learner’s learning level and his or her strengths and the areas in which he or she requires remediation. An error analysis of a passage read aloud or analysis of steps taken during a mathematical procedure offer teachers valuable information on what literacy or mathematics skills require reteaching and more practice. Often, it is not that students cannot learn; it is just that they do not learn the same way, at the same pace, or with the same instruction. Formative and summative assessment are then used to monitor what skills students have mastered and what skills they have yet to acquire. As Rick Stiggins (2007) notes, summative assessment is assessment of learning. This assessment is typically done at the end of a lesson or school year to determine what students know. Formative assessment is assessment for learning. This is assessment that shapes the instruction, so that educators have an ongoing picture of what skills students have mastered. Teachers can then target the instruction to skills in which students need more support. The following ABCs of RTI help to identify critical features of RTI and describe how teachers, staff, and students work together within a multitiered system of interventions.

A Attitude: Administrators, staff, students, and families have a positive attitude about learning. They believe that all students can become effective learners.

B Beliefs: Educators and students believe that accommodations for students that advance

successful outcomes are essential. This may include different pacing with increased time to pause, reflect, and practice skills; multimodal presentations; guided reading; step-by-step explanation with increased visuals; diverse formats; and repeated practice.

C Collaboration: All staff practice collaboration as partners—administrators, general and special educators, and related service providers—along with families and students.

Tier 2 includes intervention for smaller targeted groups of students who are working on specific identified skills in which they are lacking proficiency. In Tier 2, intervention occurs either in the general education classroom or in a pull-out setting and likely involves reading, mathematics, and behavioral specialists and other related staff, in addition to general education teachers.

The ABCs of RTI

D Data-based decisions: Data-based decisions drive the selection of instruction and intervention strategies.

E Evidence-based practices: Educators choose reliable and valid evidence-based practices for all students—those with and without IEPs.

F Fidelity: Fidelity involves accurate and consistent delivery of instruction and intervention.

G Grade-level core curricula: Students receive Tier 1 core instruction at their grade level. H High expectations: High expectations for students are non-negotiable for all tiers of

instruction and intervention. Teachers, students, and their families are partners in the learning process, and all should believe that improved achievement is possible for all learners regardless of their starting points. High expectations value that effective learners are not born that way, but develop the skills to achieve through the responsive instruction.

I Identification: Educators identify student needs with multiple screenings and evaluations, such as curriculum-based assessments, observations, and formal and informal evaluations.

J Justification of strategies: Educators are accountable for justifying the strategies they choose to implement.

K Knowledge: Students and staff know that attaining knowledge is possible and ongoing—no matter what challenges they face.

L Literacy: Educators value literacy across disciplines. M Monitoring: Educators constantly monitor student achievement and communicate the results to learners, other teachers, and families.

N Needs: Educators establish student needs through a problem-solving approach. This includes

identification of a student’s challenge or need (academic or behavioral) and selection of intervention options. Data collection and evaluation at each tier occur collaboratively through a schoolwide problem-solving model (Ball & Christ, 2012). Teachers establish student skill sets and then review them again after interventions are delivered to determine the progress students have achieved and the necessary next steps.

This is important because the success of a system of interventions depends on how accurately educators adhere to the model. Otherwise, the evidence-based instructional practice or intervention is compromised. For example, if phonemic instruction requires daily practice to say the letter name, cue word, and sound, such as a, apple, /a/ and that is practiced twice a week instead of daily, then the learner is not receiving the program correctly according to the program’s design, intent, and methodology.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS

O Ownership: Learners have ownership of their progress and self-monitor as they reach goals. P Progress: Educators and students work to show progress in meeting goals. Progress determines if students are benefitting from the instructional decisions and programs.

Q Quality: The practice of RTI must be held to high standards in order to ensure effective instruction and intervention within a general education setting. must challenge students to reach agreed-on high standards.

S Specially designed instruction: Students with disabilities receive specially designed

instruction (as mandated by the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 2004), which allows them to achieve success within a general education curriculum. Examples of specially designed instruction include paraphrasing, using assistive technology, self-monitoring, and using tactile, auditory, and visual prompts.

T Tiered instruction: Tiered instruction is at the core of RTI; it is instruction that is geared to individual student levels and needs and based on student performance.

U Universally designed learning: Educators create a flexible, universally designed learning program that suits the needs of all learners.

V Vehement collaboration: Staff, families, and students are vehement about collaborating to ensure successes.

W Willingness: Students and staff show a willingness to accept and implement interventions as a crucial step toward becoming effective learners.

X Examination: Examining the results of interventions yields ongoing progress as educators design instructional supports for specific student needs.

Y Yearlong documentation: Carefully documenting student skills with ongoing vigilance is required to determine the effectiveness of academic and behavioral interventions.

Z Zero reject: The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (2004) prohibits schools from excluding students with disabilities from receiving a free and appropriate education.

The following RTI plan reflects these ABCs of RTI to show how these critical features come together in ten steps within a multitiered system of interventions.

A Ten-Step RTI Plan The following ten steps, as shown in figure 1.2, highlight the critical components of an intervention program that features a multitiered system of support.

R Relevance and rigor: Instruction and intervention must be both relevant and rigorous; they

The ABCs of RTI

8. The system of interventions is fluid and flexible; vigilant staff monitor and respond to learner strides.

9. Tiers 1, 2, and 3 actions include ongoing plans to develop critical thinkers.

2. Students and staff are reflective learners who realize that progress takes time and effort.

7. Individual student needs drive instructional decisions and chosen interventions.

10. RTI is the gateway to developing effective lifelong learners.

3. Educators select systematic and explicit evidence-based practices to match student skill sets and instructional levels.

6. Staff expect and welcome challenges as opportunities to strengthen individual, small-group, and whole-class instruction.

4. Progress monitoring is ongoing and shared with students, families, and all staff to guide future decisions.

5. Staff members work together to devise collaborative solutions by coaching one another and capitalizing on one anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strengths.

Figure 1.2: Critical components of an RTI program. 1. High expectations: Administrators, staff, students, and families understand that the goal is for all students to achieve grade-level goals and objectives with the support of a multitiered system of interventions. 2. Reflective learning: Students and staff are able to self-evaluate progress and determine what they must do to meet learning goals, looking at where they were, where they are, how they will proceed, what they achieved, and what lies ahead. 3. Systematic, evidence-based practices: Educators select systematic and explicit evidencebased practices to match student skill sets and instructional levels. For example, the What Works Clearinghouse from the Institute of Education Sciences (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC) offers practice guides and intervention reports on topics that include but are not limited to

1. High expectations for achievement within the core curriculum are universal for students of all ability levels. This includes learners with and without IEPs.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEARNERS teaching secondary students to write effectively, foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through third grade, and mathematical strategies for improving algebra knowledge in middle and high school students.

5. Collaborative work: Staff members work together to devise collaborative solutions by coaching one another and capitalizing on one anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strengths. For example, they collaborate about ways to deliver and differentiate instruction, how to design lessons around common learning objectives, how to provide anticipatory sets that engage students, and which common assessments to use. 6. Challenges as opportunities: Staff expect and welcome challenges as opportunities to strengthen individual, small-group, and whole-class instruction. Challenges involved with RTI can include scheduling issues, lack of resources, varying levels of student prior knowledge and interest, lower and higher degrees of staff and learner responsibility, and students who have more or less home support. Teachers who face challenges by planning for successful outcomes acknowledge the challenges, but they are also able to forge ahead with responsive and collaborative plans. 7. Needs-based instruction and intervention: Individual student needs drive instructional decisions and chosen interventions. For example, students who cannot read fluently, have lower reading comprehension levels, have difficulties with mathematics calculations, or exhibit certain behavior require individualized academic and behavioral plans. Responsive interventions may include multisensory reading instruction, think-alouds, and a discrete task analysis of academic, social, emotional, and behavioral levels and next steps. 8. Fluidity and flexibility: The system of interventions is fluid and flexible. Students are able to move within the tiers easily as they master academic and behavioral skills and learn new ones. Teachers monitor and change the course of the instruction or intervention to match student needs and levels. 9. Focus on critical thinking: Tiers 1, 2, and 3 actions include ongoing plans to develop critical thinkers. The Partnership for 21st Century Learning (n.d.) identifies critical thinking and problem solving as essential characteristics of 21st century learners. Learners must be able to reason effectively; use systems thinking, judgments, and decisions; and solve problems. 10. Lifelong learning: Educators, staff, and administrators view RTI as the gateway to developing effective lifelong learners.

4. Progress monitoring: Progress monitoring is ongoing and shared with students, families, and all staff to guide future decisions. For example, general and special educators, related staff providers, and administrators collaborate to monitor learner progress during team meetings with collaborative discussion and decision making. The sharing of progress with families and the provision of open forums to express concerns by all are ongoing (Kashima, Schleich, & Spradlin, 2009).

The ABCs of RTI

Conclusion This chapter has introduced RTI and identified the implications and outcomes of such a system of interventions for staff and students. The next chapter looks at three components of RTI—preassessment, vigilance, and ongoing assessment—and how educators can implement them to build a system of interventions.

—Angela Grove Literacy Coach, West Perry School District, Elliottsburg, Pennsylvania

K–12 teachers will: • Gain an overview of the RTI process and its goals

D E V E LOP I NG E FFE CTIVE LEARNERS

• Learn a ten-step RTI plan • Understand how to identify struggling students and use ongoing assessment to intervene when they need support

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/RTI to download the free reproducibles in this book.

SolutionTree.com

TOBY J. KA RT E N

• Learn the benefits of evidence-based interventions within RTI