The General Education Teacher’s Guide to Autism

Autism The General Education Teacher’s

Guide to Essential Answers to Key Questions

Guide to

Autism

Answers to Key Questions

Copyright © 2023 by Barbara Boroson

Materials appearing here are copyrighted. With one exception, all rights are reserved. Readers may reproduce only those pages marked “Reproducible.” Otherwise, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or oth erwise) without prior written permission of the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Boroson, Barbara, author.

Title: The general education teacher’s guide to autism : essential answers to key questions / Barbara Boroson.

Description: Bloomington. IN : Solution Tree Press, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2022018554 (print) | LCCN 2022018555 (ebook) | ISBN 9781954631137 (paperback) | ISBN 9781954631144 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Children with autism spectrum disorders--Education--United States. | Autism spectrum disorders in children. | Inclusive education--United States.

Classification: LCC LC4718 .B675 2022 (print) | LCC LC4718 (ebook) | DDC 371.94--dc23/eng/20220908

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022018554

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022018555

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To my friend, Terry Dunn. You loved and read and wrote and ran like you were running out of time. Then you did . . . and now we understand.

Acknowledgments

While I’ve been busy answering readers’ questions, a faction of first-rate folks has been answering mine. Huge thanks to the knowledgeable, incredibly thorough, and supportive team at Solution Tree: Claudia Wheatley, who drew me in with her warm, Southern charm, along with Douglas Rife, Amy Rubenstein, Sarah Payne-Mills, Tonya Cupp, Kendra Slayton, Todd Brakke, Rian Anderson, and Laura Cox, as well as Charlotte Jones, Elijah Oates, Mark Hain, and Elisabeth Abrams, and the enthusiastic reviewers who spurred me on. Thanks to Harry Shoemaker and Austin Shoemaker for their wisdom. And special thanks to my research assistant, Leana Boroson Rutt, who introduced even more important and provocative issues than she resolved.

This book was willed into existence by the optimistic spirits and inquiring minds of teachers who never stop seeking to learn. Thank you all so much for your thoughtful questions and for your relentless determination to change the lives of the children in your care—despite, well, everything. You all inspire me every single day.

I am lucky to have support and feedback from fabulous friends and family: Una Murray, Ann Horowitz, Katherine Page, Peggy O’Leary, Nancy Davie, Marla Levine, Linda Goodman, Ken Boroson, Bernie Boroson, Judy Stuart Boroson, Fran Rutt, Andrew Dodd, and my little buddy, Rosie.

Finally, Martin Boroson, Joseph Rutt, Sam Boroson Rutt, and Leana Boroson Rutt: thank you for love. It’s everything.

Solution Tree Press would like to thank the following reviewers:

Taylor Bronowicz Mathematics Teacher Sparkman Middle School Toney, Alabama

Courtney Burdick Apprenticeship Mentor Teacher

Fort Smith Public Schools Fort Smith, Arkansas Charles Ames Fischer Education Consultant Decatur, Tennessee Becca Goddard Coordinator of Federal Programs Fulton County Schools Atlanta, Georgia

Dana Johansen

Middle School Teacher Greenwich Academy Greenwich, Connecticut

Erin Kruckenberg Fifth-Grade Teacher

Jefferson Elementary School Harvard, Illinois

Nancy Petolick Instructional Coach/Interventionist Savannah Elementary, Denton ISD Aubrey, Texas

Jodi Renwick

Special Education Teacher

Mineral Point Elementary School Mineral Point, Wisconsin

Ashley Richey Mathematics Instructional Coach East Pointe Elementary School Greenwood, Arkansas

Justin Schafer

Teacher on Special Assignment Benton Elementary School Goshen, IN

Jennifer Schwenker Former Special Education Teacher, Instructor

Tommy Nobis Center Marietta, Georgia

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download the free reproducibles in this book.

Table of Contents

Reproducibles are in italics.

About the Author xiii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Why Now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

How This Book Is Organized 3 Language in This Book 5

1 Autism Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Questions About the Diagnosis 7

What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder? 8

Why Are There So Many Children On the Autism Spectrum? . . . . . . . 10

What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder? 11

What Is the Right Way to Refer to Students Who Have Autism? 13 Questions About Placements, Programs, and Support . . . . . . . 15

How Is Program Placement Determined? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

What Is Least Restrictive Environment , and Why Is It Important? 18

What Is the Difference Between an IEP and a 504 Plan? . . . . . . . . . 19

What Is the Difference Between Accommodations and Modifications? . . . . 21

What Placement Options Are There for Students on the Autism Spectrum? 22

What Are ABA and TEACCH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Do All Students on the Spectrum in Inclusion Classrooms Need the Same Supports? 25

How Do I Address Individual Challenges While Still Treating Students Equally? . . . 26

How Should I Work With One-to-One Aides or Classroom Paraprofessionals? . . . 27

2 Anxiety 31

Questions About Anxiety 32

What Kinds of Situations Tend to Trigger Anxiety for Students on the Spectrum? . . 32

How Do Students on the Spectrum Try to Manage Their Anxiety? 34

How Can I Learn What My Students’ Anxiety Triggers and Comfort Anchors Are? 34

Why Does Everyone Tell Me to Use a Schedule With Students on the Spectrum? . . 35

Won’t All of This Structure Make Anxious Students Even More Anxious? 36

Will Relying on Visual Schedules Make Students on the Spectrum Less Able to Function Independently in My Classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Strategies for Easing Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

How Do I Get Started With Visual Schedules? 36

How Do I Use Visual Schedules? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

What Do I Do When I Know There Will Be a Disruption to the Schedule? . . . 43

How Can I Support Students on the Spectrum When Unexpected Events Derail the Schedule? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

How Can I Help Make Sure My Students on the Spectrum Will Be OK When I’m Absent? 50

What If the Visual Schedule Does Not Ease My Student’s Anxiety? 51 Family Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3 Executive Function 55

Questions About Executive Function 56

What Kinds of Challenges Are Related to Executive Function? . . . . . . . . 56

How Does Executive Function Manifest in the Classroom? 58

Strategies for Coaching Executive Function 58

How Can I Improve My Students’ Academic Performance by Boosting Executive Function Skills? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

How Can I Support My Students’ Behavior and Coping Skills Through Executive Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4

Sensation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Questions About Sensation 67

How Are the Sensory Systems of Students on the Spectrum Different From Those of Neurotypical Students? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

How Can Autism Affect the Five Senses? 69

Are There Sensory Explanations for My Students Bumping Into Things and Walking on Their Toes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Are Repetitive Actions Like Hand Flapping, Humming, and Spinning Related to Sensation? 75

How Can I Get My Student to Stop Stimming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Strategies for Relieving Sensory Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

What Is a Sensory-Friendly Classroom? 78

What Do I Do for Students Whose Stims Indicate a Need for More or Different Sensory Modifications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

What Are Some Other Ways I Can Support My Students’ Sensory Needs? 81

5 Communication and Socialization 83

Questions About Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

What’s the Difference Between Speech and Language? 84

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Only Repeat What I Say or Recite Movie Lines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Often Seem Not to Understand When Someone Is Being Playful or Sarcastic? 87

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Seem to Ignore My Gestures When I Try to Indicate Something Visually? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Questions About Socialization 90

Why Do Some Students on the Spectrum Rarely Make Eye Contact? . . . . . 90

Why Do My Students on the Spectrum Do Things That Seem Disrespectful to Their Peers? 91

Why Can My Students on the Spectrum Seem Uncaring When Others Are Upset? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Strategies for Supporting Communication and Socialization 94

How Can I Help My Nonverbal or Minimally Verbal Students on the Spectrum Communicate More Effectively? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

How Do I Get My Students on the Spectrum to Make Eye Contact With Me? 97

What Are Social Stories, and How Can I Use Them With My Students? 99

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Be More Open-Minded to Different Ideas and Opinions? 101

What Support Can My Students on the Spectrum Get When They Are at Lunch and Outside? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Be More Considerate of Their Peers? 105

How Can I Help My Neurotypical Students Be More Considerate of Their Peers on the Autism Spectrum? 108

6 Engagement and Cognitive Processing 113

Questions About Engagement and Cognitive Processing . . . . . 113

Why Do My Students on the Spectrum Seem Uninterested in What’s Going on Around Them? 113

7

Why Do My Students on the Spectrum Seem to Understand Something One Day and Forget It the Next? 115

Strategies for Boosting Engagement 118

How Can I Get My Students on the Spectrum to Stop Perseverating and Engage in My Lessons? 119

What If I Can’t Get My Student to Set Aside a Perseveration and Focus on Content? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Get Engaged With Reading? . 125 Strategies for Boosting Cognitive Processing and Content Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum With Information Retrieval? . 126

What Strategies Can I Use to Help Students Master Content Rather Than Simply Regurgitate Facts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

How Can I Adapt the Curriculum to Meet the Specific Learning Needs of Students Who Are on the Spectrum? 131 Sketchnoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Disruptive Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Questions About Disruptive Behavior 135

If Rules Are so Helpful, Why Don’t My Students on the Spectrum Always Follow Them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Should I Respond Differently to Disruptive Behaviors From Students on the Spectrum Than I Do to Those of Other Students? 139 Strategies for Responding to Disruptive Behavior in the Classroom . 141

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Follow the Rules? . . . . . . 141

How Can I Respond When a Student on the Spectrum Is Out of Control? 143

How Can I Debrief Behavioral Incidents With My Students on the Spectrum? . . 146

What Is a Functional Behavior Assessment, and When Should I Request One? . 147

What Behavioral Approach Should I Use With My Students on the Spectrum to Reduce Disruptive Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

ABC Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5Ws 161

8 Parents and Guardians 163

Questions About Parents and Guardians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Why Does It Sometimes Feel, When I Talk With a Parent or Guardian, Like We Are Not Talking About the Same Student? 164 What Are Some Sociological Factors Related to Autism That I Should Be Aware of? 165

Why Is It So Hard to Get in Sync With Parents and Guardians of Students on the Spectrum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Strategies for Bridging the Gap With Parents and Guardians . . . 171

How Can I Help Parents and Guardians Hear What I Need Them to Hear? 171

What If Parents or Guardians Want Me to Implement Different Strategies or Accommodations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

How Should I Respond When Parents or Guardians Express Concerns About Their Child’s Placement in My Co-Taught Inclusion Classroom? 176 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Index 205

About the Author

Barbara Boroson, LMSW, has been an autism edu cator for more than twenty-five years. Previously, she worked in children’s book publishing. But upon discov ering that there were no actual children in the children’s book publishing office, Barbara went back to school to earn her master’s degree in social work. As a clinical social worker, she specialized in autism and went on to become a school administrator.

Several years later, Barbara had her own child on the autism spectrum. Today, Barbara brings her compelling dual perspective as an autism educator and autism parent to all the work she does, helping educators work effectively with students on the spectrum, and seeking to bridge the common communication chasms between educators and families. She speaks regularly at national and regional conferences, including the International Literacy Association (ILA), the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), the National School Boards Association (NSBA), and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). She also provides dynamic pro fessional development to school districts and graduate schools.

Barbara is the author of several books, including Decoding Autism and Leading the Way to Successful Inclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Inclusive Classroom: How to Reach and Teach Students With ASD, and a forthcoming book about partnering with families of children with disabilities. She has had many articles published, one of which (“Building Bridges Across the Autism Spectrum”) won the silver award from the Association of Media and Publishing for Best Feature Article in a Magazine.

Barbara holds a bachelor’s degree in writing from Cornell University and a master’s degree in social work from Columbia University. She and her husband live just outside of New York City. They have two fierce children and one timid rescue dog.

Barbara loves to hear from readers, non-readers, and anyone else who wants to connect.

To learn more about Barbara’s work, visit her website at www.barbaraboroson .com, visit her LinkedIn page at www.linkedin.com/in/barbaraboroson, or follow her @BarbaraBoroson on Twitter.

To book Barbara Boroson for professional development, visit pd@ SolutionTree.com.

Introduction

The first question in this question-and-answer book is one from me to you: What led you to open this book just now? Maybe you’re curious about autism. Perhaps you’re feeling overwhelmed or in need of some fresh ideas. Maybe you’re preparing for a student who will be joining your class. Whatever your reason, you opened this book with the hope and expectation that you will learn some thing new (which you will), but also with the belief that there is more you can teach your students (which there is) and that their capacity to learn is boundless (which it is). The very fact that you’re here inside this book with me tells me that you believe in growth and change. A familiar saying, widely credited to acclaimed educator Colleen Wilcox, tells us, “Teaching is the greatest act of optimism” (as cited in Visit Ventura, 2020). Each day, as a teacher, you bring all you’ve got to the classroom and to your students based on your belief in education and your conviction that they can learn. Every day you invest your energy in their future, in the future. That’s optimism.

But your optimism has been tested, to be sure. As of the writing of this book in 2022, educators have had to endure some of the most intense professional and personal adversity in history. In the face of an unprecedented global public health crisis, a shocking increase in divisiveness and intolerance, and a devastating rise of assaults on your safety at school, you have persevered. Some of you found ways to bridge the demands of home and work by quite literally balancing your own children on one knee and your entire class, via laptop, on the other. Others of you have risked your own personal safety—and that of your own families— by going into school to teach the students who depend on you. All of you have tossed back your capes and soared to the forefront of our collective consciousness

as heroes, right up there with scientists and first responders, doing all you can to keep our children learning, flourishing, and safe.

Meanwhile, your general education classrooms include students with more diverse needs and backgrounds than ever before, in need of more differentiation than ever before. Specifically, more children are being diagnosed with autism spec trum disorder (ASD) now than at any time in history (find out why in chapter 1, page 7), and these students are coming your way (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021; Wright, 2017). And so, ever the optimist, you have taken the time to pick up this book.

For all of that, I say, thank you!

But I also say, you’re welcome! because if you are looking for guidance, support, and strategies to help you help your students on the autism spectrum, you’ve come to the right place. You’ve got questions? Here, in your hand, you’ve got answers.

Before we dig in, let’s take a minute to look at why this book is needed right now.

Why Now

As education and social theory guide us toward inclusive practices, schools are placing a more diverse population of students in general education and inclusion classrooms (Murphy, 2022). In an education context, social theory recognizes the inherent inequities in education and educational outcomes for individuals and cohorts (groups of individuals who share a demographic trait) who have been historically disenfranchised, including those with disabilities. In broad strokes, social theory in education acknowledges that students cannot be effectively edu cated in isolation from their individual contexts and from interaction with the social world (Nolan & Tupper, 2019).

Research, cited here, points to both academic and social-emotional benefits of inclusion for students with disabilities and those without. Students with disabili ties who are in inclusive classrooms have stronger reading and mathematics skills, better attendance, decreased likelihood of behavioral problems, and increased likelihood of completing secondary school than students who have not been in inclusive classrooms (Hehir, 2016). Moreover, “the benefits of inclusion for stu dents with disabilities extend beyond academic results to social connection benefits, increased post-secondary education placement and improved employment and independence outcomes” (Hehir, 2016, p. 3). Inclusion also positively affects neurotypical peers, improving their “social-emotional growth and positive percep tions of” and comfort with different abilities without adversely impacting their

academic achievement (Oliver-Kerrigan, Christy, & Stahmer, 2021, p. 158). For these reasons, general educators in particular are seeing an unprecedented influx of students on the spectrum into their suddenly inclusive classrooms (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019).

In one study, 60 percent of students on the autism spectrum identified that the “main factor that would make school better for them is having a teacher who understands their autism” (All Party Parliamentary Group on Autism [APPGA], 2017). But many general education teachers report feeling daunted, overwhelmed, and “ill-equipped to effectively teach and positively interact with autistic students,” according to a comprehensive review of research (APPGA, 2017; Roberts & Simpson, 2016).

Indeed, in my work as an autism education specialist, I find that general educators are clamoring for a better understanding of what their students on the spectrum are all about and for a cache of simple strategies they can use to help. When teachers are well equipped with knowledge, strategies, and confidence, they have the bandwidth to appreciate their students on the spectrum as the extraor dinary individuals they are. That’s why I have collected the questions I am most frequently asked by preK–12 general educators and synthesized them into a handy question-and-answer format in this book.

How This Book Is Organized

Each chapter of this book focuses on a different aspect of autism spectrum disorder. In every chapter, following a brief introduction to that aspect of the dis order, you will find a series of questions with answers that explore and explain the common challenges students on the spectrum present in the classroom. Later in each chapter, you will find questions with answers that provide practical strategies for addressing the areas of challenge in effective and meaningful ways. Interspersed throughout the book, you’ll also find feature boxes, titled Speaking of Which . . ., where I offer a deeper dive or personal reflection related to a topic.

Besides its question-and-answer format, this book may be different from other professional learning books in that it addresses issues that are common to anyone on the autism spectrum from ages three to one hundred and three, and that are common to teachers of grades preK–12 and beyond. Even though every student on the autism spectrum is different from every other, the core challenges are neither grade nor age dependent (Bieleninik et al., 2017). For that reason, this book is not grade specific and does not provide lesson plans or curricula. Instead, I have tried to answer questions with information and strategies that are both specific and broadly applicable.

I invite you to read this book cover to cover. And then, if you need quick and easy access to answers and strategies, a glance at the table of contents or at a spe cific term in the index will take you right where you need to be.

Chapter 1 provides an overview about how autism presents and decodes special education terminology—such as least restrictive environment (LRE); free, appro priate public education (FAPE); and applied behavior analysis (ABA)—and policy guidelines that you are likely to encounter in your work. This chapter also helps you understand students who are on the autism spectrum as the complex individ uals they are and explores their place in the emerging neurodiversity movement.

Chapter 2 explains why anxiety is always a factor for students on the spectrum. You will discover the many anxiety triggers these students face and collect indis pensable strategies for reducing those triggers, easing anxiety, and circumventing this profound barrier to learning.

Chapter 3 describes the ways in which the executive function of students on the spectrum can interfere with time management, organization, inference, flexibil ity, patience, shifting gears, and many other specific and critical aspects of their functioning in the classroom. You will collect strategies to teach critical learning skills that will help set up these students for success.

Chapter 4 answers your questions about why students on the spectrum often respond to their environment in unexpected ways. Here you will learn how these students try to cope with their sensory systems and how they may respond by seeking and avoiding sensory input. Look here for strategies to ease sensory stress and make your classroom a sensory-friendly environment.

Chapter 5 responds to questions about the differences and challenges you may notice in terms of speech, language, and socialization among students on the spectrum. You will discover why socializing is particularly challenging for students on the spectrum and gather strategies to support social efforts and build a caring and accepting community in your classroom.

Chapter 6 helps you understand why it can be so excruciatingly difficult for you to capture the attention of students on the spectrum and for them to retain information. You will learn an assets-based (and rather counterintuitive) strategy for drawing your students into your curriculum and helping them file and generalize information to promote fluid content assimilation.

Chapter 7 includes the questions most frequently asked of me, which per tain to disruptive behavior, but your main takeaway from this chapter may be Please see chapters 1–6! This is because the best ways to relieve disruptive behav ior are by understanding the ins and outs of autism (chapter 1), easing anxiety

(chapter 2), guiding executive function (chapter 3), soothing the senses (chap ter 4), supporting communication and socialization (chapter 5), and boosting engagement and content acquisition (chapter 6). If you attend to all those key areas, you are far less likely to need chapter 7. But when disruptive behaviors still break through, and they sometimes will, chapter 7 is here to help you respond efficiently and effectively.

Chapter 8 takes you on a journey into the minds and hearts of parents and guard ians of students with autism. Why is it important to take this journey? Because once you know where parents and guardians may be coming from, you can meet them where they are—just as you do with your students. And when you are on the same page with their parents and guardians, the potential outcomes for your students improve exponentially (Schultz, Able, Sreckovic, & White, 2016). This chapter explains how to get more in sync with parents and guardians and how to respond in certain circumstances.

Language in This Book

I believe strongly in the power of words. Not all of our students on the spec trum have words, but I do and presumably you do, and it’s important to me that you and I use them mindfully. To me, this means using inclusive language at all times—no exceptions. That may sound challenging, but here’s a tip: if you think inclusively, you’ll speak inclusively, and you’ll write inclusively. Anything else will just feel wrong. Inclusive language is an all-or-nothing endeavor; you can’t pick and choose which groups or cohorts to include and which to skip over; that’s not inclusive.

You may notice in this book that I periodically use the inclusive, singular pronoun they to include students whose gender is nonbinary. I also refer to adults who serve in a parenting capacity as parents or guardians to be inclusive of grandparents, foster parents, and generous others who step up to serve in this important role.

You may also notice in this book that I try to discuss ability differences as rela tively neutral components of the diverse fabric of any classroom. This perspective reflects the neurodiversity movement, which promotes the idea that there are many types of neurological functioning, none more ordered or disordered than another (Blume, 1998; Callahan, 2018). (You can read more about neurodiver sity in chapter 1.) Along these lines, the terminology that is considered respectful when referring to individuals on the autism spectrum continues to evolve and change. As of the writing of this book, many autistic individuals who are capable of making considered choices on such matters express a preference for disability-first language rather than person-first language, for reasons discussed in chapter 1.

While I very much admire and respect this self-advocacy, I also recognize that identity-first language is not necessarily a universal preference. So, in an effort to respect all and offend none—and also to acknowledge the decidedly spectrum-y nature of the autism spectrum—I have made the choice in this book to use the term students on the autism spectrum, rather than students with autism or autistic students. Also, many advocates embrace the term disabilities rather than special needs, and I am honoring that preference herein. In reproducing questions that teachers have submitted to me, I have adjusted the language along these lines, as needed, to be inclusive and respectful.

I love to hear from readers and teachers and students and parents and guard ians who want to share their stories, questions, strategies, triumphs, failures, and feedback with me. Please feel free to reach out to me any time through my website at www.barbaraboroson.com. I’m listening.

I hope this book will help you learn and grow as you help your students do the same. Thank you for joining me on the journey.

Communication and Socialization

Interactions with students on the autism spectrum can be fraught for a number of reasons, most of which relate to communication and socialization. Physical, physiological, cognitive, and processing challenges can impact students’ ability to understand spoken words or make themselves understood using spoken words. And social and interpersonal challenges can impact students’ ability to use lan guage in socially expectable ways. In collective spaces, like classrooms and, well, pretty much everywhere else, communication is like a calling card. It’s one of the first and foremost ways we demonstrate to others who we are, what we’re like, what we know, how we think, how we feel, and—of utmost importance in the school context—what kind of friend we will be.

Many students on the spectrum are profoundly misunderstood by peers and others because their calling card (that is, their communication skills) is chal lenged or unexpected. In many cases, a student’s communication skills may be mismatched with actual functionality, leading others to draw inaccurate conclu sions about the student’s ability to participate in the social environment.

In this chapter, we look first at the fundamentals of communication (speech and language). Then we explore the many ways in which communication chal lenges affect socialization and what you can do to support success and accentuate your students’ inherent value as a classmate and a friend.

Questions About Communication

Communication is the exchange of information and ideas, primarily through the use of verbal (or written) speech and language. But there are other components

to communication, too, such as gestures, inflections, signals, and communica tion through augmentative and alternative devices.

The upcoming sections address these questions.

• What’s the difference between speech and language?

• Why does my student on the spectrum only repeat what I say or recite movie lines?

• Why does my student on the spectrum often seem not to understand when someone is being playful or sarcastic?

• Why does my student on the spectrum seem to ignore my gestures when I try to indicate something visually?

What’s the Difference Between Speech and Language?

Speech refers to the way we form and pronounce words and sounds. The same speech challenges that are common among all children may affect students on the spectrum as well.

• Dyspraxia of speech is related to motor planning. Words and ideas may form readily in the brain, but the student may struggle to navigate the cognitive-motor process of getting the words from the brain out through the mouth (Lee, 2021).

• Another common speech challenge is a neuromuscular issue called dysarthria, which impedes a student’s ability to physically shape their mouth around words (Lee, 2021).

• Other students may struggle with functional speech challenges like stuttering, stammering, or mispronunciation.

Language is the way we use words to communicate. Many of the same language challenges that are common among all children may affect students on the spectrum as well.

• Students who struggle with receptive language may have difficulty understanding what others say to them (Mody & Belliveau, 2013). This may make it difficult for them to follow verbal instructions, understand information, and respond accurately.

• When students struggle with expressive language, they may have difficulty retrieving the right word to express a certain idea (Mody & Belliveau, 2013). They may struggle to sequence words adequately to form a cohesive sentence or coherent thought.

Speech is one of the functional areas that can vary greatly among students on the spectrum. Some students on the spectrum may be highly articulate and wellspoken, while as many as 30 percent may be minimally verbal or nonverbal (Rose, Trembath, Keen, & Paynter, 2016). Given this extreme variability, keep in mind that a highly verbal student may struggle significantly with language skills (such as making inferences or participating in reciprocal conversation), as well as with anxiety, sensation, engagement, cognition, academics, socialization, and behav ior. Conversely, a minimally verbal student may be highly motivated or capable in terms of cognition, academics, socialization, music, art, sports, and more. Many students on the spectrum also exhibit idiosyncrasies of communication that are specific to autism, such as scripting and social or pragmatic language challenges (Rudy, 2020), as discussed in the following questions and answers.

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Only Repeat What I Say or Recite Movie Lines?

You are describing echolalia, which is common among young children. They may exhibit echolalia by imitating sounds, words, and phrases on their way to acquiring more fluid and spontaneous language. In that sense, it can be a com ponent of typical early language learning and development until the age of two or three (Stubblefield, 2021). But echolalia is commonly associated with autism because it tends to linger in these children long past the early stages of language development (Stubblefield, 2021). Echolalia can be either immediate or delayed.

• Immediate echolalia, the most common form, is the repetition of words just heard. For example, you direct the class to, “Please pass in your homework,” and your student on the spectrum says, “Your homework.”

• Delayed echolalia is the repetition of words and sentences heard at another time or in another context. Among students on the autism spectrum, delayed echolalia, also known as scripting, usually manifests as the recitation of lines from movies, TV shows, or other people.

Echolalia can serve a variety of functions for students on the spectrum, including self-regulation, self-prompts, memorization, interaction, and communication, among others (Jones, 2022).

• Self-regulation: Sometimes, echolalia serves as a kind of stim or reassurance during stressful moments. (You can read more about stims in chapter 4, page 67.) Echolalia used in this way may serve no discernable function; however, it may be of significant value to your student. For example, you may think your student is muttering meaninglessly when you hear him saying, “Peter Parker Peter Parker Peter Parker” when,

in fact, the phrase is most likely providing emotional comfort through familiarity or association or sensory comfort through alliteration. Some students repeat phrases to help them adapt to an upcoming event: “There’s gonna be a lockdown. Gonna be a lockdown. Gonna be a lockdown. Gonna be a lockdown.” In other cases, the repetition of certain phrases can empower them to stay strong and calm in the face of adversity: “Snakes. Why’d it have to be snakes?” (Spielberg, 1981).

• Self-prompts: Students may repeat behavior prompts they’ve heard many times at home. For example, a student may call out, “No spitting! No spitting!” whenever she is feeling anxious—whether the anxiety is about a change in the schedule or the announcement of a pop quiz.

• Memorization: Echolalia may take the form of repeated phrases that help students remember what to do or affirm that they are doing the right thing. For example, when you tell the class to put their phones away, your student on the spectrum mutters, “Phones away; phones away.”

• Interaction: Echolalia often serves a social function. Students who have minimal language may use echolalia as a way in, a means of joining verbal discourse by borrowing familiar words of others, regardless of their irrelevance to the context. A student may approach a group of peers and rather randomly announce, “This is American Idol!” (Burke & Heyes, 2021) in the hopes of being included in the conversation.

• Communication: Echolalia can serve a communicative function in that the words and phrases students echo may be fairly accurate expressions of their responses, thoughts, and feelings. You ask the class, “Who needs a pencil?” and your student responds, “A pencil.” You may find pronoun reversal in some students as well, when you ask your student, “Do you need a pencil?” and he responds, “You need a pencil.” But in both cases, he is most likely trying to communicate that yes, he needs a pencil. Sometimes students on the spectrum can sound mature beyond their years as they accurately use phrases they have heard adults use in movies, on TV, or in everyday conversation. You may have a young student who frequently says, “I have a bad feeling about this” (Lucas, 1977). She is scripting a line from a movie. It may be that the very thought of her favorite movie is a comfort. It may be that she finds it motivating to remember that even when the going gets tough, Luke Skywalker always prevails. It can also be a valuable signal to you that your student is experiencing some anxiety. Even when your student is successfully

completing a task, she may still be heard repeating, “I have a bad feeling about this.”

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Often Seem Not to Understand When Someone Is Being Playful or Sarcastic?

Sarcasm is about saying the opposite of what we mean while trying to convey our true intention through only tone, inflection, and body language. In this sense, sarcasm is an example of paralinguistic communication, which is how we say what we say. Components of paralinguistic communication include pitch, volume, rate, and rhythm, as well as prosody, which refers to the melodic qualities of language such as inflection, tone, and emphasis (Denworth, 2018; Nordquist, 2019). Paralinguistic elements of language can be crucial signifiers in communi cating feelings and intentions such as happiness, kindness, sadness, frustration, exasperation, amusement, politeness, wariness, anger, menace, indignance, and many others (Cherry, 2021).

However, paralinguistic communication can be challenging for students on the spectrum to recognize and utilize in terms of both their receptive and expres sive language. Unaware of the value of paralinguistic cues in the communication of their peers, some students on the spectrum are equally unaware of its value in their own expressive communication. For this reason, some students on the spectrum speak with a distinctive prosody that is rather flat in tone and devoid of inflection or affect (Denworth, 2018).

Many students on the spectrum have challenges with receptive language, which can make it difficult for them to read between the proverbial lines and understand when words are used in ways that don’t match their definitions (Wiklund, 2016). That’s why students on the spectrum often cannot tell the difference between a sincere compliment and a sarcastic remark, a serious comment and a joke, or a suggestion and a command (Wiklund, 2016). For example, the phrase Great throw comprises a straightforward com pliment, and students on the spectrum have probably learned, by rote, to respond to a compliment with a “Thank you.” However, when the words Great throw are accompanied by rolled eyes, their meaning is completely reversed—that’s sarcasm. That kind of coded information is rarely specifically taught, and yet understanding it is crucial. Particularly as students move through

Aptitude in decoding paralinguistic communication is a social litmus test in middle school and high school, where suddenly a sincere thank you can earn laughter and derision.

the elementary and secondary years, language among peers becomes layered with innuendo such as sarcasm, impatience, disdain, anger, and more (Robson, 2022). Aptitude in decoding paralinguistic communication is a social litmus test in middle school and high school, where suddenly a sincere thank you can earn laughter and derision. Sarcasm and colloquial language both require observing more closely in this circumstance.

Sarcasm

For several reasons, it is best practice for educators to never use sarcasm with any students at any level. First, being in on or out of the joke can be a highly loaded social status indicator. Sarcastically savvy students take note which of their peers misinterpret your words and may use that naivete against them. Don’t feed that fickle flame; instead, be the safe, straightforward person your students can count on to say what you mean and to mean what you say.

Second, understanding sarcasm is a skill that develops variably over time among all students (Robson, 2022), so you just never know who will misunderstand you and in what way. This means you could say something that is inadvertently very hurtful to a student who is already vulnerable and who understands your words differently from the way you intended. This also means that your sarcastic words may be taken literally by a student and repeated out of context to other adults. In that case, your sarcastic words might come back to bite you too.

Colloquial Language

You might be surprised to discover how much colloquial language you use with out even realizing it. Consider the following.

• Do your rules contain idioms, as in, OK everyone; let’s wrap it up, or What conclusions can you draw from this statement? Most students on the spectrum are very concrete thinkers and may construe very different meaning from these statements than the message you intend. When you find a student looking for paper in which to wrap up their textbook, or when you find a student looking for a crayon with which to draw their conclusions, or when you find a student simply looking confused, rethink your language and present your instructions in a more straightforward way.

• Do your expectations contain metaphors, as in, Keep thinking about this idea until you have that lightbulb moment, or Don’t forget to put the bun on your paragraph sandwich? Since students on the spectrum have great difficulty making inferences, they may not be able to create relevant or accurate meaning from an unfamiliar metaphorical statement.

• Do your rules contain subjective terms, as in, Be respectful of students who are working or Use technology appropriately? The words respectful and appropriately are highly subjective and are not defined in these rules, so your students on the spectrum may not know what behaviors those words imply.

The fact that your students on the spectrum may not be able to infer meaning from colloquial expressions like these does not mean that you should never use them! Just consider your words carefully and take the time to clearly define your meaning in concrete terms. Once they understand, some of your students on the spectrum may find idioms to be hilarious because they conjure up funny images when interpreted concretely. Idioms like I’ve got your back and I’m all ears may ultimately become your students’ favorite expressions.

Why Does My Student on the Spectrum Seem to Ignore My Gestures When I Try to Indicate Something Visually?

Gestures are a part of what is essentially a whole other component of language: nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes facial expressions, body position, and body posture, as well as gestures. Whereas paralinguistics refers to the way we use and express our words, nonverbal communication refers to the messages we send through our body. That’s why nonverbal communication is commonly known as body language (Rouse, 2021). Nonverbal and paraverbal communication are the aspects of communication that are supplementary to the words themselves and are part of what is known as the hidden social cur riculum (Myles, Trautman, & Schelvan, 2013). As described in chapter 7 (page 135), this unwritten curriculum consists of important information that is never taught; instead, this kind of information is expected to be intuited. Especially in middle school and beyond, a great deal of critical implication lurks in urgent kicks under the table, rolled eyes, smirks, and more (Myles et al., 2013). In fact, a commonly cited study shows that in many contexts, as much as 93 percent of information about feelings and attitudes is communicated nonverbally or para verbally (Brockmeier, 2013).

This form of communication is particularly difficult for students on the spec trum to understand because it’s coded. When you place your finger vertically against your lips, that gesture is code for Shh. When you purse your lips and place your hands on your hips, that’s code for I’m waiting for your behavior to change. If your students haven’t learned to decode signifiers like these, they will be unable to accurately infer their meaning. They are not ignoring you; they may see your

gesture and not know what it means. Or, they may see it and not even stop to consider whether it means anything at all.

Another challenge related to understanding gestures is concrete thinking (Stanborough, 2019). Decoding gestures requires inferring abstract meaning from a physical cue. Many students I have worked with who are on the autism spectrum make the same error when I point at something and say, “Look!” Instead of looking in the direction in which my finger is pointing, they look at my finger. This is a clear illustration of the problem: the students don’t realize that my finger is a signifier, a sign that is directing them to look at something else; instead, their concrete thinking style leads them to look only at my finger and stop there.

Since students on the spectrum do not necessarily recognize the value of body language, they are also less likely to incorporate gestures and other paraverbal signifiers into their own communicative efforts (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2020).

Questions About Socialization

The significant communication challenges many students on the spectrum face impede their ability to socialize in expectable ways. But socialization itself is a hallmark challenge of autism in other ways, too. In this section, we look at the distinct challenges of socialization that students on the spectrum encounter and at strategies you can use to build community in your classroom.

The following sections cover these questions.

• Why do some students on the spectrum rarely make eye contact?

• Why do my students on the spectrum do things that seem disrespectful to their peers?

• Why can my students on the spectrum seem uncaring when others are upset?

Why Do Some Students on the Spectrum Rarely Make Eye Contact?

Eye contact is an expected social convention among neurotypical people in cer tain (especially Western) cultures, and the absence of it may seem to imply that students are disengaged, distracted, or disrespectful. However, making eye contact is a challenge for some students on the spectrum, and it is important for educa tors to recognize that our students can be engaged, attentive, and respectful even if they cannot make eye contact. In fact, many students learn better without it (Trevisan, Roberts, Lin, & Birmingham, 2017).

Eye contact may be limited for several reasons (Trevisan et al., 2017).

• Sensory: For some students, direct eye contact may be overstimulating, providing a too-intense sensory experience.

• Motor: Some students have ocular-motor challenges that affect their ability to control the movement of their eyes, making it difficult for them to direct their gaze at a specific target or to hold their gaze in position.

• Social communication: Direct eye contact is an intimate form of social communication that can be discomfiting to many students on the spectrum who are socially withdrawn or remote. Also, since students on the spectrum tend to be unaware of or unable to interpret nonverbal communication, they are unlikely to seek information from the eyes of others or to use their own eyes to convey nonverbal information.

Why Do My Students on the Spectrum Do Things That Seem Disrespectful to Their Peers?

The main reason students on the spectrum may at times be disrespectful to others is the same reason they have a difficult time decoding nonverbal and paraverbal communication. Mindblindness (also known as theory of mind) is the inability to take the perspective of another person (Askham, 2022). Because of mindblind ness, many students on the spectrum are relatively unaware of the experiences of others. Some don’t realize that the experiences or perceptions of others may be different from their own. Others may struggle to project meaning or value onto the experiences of others. Mindblindness also makes it difficult for students on the spectrum to anticipate the effect that their own words or actions will have on other people.

For this reason, students on the spectrum commonly speak and act in a forth right way, without stopping to think about how others may receive their words or actions. In combination with executive function challenges, inaccurate rule comprehension or generalization, and challenges with expressive empathy, mindblindness may lead students on the spectrum to inadvertently violate certain social norms, such as respecting personal space, listening quietly without inter rupting, asking before touching the belongings of others, reframing comments to minimize offense, and the like. The next section explains the components of empathy and provides strategies for intervening to promote perspective taking and demonstrations of empathy.

SPEAKING OF WHICH . . . The Thing

The flip side of mindblindness is that students on the spectrum often assume that others know what they themselves are thinking and feeling. My son, who is on the autism spectrum, is twenty-four years old. He and I frequently have conversations like the following.

My son, walking into a room where I am working: “Well?”

Me: “Good morning! ‘Well’ what?”

Him: “You already know.”

Me: “Honey, you haven’t asked me anything. What are you asking me?”

Him, irritated: “You already know! The thing we talked about yesterday!”

Me: “Which thing?”

Him: “You know, the thing!”

Me: “Which thing? We talked about a hundred things yesterday, and I’ve done a thousand other things since then. Can you please name the thing you’re talking about?”

Him, exasperated: “Seriously? Fine. Did you find out whether my package shipped yet?”

Me: “Oh. Yes, it did.”

Him: “Good. Thank you. But I don’t know why you didn’t just answer me the first time.”

Why Can My Students on the Spectrum Seem Uncaring When Others Are Upset?

The fact is that students on the spectrum absolutely do have empathy. The struggle for them is in recognizing or decoding situations that call for empathy and knowing how to demonstrate it.

When I was first learning about autism, it was commonly believed that students on the autism spectrum lacked empathy. This idea has been debunked thanks to deeper study and better understanding, but it’s easy to see why such a conclusion was reached. Due to mindblindness, many behaviors of students on the spectrum do indeed seem self-oriented and oblivious to the needs or feelings of others. However, the fact is that students on the spectrum absolutely do have empathy (Brewer & Murphy, 2016). The struggle for them is in recognizing or decoding situations that call for empathy and knowing how to demonstrate it. To understand this better, it is helpful to look at the components of empathy, including cognitive, affective, and expressive empathy.

Cognitive Empathy

As neurotypical children develop, they spontaneously engage in social reciproc ity (Schwartz, Beamish, & McKay, 2021). Even before they have words, they learn that when they cry, someone comes. When they smile, we smile. As they grow, they discover that expressions of feelings communicate meaning, and they apply that awareness to their interactions. They figure out that when another person is crying or doubled over coughing, it’s not the time to hold forth on the regional variations in the evolution of cowboy hat design. They figure out that when your eyebrows furrow and your hands are on your hips, you are communicating something, and they figure out that that feeling is impatience. Neurotypical indi viduals constantly read the actions and reactions of their friends, peers, educators, and other conversational partners, and, by interpreting what they perceive, they adapt their own behavior accordingly. This ability to recognize situations that call for empathy is called cognitive empathy (Bariso, 2018). For example, Donovan notices that Li is sprawled on the pavement. If Donovan, a student on the spec trum, is able to derive meaning from Li’s unusual position and from the fact that her knees are bleeding, he will be able to conclude that Li fell. That recognition would be cognitive empathy.

Students on the spectrum don’t tend to develop that kind of osmotic social understanding on their own (Schwartz et al., 2021). Reading the signs and the feelings of others is not a straightforward process for them for several reasons. Mindblindness alone can make cognitive empathy nearly a nonstarter. Moreover, cognitive empathy can require decoding body language and tone, as described earlier in this chapter. For example, Li remains splayed on the pavement, sob bing, someone asks her whether she needs help, and she whimpers, “No, I’m OK.” Donovan may be unable to make any sense of the contradiction between her words and her appearance.

Affective Empathy

The second component of empathy is affective empathy, which is the ability to relate to what others are feeling (Bariso, 2018). It’s one thing to recognize what someone else is feeling; it’s another thing to understand it on an emotional level. Once neurotypical individuals recognize what someone else is going through (cog nitive empathy), they tend to slip into place beside them emotionally, recalling a time when they had a similar experience or a similar feeling (Bariso, 2018). I am always surprised to note that when I say to a student on the spectrum, “How would you feel if that happened to you?” that same prompt yields a new epiphany time after time. If, for example, Donovan is able to associate Li’s bleeding knees with the bloody elbow he had after his own recent fall, he can recognize

that, despite her confusing words, she is most likely feeling pain just as he did. That’s affective empathy.

Successful affective empathy involves both feeling for others and also recognizing, identifying, and processing those feelings within oneself, an experience that may be compromised by difficulties with interoception, as described in chapter 4 (Wilkinson, 2022). But even once students have recognized the need for empathy and related to it personally, one challenge remains—what to do about it.

Expressive Empathy

Also called compassionate empathy, expressive empathy is the determination of how to help—basically, what we can do for others (Bariso, 2018). Now that Donovan recognizes that Li is crying because she fell, and now that Donovan relates Li’s fall to his own recent fall and thereby recognizes that Li must be feeling discomfort, it’s time for Donovan to figure out how he can help. That’s expressive empathy and, for students on the spectrum, seems to be the least challenging of the three sequential components of empathy (Bariso, 2018). The greater challenges are in getting to expressive empathy.

SPEAKING OF WHICH . . . Telling It Like It Is

Because most students on the autism spectrum have difficulty taking the perspective of others, they are not inclined to wonder or worry about what you think or what their peers think (Askham, 2022). This means that they tell it like it is, unconcerned about how their words might affect someone else’s feelings or reflect back on them. While this, like rule enforcement, may be an unpopular quality in the social sphere, you should know that in most cases, you can count on your students on the spectrum to tell you the truth. They see no reason to lie.

Strategies for Supporting Communication and Socialization

Even though many of us think that social skills, eye contact, and empathy are instinctive, these competencies can in fact be supported and taught. As part of your SEL curriculum, build in time to differentiate support for students on the spectrum in these areas. (You can read more about differentiating your SEL cur riculum in chapter 7, page 135.) And try out the strategies offered in the following sections to help you support adaptive communication, eye contact, empathy, peer relationships, and other socially challenging situations.

How Can I Help My Nonverbal or Minimally Verbal Students on the Spectrum Communicate More Effectively?

Thankfully, there are lots of ways to support communication for students who need help. And now that laptops and tablets are nearly as common in classrooms as pencils and paper, alternative means of communication are plentiful.

The very same instructional technology you use with your neurotypical students can be indispensable in supporting the communication of students on the spec trum. Digital learning devices boost engagement (Roberts-Yates & Silvera-Tawil, 2019) and offer far more interactive predictability than humans do. Students on the spectrum know exactly what they can expect when they put a certain com mand into their keyboard. Most of these students benefit from everyday tech tools, such as tablets, laptops, file-sharing programs, interactive whiteboards, digital cameras, document cameras, remote response systems, multimedia presentation programs, interactive books and magazines, interactive mathematics programs, maker spaces, and of course, the vast content and educational resources avail able through the internet.

Unlike instructional technology, assistive technology and augmentative and alternative communication devices are designed specifically for individuals with disabilities. Let’s take a look at what they are and how they help.

Assistive Technology

Unlike instructional technology, which is incorporated into the general curric ulum for the benefit of all students, assistive technology refers to devices specially created to support students who are unable to access the curriculum via con ventional means. Just as students who are deaf cannot be asked to listen harder, students with certain identified learning challenges cannot circumvent their chal lenges simply by trying or working harder. They need adaptations made to the learning environment to allow them access to it. Examples of assistive technol ogy range from graphic organizers and foam pencil grips, to wheelchairs and FM listening systems, to adaptive spelling and word-prediction software. When the special education team determines that a student needs assistive technology, the team mandates specific supports on a student’s IEP or 504 plan that schools must then provide (IDEA, 2004).

Augmentative and Alternative Communication

Assistive technology that specifically supports communication for individuals who are nonverbal or minimally verbal is called augmentative and alternative com munication (AAC) and can include both high-tech and very low-tech support.

One highly effective and low-tech form of assistive technology is the picture exchange communication system (PECS), which is a modified component of ABA (applied behavior analysis). PECS refers to a specific way of using cards or printed icons for the purposes of communicating needs, thoughts, feelings, instructions, and other information. PECS use involves a copyrighted protocol and requires specific training for practitioners (Stewart, 2013). You may see trained special educators or speech and language pathologists wearing a book full of indexed PECS symbols strapped over their shoulder or around their waist, always at the ready to facilitate communication.

If using cards to facilitate communication seems like a welcome and work able system for your nonverbal or minimally verbal students, anyone can use a modified version of PECS. The cards that you use to create visual schedules (as described in chapter 2, page 31) can also support communication in this way, with an emphasis on cards that communicate needs, ideas, thoughts, feelings, objects, and activities. In figure 5.1, a student who may have difficulty with expressive language is using icons to communicate what they are feeling. You can also use picture exchange icons to communicate your feelings or expectations to your stu dents, bolstering your words and supporting students’ receptive language at any time. The reciprocal use of these cards by both students and teachers facilitates two-way communication and comprehension.

I feel

Figure 5.1: A picture exchange book.

PECS is caught up in the same controversy that surrounds ABA. Some mem bers of the neurodiversity community regard PECS as coercive and invalidating of neurodivergence in that it requires students to communicate in normative ways (Roberts, 2020). Some feel that teachers, students, and others should make more of an effort to understand autistic efforts to communicate in whatever form they come (Lees, n.d.). Others, however, believe that rather than being coercive, the use of PECS and modified versions of picture exchange is what enables students to make their needs known and understood and participate reciprocally in the social world around them.

Other examples of augmentative and alternative communication follow.

• For students who have speech challenges, text-to-speech (TTS) technology, also known as speech-generating devices (SGDs), translates written words into spoken communication.

• For students who have fine motor or sensory motor challenges, speechto-text (STT) technology translates their ideas or spoken words into written text.

• For students who struggle with word retrieval, word-prediction software helps by scanning the context of their writing and anticipating and suggesting relevant words.

• For students who need support with retention, review, and organization, smart pens record and digitize spoken and handwritten text, making it scannable, shareable, searchable, and customizable in innumerable other ways to boost learning.

How Do I Get My Students on the Spectrum to Make Eye Contact With Me?

Well, the short answer is, you don’t. Or rather, you shouldn’t. As is the case with stuttering, when a student is pressured to make eye contact, anxiety escalates and makes it even more difficult for the student to comply. Moreover, coerced eye contact often comes at the expense of other, more important aspects of function ing, like listening, processing, responding, and staying calm (Ne’eman, 2021). Ari Ne’eman, president of Autistic Self Advocacy Network, explains it this way:

Eye contact is an anxiety-inducing experience for us, so looking someone in the eye . . . takes energy. We have a saying that’s pretty common among autistic young people: “I can either look like I’m paying attention, or I can actually pay attention.” Unfortunately, a lot of people tell us that looking like you’re paying attention is more important than actually paying atten tion. (as cited in Perry, 2017)

The neurodiversity movement is challenging conventional social expectations and urging that different and unexpected social behaviors be valued. Indeed, even when eye contact is “successfully” ingrained into the behaviors of students on the spectrum, it is often used merely to comply rather than to fluently assimilate as meaningful nonverbal communication. Some students who have been taught to make eye contact ultimately seem to look at and even through others. They learn to present as if they are making meaningful eye contact.

Coerced eye contact often comes at the expense of other, more important aspects of functioning, like listening, processing, responding, and staying calm.

So, eye contact should never be required, and a lack of it should never be disciplined or reprimanded. Instead of forcing students on the spectrum to conform to a neurotypical social construct, potentially at the expense of more critical skills, we can learn to accept to some extent alternative demonstrations of engagement, attention, and respect. Here are some strategies for gently encouraging eye contact and for accepting alternatives.

• Maximize motivation: Ask for eye contact when students want something from you. In those moments, because they are likely to be engaged and highly motivated, they may be better able to provide eye contact. But be sure not to make the fulfillment of their request contingent on eye contact.

• Ask for just a little: Some students on the spectrum can be taught to look in the direction of a speaker’s face. Even if that glance is fleeting or approximate, that’s OK. A glance toward a speaker’s face is a peek in the right direction.

• Encourage looking to learn: An indirect strategy for encouraging the use of eye contact is to use nonverbal prompts instead of spoken words. If a student on the spectrum asks you how many minutes are left in the period, try saying nothing and just hold up four fingers. If she asks you how many cylinders the engine of your SUV has, try looking at her with a smile and just shrug. If you notice that she is not seeing your nonverbal signals, get her attention verbally first: “Look at me, Moneeka. I am going to show you my answer.” And as always, check for understanding. Be sure your student understands that a shrug means you don’t know the answer. Over time, this strategy can help a student develop the habit of looking to learn, which enhances both academic and social understanding.

•

Establish a ready position: Students can demonstrate that they are engaged in your lesson by adopting a ready-to-learn pose that does not include looking directly at you. Make sure they understand what the ready position implies; explain that ready position means that minds are open and focused on what you are about to teach. Show your students how to comply with a phrase like “Show me ready position,” which might entail, for example, having a pen in hand, feet on the floor, and mouths closed. Support your students’ efforts to comply by placing a ready-position or ready-to-learn prompt or icon on their desks like that in figure 5.2.

Ready Position

Figure 5.2: Example of a ready-position prompt. Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds for a free reproducible version of this figure.

What Are Social Stories, and How Can I Use Them With My Students?

First developed by educator Carol Gray (2015), Social Stories are brief nar ratives that help students navigate challenging situations and guide expectable behaviors, such as listening quietly, waiting in line, staying calm, taking turns, and countless others.

Gray (2015) presents very specific, patented, ten-part criteria for writing these stories that include starting by validating the challenge from the student’s per spective, expanding to include the perspectives of others, guiding coping skills and reactions, and ending with a positive outcome. (Visit https://bit.ly/3u1YIcV to read about Gray’s criteria and implementation strategies.) Social Stories convey empathic support and encouragement and empower students with the skills and confidence they need to succeed.

Gray (2018) and others have created hundreds of Social Stories that address common areas of challenge and are available for purchase. But Social Stories

Feet on floorMouth quiet Hands down

work best when individualized to address specific students’ comprehension levels, metacognitive awareness, coping skills, and reactions. Stories can be written by teachers for—or, better yet, with—students who need them. Speech and language therapists and school counselors may have experience writing Social Stories with students. Figure 5.3 shows an example of a Social Story.

When It Is My Turn to Listen

People talk with one another. They have conversations. As they grow, people learn that listening to others is important. Listening helps to keep a conversation fun and interesting for everyone.

Listening also helps people make friends. I am learning what to do when it is my turn to listen in a conversation.

To have a conversation, people learn to take turns talking and listening. While one person talks, the other person listens. If both people talk at the same time, which does happen now and then, they can’t hear what the other person said. Taking turns works much better.

Listening is hearing words and thinking about what they may mean. Sometimes people mean what they say; other times they mean something else. This can make listening difficult. In fact, for many people, talking is easier than listening. For this reason, many people have to work hard to become better listeners. When it is my turn to listen, I will try to hear the words that people say. I will try to think about what their words mean. My mom, dad, and teachers are ready to help me, as I learn what to do when it is my turn to listen.

Source: The New Social Story Book, 15th Anniversary Edition (p. 145) by C. Gray, Arlington, TX: Future Horizons, Inc. © 2015 by Future Horizons, Inc. Used with permission.

Figure 5.3: Example of a Social Story.

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Be More Open-Minded to Different Ideas and Opinions?

Ideas and opinions tend to get imprinted on students who are on the spec trum, and they cling to them tightly, just as they do to their routines. These are some seriously fixed mindsets, so try to throw all of your best growth-mindset energy (Dweck, 2015) into everything you teach them. Making informed opin ions requires gathering and reflecting on facts and data, assessing bias, making inferences, considering other interpretations, updating information, and draw ing conclusions (Wojcicki, 2021). This may be a challenging process for your often-impulsive, rigid thinkers on the spectrum for a couple of reasons. First, each of those steps—for example, reflecting, considering, updating—is, in itself, a complex executive function skill that may need to be specifically taught and practiced. In addition, your students on the spectrum may resist the uncertainty of opinions in general, far preferring the comforting certainty of right and wrong.

These students will need help to learn that opinions are meant to be fluid things that can and do change when we listen to others; and that they are meant to evolve as we exchange reasoning with others, consider additional input, and update information. In addition to all of the executive function skills embedded in making and shifting opinions, learning to accept different perspectives is a critical social skill. During class discussions, guide all students to evaluate input from peers with respect and consideration. Celebrate situations in which students think flexibly enough to allow new information to inform their perspectives and conclusions.

Those unstructured parts of the school day that are the favorites of many students are often the most challenging for students on the spectrum. Both lunch and free time present sensory overload and social anarchy.

Making these skills and processes explicit is a great way to help stu dents understand what goes into the opinion-making process and why different people arrive at different conclusions. (As an added benefit, promoting this skill will engender a new generation of adults who know how to develop fact-based, considered opinions, rather than accepting rumor-based dis information at face value.)

What Support Can My Students on the Spectrum Get When They Are at Lunch and Outside?

Those unstructured parts of the school day that are the favorites of many stu dents are often the most challenging for students on the spectrum. Both lunch and free time present sensory overload and social anarchy. Carefully calibrated

student-teacher ratios vanish as all kinds of students are thrown together in large numbers. And without the supervision of autism-educated adults, our quirky stu dents on the spectrum are especially vulnerable to being bullied. Even though neurotypical peers benefit from opportunities to organize their own pick-up games, negotiate their own rules, resolve their own conflicts, and so on, this kind of oligarchical proving ground is not generally an effective or safe environment for students on the spectrum who need instructional rather than only experiential learning opportunities. Getting all hands on deck, using push-out sessions, and employing social-skill groups and social groups are some simple things you can do to support your students on the spectrum even when you can’t be with them.

All Hands On Deck

If you can, let lunchroom workers, recess monitors, and bus drivers know that certain of your students may need some extra support, and ask them to keep an eye out and to intervene gently when necessary. While lunch, recess, and bus staff cannot be expected to provide individualized support to students, they certainly can give a bit of extra supervision and attention to a vulnerable few. If you feel this would be helpful, you or a special ed teacher or counselor can, for example, speak with the bus driver about your concerns or seek out a lunch or recess worker who seems like a compassionate soul. Maybe you are worried about a student who tends to get bullied or a student who gets easily overwhelmed. Let the staff member know what warning signs they might watch for and how to respond if they see those signs. You might work out a plan with the bus driver that the seat right behind the driver is always reserved for your student. You might work out a plan for recess in which, when warning signs appear, the staff member moves in closer or goes to get the student and they hang out together for a while. Or, the student can be given a permanent pass to go to a sensory space or a counselor’s office whenever the student or the designated staff member perceives the need.

Once you have identified a staff member who is a willing and empathic part ner in this plan, introduce them to students you have concerns about and let the students know that that staff member is their ally and their go-to supporter in this space.

Also encourage the staff member to keep you informed, when they can, about what they see. If bullying or other unkind treatment is happening, you need to know about it so that you can address it more fully. Depending on the circum stances, you might refer the issue to the school psychologist, counselor, or assistant principal for further exploration. Alternatively, you might handle the situation by using one of the behavior approaches described in chapter 7 (page 135).

Push-Out Sessions

Sessions with related service providers are most commonly delivered via either pull-out or push-in modalities. Pull-out sessions are ones in which students are “pulled out” or removed from the classroom by the related service provider. Provided in a small, quiet office space, with a very small student-to-staff ratio as mandated on the IEP, pull-out sessions are optimized for focused skill-learning and low-risk practice opportunities. These intensive learning experiences can be very valuable; however, they cause students to miss activities in the classroom during their absence, putting them at an academic and social disadvantage—so, ironically, at the same time they are learning, they are also falling further behind (Iris Center, 2022). For this and other reasons, since the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 and subsequent prioritization of inclusive practices, push-in sessions have gained in popularity (Drobnjak, 2017).

Push-in sessions are ones in which the provider pushes in, or works inside the classroom with the student or several students. Push-in sessions don’t provide the small, low-risk environment for the intensive learning that can happen in pull-out sessions. However, they offer a couple of benefits that pull-out sessions do not. First, push-in sessions allow students to remain in the classroom so they do not miss out on academic or social activities. Second, push-in sessions enable providers to coach skill application right in the place where students need to implement the skills. This is important in several ways. Related service provid ers can see exactly where the trouble spots are during the student’s activities and interactions, so they can collect data and target their interventions more specif ically. And, since students on the spectrum have difficulty generalizing learned information, providing them with supported opportunities to practice new skills in real time and in the natural environment can be invaluable in supporting the assimilation of those skills. Third, push-in sessions simplify consultation and col laboration between the service provider and the classroom teacher who can share goals, strategies, and progress easily because they are working in the same physical space. This kind of collaboration is important to support generalization of skills across contexts (Drobnjak, 2017).

A winning strategy can be a combination of pull-out and push-in sessions (Drobnjak, 2017). Depending on the needs of individual students, I often sug gest one pull-out session per week for intensive teaching and practice followed by one or more push-in sessions for application and assimilation.

However, I also recommend what I call push-out sessions. A push-out session is one in which the provider joins the student in a natural environment outside the classroom, such as lunch or recess. During push-out sessions, speech and language

pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, or counselors can help students engage with their peers and learn and practice new skills during a reallife activity that is socially and sensorily demanding. This kind of support can take the form of coaching and facilitating social interactions, teaching and practic ing motor skills, and helping students to get included and established in groups, games, and activities. The related service provider can ask lunch or recess support staff to help ensure continuity of those new groupings and skills. For example, a physical therapist can help a student learn and practice the motor skills needed to join in a game of basketball and, while they’re there, they can facilitate the student’s social efforts to join in the game. Once those fundamentals for partic ipation have been established, the physical therapist can share specific concerns with the recess monitor (such as, Sometimes the other kids don’t pass the basketball to Sonya, and she has a hard time advocating for herself. Can you keep an eye out to make sure Sonya is being included and if she’s not, please remind her to say, nice and loud, “I’m open”?)

Push-out sessions offer the same benefits as push-in sessions, with the addition of extra support and supervision in environments that are especially challeng ing for students on the spectrum. Push-out sessions should be used judiciously, however, as some older or more socially savvy students might be embarrassed to have support in a setting that is prized by neurotypical students for its freedom from adult supervision.

Social-Skill Groups

Lunch and recess are also ideal times for social-skill groups, which are struc tured, educational sessions usually run by speech and language therapists or school counselors. These groups are indispensable for students on the spectrum to learn and apply prosocial skills. Since they will not adapt their social skills spontaneously, they need coaching in real time and opportunities to practice new strategies. Additionally, if teachers along with parents or guardians make a case on behalf of a student who needs social support, an IEP team can mandate a social-skill group as part of the student’s IEP, and then the school will have to create and provide a suitable group.

If your school does not provide social-skill groups, please broach the idea with the therapists and administrators in your school. It’s absolutely best practice.

Social Groups

Unlike social-skill groups, which are educational groups focused on skill develop ment, social groups are supported opportunities for students to socialize. Groups like Circle of Friends (www.circleofriends.org) and Best Buddies (www.bestbuddies.org) offer frameworks for carefully curated groupings that bring neurotypically

developing students together with students who need friends and low-risk prac tice socializing. Faculty or staff members can train to be advisors for these groups, and neurotypical students can volunteer to participate. Advisors guide student volunteers to build connections through shared activities during lunch time or after school, and to facilitate friendships with students who need opportunities for supported socialization.

Though it’s important to respect the confidentiality of group members, it’s OK to share that some students need a little help making friends, sharing, learning to take turns, and so on. Many neurotypically developing students love to be helpers and volunteer eagerly to participate in groups like these. Relationships facilitated within the group tend to carry on beyond the meeting times, providing students on the spectrum with ready-made friendships. And the students who volunteer for the group become your eyes and ears in the hallways, on the bus, in the lunch room, outdoors, and in other situations when you are unable to supervise your students on the spectrum as closely as you’d like to.

How Can I Help My Students on the Spectrum Be More Considerate of Their Neurotypical Peers?

It can be hard to imagine teaching empathy. We tend to think of empathy as characterological—that either it’s part of who we are or it’s not. But like many other aspects of behavior, when we break it down into its component parts, we can help students memorize various cues and use them as prompts for specific responses, much the way we would teach students any other contextual behav iors. Support cognitive, affective, and expressive empathy and teach the concepts. Requesting an apology, restitution, or reparation are all part of this work.

Supporting neurotypical students in relation to situations like these is equally important, as you see in upcoming sections.

Support Cognitive Empathy

Speech and language pathologists and school counselors often work on read ing and decoding nonverbal and paraverbal cues with students on the spectrum, helping them to learn, largely by rote, what various signals of distress look like. Many students benefit from studying posters or videos that show pictures of children displaying different facial expressions clearly labeled according to the emotion depicted. Students can also learn by experimenting with emojis to help them learn different expressions of emotion (Kavountzis, 2022).

Support Affective Empathy

A great strategy for supporting affective empathy in the classroom, which you can incorporate into your whole-class SEL curriculum, is analyzing the emotions

of characters in books and movies (Hopf & Lofland, 2022; Pino & Mazza, 2016). Make it a practice when showing movies or reading books to your class to pause during emotional or otherwise intense scenes and encourage the class to speculate about what each character is feeling. Ask students to share what clues they used to derive their opinions.

Support Expressive Empathy

We need to guide students on the spectrum how to respond to the feelings and experiences of others. Many students benefit from role-play, which gives them the opportunity to specifically imagine or even project themselves into a specific cir cumstance. Speech and language pathologists and school counselors are adept at guiding students to consider how they would feel in certain situations, the kinds of responses they themselves might welcome in that situation, and, importantly, what they can do in the future to be a good friend to others.

Even as you work to support their empathic development, students on the spec trum may continue to exhibit repeated unexpected, provocative, and unwelcome behaviors. That perseverative and impulsive nature may take quite a cumulative toll on classmates.

While I am all about accepting differences and the idea that there are no inher ently right or wrong ways of being in the world, I also believe that all people deserve to be treated with respect, and so our students on the spectrum need help learning to be respectful of others. Apologies, restitution, and reparation are simple steps to help students on the spectrum understand the way their actions affect others and make an effort to compensate them for inadvertent pain and suffering. (Later in this chapter, we explore ways to help neurotypical peers learn to be more understanding of their classmates on the spectrum.)

Defense of Apologies

We all know that, when coerced, the words I’m sorry are empty and meaning less. But to help students on the spectrum learn to take responsibility for their actions, they need to acknowledge the effect of those actions on others. Even if an apology is uttered by rote, the words I’m sorry reinforce for them the con crete message that they are not functioning in a vacuum; that their actions affect others outside of their own solitary orbit. Over time, those words may become spontaneous and heartfelt; for now, they are compulsory and need to be stated or written whenever appropriate. But that’s not necessarily enough to make up to their peers for damage done.

Restitution Due

Restitution is the restoration of a situation to its original state—a compensation for damage done. Consider a scenario in which Milo has knocked over the model of an atom that Dasha was building with toothpicks and clay. If Milo knocked over Dasha’s model by being impulsive, careless, or inconsiderate, he should be responsible for making the situation better by helping Dasha restore her atom to its former glory. With support, this can serve as a valuable opportunity for Milo to practice collaboration, flexibility, and empathy: he needs to set his own agenda aside and care for someone else. Moreover, he needs to step outside himself and build her way, not his way.

If, however, the atom collapsed as the result of an emotional or physical out burst by Milo, then now may not be the time for restitution. Milo may not be calm enough to help Dasha. Additionally, regardless of the cause of the collapse, Dasha may not be especially receptive to help or anything else from Milo. This may call for reparation.

The Right to Reparation

If restitution feels unrealistic for any reason, consider reparation as an alterna tive or in addition to restitution. Reparation goes beyond restitution. It’s a way of making up for anguish, pain, and suffering. It is important to consider that even with mumbled apologies and help restoring ruined work, no student should have to endure having their science project demolished, their homework stepped on, or their water bottle toppled on a regular basis. Even after Dasha’s atom is restored, Dasha herself is not restored to her rightful expectation of being able to work safely. As reparation, Milo could be encouraged to find a way to do something extra nice for Dasha, something that would make her happy. Dasha deserves that.

Milo may at first offer something he doesn’t mind giving up, like “letting” Dasha do his homework for him. Or Milo may offer something generous but egocentric, such as, Dasha can hold my replica of the Titanic for ten minutes! If Dasha declines Milo’s proposal, guide Milo to consider Dasha’s interests, so that he can offer something that would be meaningful to her. This is a good opportu nity for Milo to practice taking another person’s perspective: What would Dasha like? Maybe Milo could offer to bring her a snack she likes tomorrow or to take over her classroom job for the rest of the day or week.

Now Dasha has been more than compensated for her loss. And Milo has taken several steps closer to social understanding and empathy.

How Can I Help My Neurotypical Students Be More Considerate of Their Peers on the Autism Spectrum?

As hard as it is for students on the spectrum to make sense of their neurotypi cal peers, it can be equally hard for their peers to make sense of them. As students move toward the middle and upper grades, social savvy becomes prerequisite for popularity. It takes an extra effort for neurotypically developing peers to maintain a relationship with students on the spectrum, and many are just not interested in doing that. Students on the spectrum often insist that things be done the way they choose; they may wander away mid-conversation or mid-activity; they may perseverate endlessly on their favorite obscure topic or may change topics abruptly; they may interrupt, fall behind, overreact, underreact, resort to aggres sion or destruction, or slip into stimming behaviors such as rocking, chirping, or grunting (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022).

It’s easier for most people to be friends with a peer who shares their interests, takes turns, is flexible, gets their jokes, and respects their feelings, so it’s under standable that some students may be disinclined to befriend or partner with their classmates on the spectrum.

In my experience, students whose challenges are readily apparent—for example, those who are nonverbal or who rock or make noises, as well as those in wheelchairs or with obvious medical needs—seem to get some spontaneous indul gence from their peers. However, their peers also often underestimate them and may incorrectly assume that these students are oblivious to pranks and snarky comments. I have also noted that, conversely, students whose challenges are more subtle are likely to be held to a higher expectation of behavior by their peers. In that context, occasional idiosyncratic behaviors seem rude or weird, glaringly off-kilter, and peers are less likely to cut them any slack.

Inclusive programming places students on the spectrum in close physical proximity to students who may take advantage of their vulnerability. Understanding and acceptance won’t happen spontaneously; you will need to facilitate it by talking the talk and walking the walk of inclusion.

While inclusive programming is designed to keep students on the spec trum and others fully in the mainstream mix, it is also intended to spread acceptance of differences among neurotypical students (Hehir, 2016; Oliver-Kerrigan et al., 2021). But on the way to achieving its worthy goals, inclusive programming places students on the spectrum in close physical proximity to students who may take advantage of their vulnerability. Understanding and acceptance won’t happen

spontaneously; you will need to facilitate it by talking the talk and walking the walk of inclusion, which (to me) means actively modeling the fact that all students have value, that differences are welcome, and that bullying is never, ever allowed.

Make a Value Proposition

To bolster understanding among your whole class, I recommend viewing yourself as an ambassador for diversity acceptance. You can start with inclusive language and reading materials.

Consider your words and examples carefully. Be mindful about using inclusive language that represents not only differing abilities but different races, cultures, religions, languages, family constellations, sexual orientations, gender identities, and so on. In this way, you demonstrate to all your students that everyone matters.

Choose read-alouds and fill your classroom library with books that focus on the value and humanity of people who are different (Williford et al., 2016). Wonderful examples include picture books like the following.

• Picture books

Š Chrysanthemum by Kevin Henkes (1991) features a spunky individualist.

Š Red: A Crayon’s Story by Michael Hall (2015) is about feeling different inside.

• Middle-grade novels

Š Wonder by R. J. Palacio (2012) depicts a determined protagonist who has a facial deformity.

Š Lily’s Crossing by Patricia Reilly Giff (1998) chronicles a young refugee’s experience during wartime.

• Teen and young adult novels

Š Being Jazz by Jazz Jennings (2016) is the memoir of a transgender teenager.

Š The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas (2017) explores a teen’s struggle with race and identity.

Notice that these are not books about autism; they are simply books that exem plify diversity, overcoming adversity, courage, and triumph.

Stock up on biographies, too, at any level, that demonstrate courage and resil ience in the face of all kinds of adversity. Consider the stories of Malala Yousafzai, Michael Phelps, Frank Ocean, Elliot Page, Stevie Wonder, Stephen Hawking,

Jackie Robinson, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, King George VI, Susan B. Anthony, Ludwig van Beethoven, and so many more. Again, these books are not specific to autism. Instead, they are compelling books that celebrate all varieties of diversity and difference. (Visit www.barbaraboroson.com/inclusivechildrensbooks for a list of recommended children’s books, organized by theme and reading level, all of which send quiet but powerful messages of inclusivity and acceptance.)

Use books like these alongside classroom discussions in which you normalize differences. Help your students look inward and acknowledge and consider what makes each of them different. Talk about how everyone faces challenges, whether it’s spelling, keeping their bedroom clean, getting to school on time, learning to play lacrosse, remembering to practice the cello, or being included and accepted and valued for exactly who they are. In this way, you welcome every student in your class to the We are all different! celebration.

Battle Bullying

Students on the spectrum are often prime targets for bullying in inclusive pro grams. Their atypical, impulsive, and seemingly naive social behaviors leave them vulnerable to teasing, aggression, and rejection. Even if you don’t have any stu dents on the spectrum in your classroom, it’s critical that you take a little time out to educate your students about bullying: what it is, what it’s not, and what to do when they see it.

Here are a few key points to consider in your discussion.

• Bullying can take many forms and can be quite subtle: Words and actions don’t have to be loud, obvious, or aggressive to be considered bullying.

• Bullying is always intentional: Misdeeds that happen truly by accident do not count as examples of bullying. Bullying is done on purpose to be mean.

• Bullying is usually a pattern of ongoing intimidating or hurtful behavior: A single malicious incident can constitute a teachable moment. But if such behavior continues, it’s bullying.

• Bullying usually includes a power imbalance: This means that one student is leveraging their age, height, gender, strength, popularity, ability, or racial, religious, or other majority status against someone else to gain an advantage. When students on the spectrum are bullied, it is usually ability and social savvy that are being leveraged.

• Bullying isn’t just mean things; it’s also nice things someone doesn’t do: That can be something like not inviting a classmate to join them (forcing her to sit alone at lunch every day) or simply being unfriendly to people they are not friends with. Self-proclaimed bullying survivor, expert, and activist Jodee Blanco calls these subtle rejections acts of aggressive exclusion (as cited in Lagattolla, 2012), and they can be among the most chronic and insidious examples of bullying.

Meanwhile, although it is not the responsibility of the victims to change their behavior, there are some self-protective measures that students on the spectrum should learn. These students don’t have a reliable radar for bullies. Because of their limited social savvy, including their inability to interpret nonverbal and paraver bal cues, they may not recognize a bully when they encounter one. Even if they do realize that they are being mistreated or disrespected, they may not realize that they need to keep their distance.

Here are a couple of self-protective strategies to offer students who are vulnerable to being bullied.

• Flip the script: Adults often remind children, “Stay where I can see you!” But students with mindblindness may be utterly confounded trying to figure out where they should be in order for you to see them. Make it easier simply by reminding students on the spectrum to stay where you can see me!

• Think safety in numbers: Teach students on the spectrum that if they can’t see you or another safe adult, they can turn to some peers for support. Help them identify peers who would be suitable choices to approach for help. This is where a buddy group or circle of friends can really come in handy.

In inclusive classrooms, neurotypically developing students have enormous potential to influence the lives of their peers on the spectrum. They can be friends, supporters, and champions—or bullies, provocateurs, and antagonizers. They will learn, from what they see and hear all around them, to either celebrate differ ences and stand up for what’s right or to smirk and look the other way. Your example and your efforts have the power to imbue your neurotypical students with generos ity of spirit and inspire them to become

In inclusive classrooms, neurotypically developing students have enormous potential to influence the lives of their peers on the spectrum.

conscientious citizens throughout their lives. Harness the potential for peers to develop open minds and hearts toward people who are different from themselves.

Even as we celebrate differences, students on the spectrum need help engaging in and learning from your lessons. The next chapter explores engagement and cognitive processing and demonstrates that, as with socialization, we need to meet students where they are in order to achieve these goals.

The General Education Teacher’s Guide to Autism Essential Answers to Key Questions

InThe General Education Teacher’s Guide to Autism: Essential Answers to Key Questions, autism education specialist Barbara Boroson provides dynamic, practical answers to the questions that K–12 teachers frequently ask about students on the autism spectrum. Boroson offers a wealth of information and supportive strategies to help you create an effective, inclusive learning environment that meets the needs of these neurodiverse students, including but not limited to sensory, engagement, and peer relationship needs.

With this book, readers will:

• Learn to ease the anxieties that are present among students on the autism spectrum

• Discover ways to address executive function challenges that can contribute to disorganization, impulsivity, and learning challenges

• Understand the challenges of speech, language, and socialization and gather strategies for facilitating effective interaction

• Learn to decode disruptive behaviors and respond to them in differentiated ways that yield lasting change

• Explore the perspectives of parents and guardians of students on the spectrum to facilitate powerful partnerships and optimize outcomes for students

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download the free reproducibles in this book.

SolutionTree.com

“I’m the parent of two autistic adults, a veteran teacher, and a disability activist. No matter which lens I use, this book is simply excellent. I highly  recommend it to all those who care about improving the educational experiences of autistic students. I’m particularly impressed with the way Boroson navigates sensitive issues like eye contact, challenging behaviors, and stimming. The suggestions are practical for the general education teacher, but also deeply respectful of the dignity of autistic students.”

—Laura Kirby-McIntosh Past President, Ontario Autism Coalition

“This book is a much-needed resource for every general education teacher. As a former high school teacher and mother of a Black autistic son, this nuanced discussion on supporting students reminds us as educators that students on the autism spectrum are whole people with families, cultural norms, and expectations beyond the classroom. Boroson’s perspective of being both a mother and educator approaches this duality with an insightful and transparent deference to both the failures and successes of parenting and teaching.”

—LaChan V. Hannon

Director of Teacher Preparation and Innovation, Department of Urban Education, Rutgers University-Newark

“As someone who is on the spectrum, I can truly say that teachers will be able to make use of the information about autism presented in this guide.”

—Sam Bowles Chalk Artist, Recent High School Graduate