Inclusion Strategies and Interventions, Second Edition by Solution Tree

2nd Ed.

“Toby Karten has done it again! Inclusion Strategies and Interventions, Second Edition is an easy-to-understand text that explains the legal foundations of inclusion and provides teachers with reflective self-assessments, strategies across the curriculum, and templates to monitor student progress. The second edition is replete with practical resources for inclusion teachers and their general education partners, providing all they need to be successful in the inclusion classroom.” —Michael Reinknecht, Director of Special Education, West Morris Regional High School District, New Jersey “In Inclusion Strategies and Interventions, Second Edition, Toby J. Karten offers an updated and thorough account of what inclusion is—and what it isn’t—in today’s educational programs. Presenting an academic treasure trove of strategies and interventions, and delivering an honest appraisal of effectively educating diverse students in changing learning environments, Karten provides a journey into all realms of the inclusion field. Educators will be equipped with the tools they need to ensure all students can learn to the best of their abilities.” —Marianne E. Henry, Adjunct Instructor, Regional Training Center, Randolph, New Jersey

s schools are filled with increasingly diverse student populations with diverse learning needs, inclusive education becomes more important by the day. In Inclusion Strategies and Interventions, Second Edition, author Toby J. Karten aims to help educators provide consistent and strong learning pathways and create classrooms conducive to learning for both general education learners and learners with special needs. By using this book’s interventions and accommodations connected to individual personalities, characteristics, and abilities, K–12 general and special education teachers will create inclusion classrooms in which students thrive and exceed expectations. The book also includes many practical tools for immediate classroom use as well as appendices with useful acronyms and information about how legislation affects inclusion.

INCLUSION STRATEGIES & INTERVENTIONS

2nd Ed.

K–12 educators will:

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download the free reproducibles in this book. SolutionTree.com

Toby J. Karten

• Recognize the necessity of inclusion and the legal aspects of inclusion in education a foundational understanding of the varied and diverse students who inhabit • Gain inclusion classrooms • Explore methods of inclusion across a spectrum of subjects • Learn how to maintain the standards for an inclusion classroom across the curriculum various collaborators who can help in an inclusion classroom, such as co-teachers, • Discover special educators, coaches, and administrators

2nd Ed.

Copyright © 2021 by Solution Tree Press Materials appearing here are copyrighted. With one exception, all rights are reserved. Readers may reproduce only those pages marked “Reproducible.” Otherwise, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without prior written permission of the publisher. 555 North Morton Street Bloomington, IN 47404 800.733.6786 (toll free) / 812.336.7700 FAX: 812.336.7790 email: info@SolutionTree.com SolutionTree.com Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download the free reproducibles in this book. Printed in the United States of America

Names: Karten, Toby J., author. Title: Inclusion strategies and interventions / Toby J. Karten. Description: Second edition. | Bloomington, IN : Solution Tree Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020015764 (print) | LCCN 2020015765 (ebook) | ISBN 9781951075217 (paperback) | ISBN 9781951075224 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Inclusive education--United States. | Classroom environment--United States. | Special education--United States. Classification: LCC LC1201 .K369 2020 (print) | LCC LC1201 (ebook) | DDC 371.9/046--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015764 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020015765

Solution Tree Jeffrey C. Jones, CEO Edmund M. Ackerman, President Solution Tree Press President and Publisher: Douglas M. Rife Associate Publisher: Sarah Payne-Mills Art Director: Rian Anderson Managing Production Editor: Kendra Slayton Senior Production Editor: Christine Hood Content Development Specialist: Amy Rubenstein Copy Editor: Evie Madsen Proofreader: Mark Hain Cover Designer: Rian Anderson Editorial Assistants: Sarah Ludwig and Elijah Oates The cover artwork comes from a mixed-media mural titled Uşak Garden, created in 2019 by visiting artist and educator Timothy Lomas with students of the Engelsiz Yaşam Bakim ve Rehabilitasyon Merkezi ve Aile Danişma Merkezi (Disabled Life Care Rehabilitation Center and Family Counseling Center) in Uşak, Turkey.

Table of Contents Reproducible pages are in italics.

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 In This Second Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 About This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

part one

Promoting Learning in the Inclusion Classroom . . . . . . . . . 7 chapter ONE

Understanding the Inclusion Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Inclusion by Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 An Understanding of Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Social, Emotional, and Academic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Bibliotherapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Behavioral Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Social-Emotional Learning, Positive Behavior Intervention and Support, and Restorative Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 The Role of the Educator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 c h a p t e r T WO

Organizing for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Multitiered System of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Cooperative and Peer-Assisted Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Differentiated Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Understanding by Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Universal Design for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Multiple Intelligences, Sensory Modalities, and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Organizational Structures and Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Show What You Know. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 MTSS Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Progress Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 v

I N C L U S I O N S T R AT E G I E S A N D I N T E RV E N T I O N S

c h a p t e r THREE

Addressing Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 High-Leverage Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Strategic Learners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Attention and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Pacing and Complexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Effective Co-Teaching and Collaborative Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Appropriate Interventions for Specific Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Beyond the Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Inclusion Educator Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Inclusion Classroom Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Ideal Versus Pseudo Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Sponge Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 chapter FOUR

Using Embedded Assessments, Accommodations, and Individualized Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Accommodations and Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 How to Avoid Learned Helplessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Sample Inclusion Lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Functional Assessments to Highlight Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Functional Behavioral Assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 The Merits of Mistakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 My Lesson Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

part two

Applying Strategies for Effective Curriculum Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 chapter FIVE

Implementing Inclusion Strategies for Literacy and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Reading Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Writing Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Strategies for English Learners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Early Literacy Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Letters Mastery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Story Element Planner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Story Frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Table of Contents

Transitional Words List for Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Transitional Words List for Secondary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Sensory Words List for Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Sensory Words List for Secondary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Writing for an Audience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 chapter SIX

Implementing Inclusion Strategies for Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Mathematics Representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Mathematics Beyond the Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 MTSS Mathematics Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Mathematics Strategies for Mixed-Ability Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Computational Fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Mathematics Interview Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Living Mathematics Through Sports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Living Mathematics Through Cooking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Living Mathematics Through Shopping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Living Mathematics Through Eating Out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 chapter SEVEN

Implementing Inclusion Strategies for Social Studies and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 The Social Studies Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 The Science Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Social Studies and Science Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 PEP Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Enlightening Details Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 c h a p t e r E I G HT

Implementing Inclusion Strategies for Art, Music, Physical Education, and Life Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Artful Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Music Matters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Physical Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Life Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 People Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 chapter NINE

Using an Interdisciplinary Thematic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Lesson Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Thematic Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Interdisciplinary Thematic Planner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

vii

viii

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c h a p t e r TE N

Developing Transitional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Goal Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Interests and Strengths Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

part three

Maintaining the Inclusion Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 chapter ELEVEN

Practicing Professional Collaboration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Inclusion Players. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Collaboration and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Lesson or Unit Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Inclusion Professional Development Follow-Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Collaboration Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Co-Teaching Planner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 c h a p t e r T W E LV E

Honoring Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Dis ability Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 How to Help All Learners Succeed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Inclusion as an Evolutionary Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Inclusion Takeaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Sum It Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 A PPE N D I X A

Acronyms for the Inclusion Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 A PPE N D I X B

Legal Aspects of Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Legislation That Impacts Academic Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Legislation That Impacts Behavioral Supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Impact of Legislation on Tiered Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Impact of Section 504 in Inclusion Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Impact of ESSA in Inclusion Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Impact of ADA in Inclusion Classrooms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

References and Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

About the Author Toby J. Karten is an award-winning special educator, dynamic presenter, and author who is passionate about sharing her knowledge with others. Throughout her career, she has taught students with and without exceptionalities from the preschool to graduate level. Toby works with school districts across the United States and internationally as a staff developer, an inclusion coach, an educational consultant, an author, and an adjunct professor. Toby focuses on creative, practical solutions for helping all students gain not only access to but also ongoing successes in inclusion classrooms. She has collaborated with administrators, staff, students, and their families at local, national, and international school sites and conferences as an invited speaker and consultant. She has an undergraduate degree in special education from Brooklyn College, a master’s degree in special education from the College of Staten Island, a supervisory degree from Georgian Court University, and an honorary doctorate from Gratz College. Toby has been recognized by the Council for Exceptional Children and the New Jersey Department of Education as an exemplary educator, receiving two Teacher of the Year awards. Toby has authored and edited more than thirty books and quick reference guides on the topics of disability awareness, co-teaching, and inclusion classrooms. Her interactive professional development and resources offer ways for staff and students to collaboratively focus their eyes, minds, and actions on how inclusion practices connect to educator, learner, and curriculum realities. Toby’s ongoing professional goal is to help learners achieve successful inclusion experiences in school and life. To learn more about Toby’s work visit www.inclusionworkshops.com, or follow her @TJK2INCLUDE on Twitter. To book Toby J. Karten for professional development, contact pd@SolutionTree.com.

Introduction Inclusion is an evolutionary process, whether it is a teacher’s first or last year of his or her career. Just like students, teachers require more than access to the classroom. Attitudes, preparation, and supports matter for preservice and veteran general and special education teachers. There is always more to know and to learn and ways for teachers to accomplish things differently, but effectively. Inclusion is impacted by prior experiences, professional training, and the supports provided. Teachers’ responsive actions are influenced by preconceived thoughts, more or less preparation, knowledge of the subject matter they are assigned to teach, grade-level experiences, and knowledge of how to adapt and align instruction to students’ skill sets. Inclusion is implemented successfully with administrative supports, professional development, resources, and ongoing collaboration to develop and refine teachers’ and students’ behaviors and actions. The goal of an inclusion classroom placement is to respectfully and collaboratively raise learner outcomes. As I participate in professional development and inclusion coaching across the United States and around the world, I often hear the following comments, questions, and concerns. “I won’t do inclusion.” “I don’t know how to do inclusion.” “Who’s included?” “How can I better train and support my staff?” “What is the role of an inclusion coach?” “My co-teacher and I need more time to plan.” “I don’t have a co-teacher!” “It’s not working.” “Can someone explain what SDI is?” “We need more direct skill instruction.” “What is differentiated instruction? “Are MTSS and RTI the same thing?” “What does UDL look like in an algebra, a biology, or a Spanish class?” “What do we do about students who get it quicker than those with IEPs?”

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Not all staff, students, or families share the same thoughts about inclusion based on their prior experiences, training, preparation, classroom and school dynamics, and support systems. The conceptual framework of inclusion values the meshing of general education and special education with benefits to all learners and professionals (Villa & Thousand, 2016). Sometimes an inclusion classroom is viewed differently than an inclusive classroom. It’s more than semantics, because the former indicates that the general education classroom is the preferred classroom environment, but not the sole option for placement. An inclusive classroom often has the connotation that rejects all other placements and can be referenced as full inclusion. At times, the words inclusion and inclusive are used interchangeably, but the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) recognizes a continuum of services, with the regular education classroom viewed as the least restrictive environment on the continuum (Ratcliff, 2009). I never like to use the legislative term regular education classroom; I prefer to say general education classroom, because if there is a regular classroom, one might place a negative connotation on any other placement as being irregular. Either way, inclusion is at its best when it transforms challenges into solutions (Jung, Frey, Fisher, & Kroener, 2019). However, unlike combining the elements on the periodic table, inclusion has no set formula because each learner is unique, whether he or she shares the same difference or disability label (Karten, 2017a). Inclusion considers each student’s diverse characteristics for planning responsive and appropriate interventions, services, and classroom placements. Inclusion has been a unifying concept for special and general education, with students benefiting from the supports when teachers adapt and gain new strategies to reach a broader range of learning profiles (Ford, 2013; Jung et al., 2019; Karten, 2017c). For example, when special education practices enter the classroom, general education teachers can see the benefits of differentiated instruction (DI). When general and special education teachers collaborate, they view all learners as worthy of achieving solid educational foundations in the inclusion environment. General and special educators have collaborative eyes, hands, and minds on how to provide responsive instructional methods, materials, interventions, and supports. General and special educators working together use screening, progress monitoring, and assessments to plan for and support advancements. If schools place students with disabilities in general education classes without the appropriate structure and learner-specific adaptations, then teachers cannot support their individualized learning goals. An inclusion setting with specific, individualized organization; adapted curriculum; and differentiated teaching and learning strategies with embedded supports provides not only access to learners but also a path to their achievement. For example, a student in fifth grade who is reading two grade levels lower than his or her peers cannot independently read and solve mathematics word problems if the teacher doesn’t read the problems aloud or if the student can’t access text-speech digital tools. If a high school student with autism has difficulties transitioning from one class to the next, he or she may require a peer mentor,

Introduction

modeling, increased time, a social script, or a visual schedule. In addition, students who are academically advanced also need differentiated instruction and appropriately leveled, multitiered supports to honor their academic needs and skill sets. Therefore, the teaching and learning in inclusion classrooms is intentional and explicit for students of all skill sets. Inclusion interventions honor the belief that all students are capable of meeting high expectations when teachers offer them the appropriate and individualized supports to achieve their highest potential. Neuroscience supports multiple types of engagements, representation, and actions and expressions for learners (CAST, 2018). Inclusion interventions, therefore, must connect instruction to each studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique needs. This often requires the teacher to use differentiated instruction to provide diverse ways to deliver the content, instruct, and assess. The teacher does not offer identical instruction to the whole class; instead, he or she attends to the learning needs of small groups and individual learners (Tomlinson, 2014). Differentiated instruction uses each learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prior knowledge, interests, strengths, and abilities to help the teacher determine how to prepare an inclusion classroom for student success. This book focuses on helping educators maximize learning for an array of student differences in their inclusion classrooms. Interventions are meaningless unless teachers connect them to the individual profiles of unique students. Education is never exclusively about the subjects that educators teach; it is also about who is in the classroom. Each individual classroom, with its own diverse and unique student population, defines the lesson delivery, depth of concepts, intervention strategies, and types of collaborative structures, pacing, and curricular decisions teachers must make. Savvy inclusion educators always remember that inclusion classrooms consist of individual learners.

In This Second Edition When the first edition of this book was published in 2011, inclusion was not as prevalent. Thankfully, diverse learner levels are now the norm in general education classrooms. This edition emphasizes how educators can collaboratively increase student engagement and performance in inclusion environments, minus the stigmatization. The strategies and interventions in this second edition include how teachers can implement specially designed instruction (SDI) in their inclusion classrooms without diluting the instruction for learners with and without exceptionalities, nor frustrating or inundating the general or special educators, students, and families. The ultimate objective is to view inclusion as a collaborative way to better leverage and ultimately achieve higher learner outcomes in school and beyond. This second edition highlights best professional practices, while still honoring the curriculum demands that correspond to learners with and without exceptionalities. This includes partnerships between general and special educators; academic and behavioral supports and interventions; defined roles and responsibilities; and the division of tasks for co-teachers,

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assistants, interventionists, inclusion coaches, related service providers, families, and of course, students. Since publication of the first edition, legislative and professional initiatives on inclusion have had a significant impact on education (U.S. Department of Education, 2017). This book covers those changes as well as revised and updated special education terminology. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (2004b) has led to an increased amount of time that students with exceptionalities spend in the general education classroom to receive their free and appropriate public education (FAPE). This edition expands the impact of a student’s least restrictive environment (LRE), where students with exceptionalities who have individualized educational programs (IEPs) receive the majority of their educational services and supports. The LRE continuum has a range of environments that are more and less inclusive ones, as illustrated in table I.1. Even though legislation does not use the term inclusion, the general education (regular) classroom is the least restrictive one on the LRE continuum. As we continue the inclusion discussion, we will explore how the LRE needs to be appropriately matched with a student’s individual skill sets.

Table I.1: Least Restrictive Environment Continuum Least Restrictive Environment Continuum Most Restrictive Environment Students are placed in a residential or hospital facility.

Students receive home-bound instruction.

Least Restrictive Environment Students attend special schools (inside and outside of their neighborhood school).

Students are placed in self-contained special education classrooms for part or all of the school day with and without consultation.

Students are placed in general education classrooms with and without specialized services and supports. Placement in general education classrooms for the entire day without pull-out services is less restrictive and can include special education support, consultation, and collaboration with or without paraprofessionals or co-teachers present for all or part of the day.

This edition also delineates how to organize a multitiered system of supports (MTSS) in K–12 inclusion classrooms, including lesson or unit examples, tools, and resources. This system includes ongoing planning, instruction, facilitation, professional development, and reflection to achieve ongoing inclusion successes. Differentiated instruction and proactive planning as common practices offer heterogeneity in the inclusion classroom with universally designed lessons (UDL) that connect to pedagogy. The book also addresses the impact of social-emotional learning (SEL) on academic performance (for example, monitoring learners’ social, emotional, and behavioral competencies; promoting the students’ skills with and without exceptionalities as strategic learners with increased coaching and facilitation; and employing mindful and restorative practices). This edition provides a steady pulse on practical, easy-to-follow K–12 curriculum and inclusion models, instructional practices, and learner connections. You’ll find data-based

Introduction

individualization to apply the evidence-based academic, behavioral, social, and emotional supports with age-appropriate interventions and routines for academic and nonacademic structures throughout. This book includes updated online resources, along with additional tables and figures for collaborative lesson planning, instruction, and assessment across grade levels, disciplines, and learner skill sets. A new edition is imperative since inclusion stagnation is never an option. Inclusion moves forward with educator knowledge, preparation, and collaborative can-do, will-do strategies and interventions.

About This Book This text is divided into three parts. Part one focuses on promoting learning in inclusion classrooms. Chapter 1 offers information regarding the legislation that applies to inclusion classrooms and introduces students in these classrooms. It also discusses the unique abilities students possess, providing the foundation for the rest of the book. With this baseline knowledge, chapter 2 then describes ways for educators to organize the inclusion classroom utilizing principles such as multitiered systems of support, differentiated instruction, understanding by design (UbD), universal design for learning (UDL), multiple intelligences, multisensory approaches, peer mentoring, and cooperative learning. This chapter also discusses appropriate related services, such as assistive technology. Chapter 3 addresses the actual creation of an inclusion classroom and outlines interventions for categories of learners. It also describes effective collaborative and co-teaching practices. Chapter 4 highlights realistic adaptations and how they directly link to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assessment data to establish meaningful accountability. Part two offers strategies for effective curriculum practice, stressing the importance of creating strategic learners equipped with study skills through educationally solid collaborative lesson deliveries. Chapter 5 concentrates on literacy and communication, and presents information about multisensory and structured reading programs, along with explicit writing instruction. It also includes strategies for English learners (ELs). Chapter 6 explores mathematics instruction and provides practical recommendations for reaching students with special needs. Chapter 7 discusses the disciplines of social studies and science, while chapter 8 discusses the important but often overlooked domains of art, music, physical education, and life skills. Chapter 9 demonstrates the merits of an interdisciplinary thematic approach, which links instruction across the curriculum and proves subjects do not exist in isolation. To close part two, chapter 10 explores transitional plans for successful postsecondary outcomes. Part three outlines how to nourish and continually maintain inclusion classrooms, focusing on what educators need to do to consistently achieve the desired outcomes for students, teachers, and families. Chapter 11 discusses professional collaboration and the inclusion players who create that collaborative environment, including coteachers, related staff, administrators, families, and the students themselves. Chapter 12 ties it all together and serves as a conclusion to the book, with reminders about how evidence-based practices can effectively meet and honor studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs in inclusion

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classrooms. This final chapter also includes an overview of where educators are now, along with curriculum implications and a review of inclusion practices. Finally, appendices A and B offer handy resource materials, including a list of acronyms and their meanings and a look at the legal aspects of inclusion. There are several ways educators can deliver the standards minus the standardization. Differentiated instruction, universal design for learning, understanding by design, team planning, cooperative learning, peer mentoring, and collaborative communications are all viable ways for teachers to apply inclusion in their classrooms. It is important for the complexities of inclusion not to overwhelm teachers, but instead prepare them with an awareness about their students, along with inclusion and collaborative problemsolving strategies. This book highlights daily school interventions that help teachers tap into studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; academic and emotional abilities, potentials, levels, and interests. It encourages educators and learners to effectively work together as a team to achieve inclusion successes.

THREE

Addressing Students’ Needs

tudents who view school as a treadmill with no meaningful destination in sight only go through the motions; they don’t internalize the academic content. However, students achieve gains when teachers present content in a way that acknowledges the diverse needs, attitudes, and levels of their learners (Darling-Hammond et al., 2019; Karten, 2015). Inclusion is a multidimensional, collaborative, and sequentially structured way of valuing everyone’s potential in classrooms to prepare students to successfully enter inclusion societies. Although each situation varies according to individual student needs, there are several important principles and strategies involved with implementing inclusion. Viable interventions allow educators to apply evidence-based practices and fulfill the lessons’ objectives daily. This includes effective and appropriate presentations, materials, and assessments. The strategies in this chapter help teachers create inclusion classrooms that benefit both students and educators.

High-Leverage Practices Although inclusion is not always an easy process to implement, collaboration and structured plans yield successful results for students (Cosier, Causton-Theoharis, & Theoharis, 2013; Hollingsworth, Boone, & Crais, 2009). The Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability and Reform and the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC; n.d.) designed high-leverage practices (HLPs) in special education for special educators and teacher candidates. High-leverage practices are organized around these four aspects of practice: (1) collaboration, (2) assessment, (3) social-emotionalbehavioral, and (4) instruction (McLeskey et al., 2017). The twenty-two practices under

“Is she kidding me? I can’t believe there’s another test tomorrow. We just had a quiz yesterday, which of course, I failed. I have no idea what my teacher is talking about. The PowerPoint notes and my interactive notebook help, but she goes so fast and doesn’t even give us enough time to answer the questions. Maybe if I just act like I get it, she’ll leave me alone. Fifty-eight more days until spring break.”

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these four headings outline how to effectively teach and engage learners with and without disabilities and to guide teacher preparation in special education as an integral part of professional development.

2. Assessment involves looking at multiple sources of information from formal and informal sources to understand a student’s strengths and needs. Teachers interpret the assessments to identify barriers, align goals, and adjust instruction, accommodations, and modifications. Assessment determines the appropriate educational programs and instructional practices that will increase student outcomes. 3. Social-emotional-behavioral practices include establishing respectful schools and classrooms in which teachers offer constructive feedback, teach the necessary social and behavioral skills, and determine the reasons or functions of behaviors, with individual progress monitoring and supports that collect data. This involves positive learning environments, along with the provision of replacement strategies for unwanted behaviors. 4. Instruction involves lessons that include explicit instruction, flexible grouping, active engagement, specially designed instruction, and supporting learning with short- and long-term goals, progress monitoring, and feedback on goals. Educators use this information to adjust pacing, adapt curriculum materials, and plan lessons. High-leverage practices should be accompanied by awareness and understanding of how to empower learners. The next section reminds educators that physical inclusion must include the provision of individualized emotional and cognitive supports. The “Inclusion Educator Checklist,” “Inclusion Classroom Checklist,” and “Ideal Versus Pseudo Inclusion” reproducibles (pages 95, 96, and 97, respectively) offer opportunities to put your inclusion practices to the test.

Strategic Learners Strategic learners build knowledge by using their critical-thinking skills to engage and explore content areas. How the learners gain and retain knowledge of a subject is more important than strict focus on the content. Strategic learners take responsibility for their learning and are proactive in seeking methods of learning that work best for

1. Collaboration includes partnerships between professionals and with professionals and families to maximize and support student learning. This collaboration values all input and insights to provide the necessary services. For example, this includes meetings and feedback between teachers, related service providers, other professionals, and families with active listening and problem solving.

Addressing Students’ Needs

them. Students are not born strategic learners; educators must help them become strategic learners. In classrooms that value strategic learners, learning is not just about the lesson but also about what each lesson means to each student; it is not just about an answer being “right” or “wrong,” but about why one answer is the correct one as opposed to another. Strategic learners know asking for help is a step forward, not a step backward.

Following are some examples of how educators can create strategic learners. Ask students to rank their learning preferences to solicit inventories on how

students like to learn. For example, are they a 5–4–3–2–1 or a 3–1–4–5–2? ❍ 1 = I like to see it. ❍ 2 = I like to hear it. ❍ 3 = I like to write it. ❍ 4 = I like to draw it. ❍ 5 = I like to . ❍ I’m a – –

– – . Discuss topics or concepts during morning or weekly meetings to help

primary grades students develop simple conversation and listening skills, or facilitate debates and Socratic discussions with upper elementary and secondary level students. Review concepts to solidify learning foundations. Ask students to paraphrase what was said: “Humor me and tell me what you

think you heard.” Ask students to fill out self-assessment checklists to determine their

academic subskills. Distribute exit cards as quick assessments before automatically moving

ahead. For example, an exit card may ask students to write down one thing they learned today or to name something they want the teacher to further explain. Divide the class into either enrichment or review groups, which will vary in

duration and student makeup, depending on topics and units. Frequently conference with co-teachers, related staff, students, and families

to keep the lines of communication open. For example, provide lessons at least a week in advance to co-teachers if not planning together, and send students home with progress reports that note both their efforts and achievements.

How to Create Strategic Learners

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KWL Charts and Reading-Strategy Books Two specific tools that help students become strategic learners are KWL (know, want to know, and learned) charts (Ogle, 1986) and reading strategy books. KWL charts contain three columns: in the first column, students record what they know (or think they know) about the subject; in the second column, students record what they want to know about the subject; and at the end of the lesson, students record what they learned or the knowledge they gained in the third column.

Subject: The Middle Ages K The Middle Ages happened about 200 years ago during the Roman Empire.

How did people make money during this time? What did they do for fun?

There was a road made of silk.

Figure 3.1: KWL chart about the Middle Ages.

Instruction must clarify the correct time period and explain that the Middle Ages occurred after the Romans were in power, following the Barbarian invasions of Europe. Instruction on the Silk Road must define it as being a trade route linking the East (China) with the West (Europe). The teacher then should verify that the student later writes the correct knowledge in the L column. Students could investigate economic and social activities of the Middle Ages through readings, skits, and role-playing as knights, commoners, aristocrats, or monks to replace what students think they know with correct information. In addition, encourage students to write reading strategies in a journal across content areas to help them tackle more difficult concepts or skills. For example, a reading-strategy book can provide students with structured steps to help them identify unfamiliar words. Students can compile and record different ways to improve their reading skills, which they later reference as a metacognitive tool. These can be digital interactive notebooks or handheld student created ones. Some students will be able to free write, while others may require writing stems or templates, or they can use tools that dictate their thoughts and keep audio notes. Figure 3.2 is an example of a page in a reading-strategy book.

Examine studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; KWL charts before, during, and after lessons or units. The KWL chart in figure 3.1 shows incorrect prior student knowledge about the Middle Ages, which interferes with subsequent learning.

Addressing Students’ Needs

Ways to read a word I don’t know: Break it up into syl-la-bles. Look the word up in my online dictionary. See if the word has parts, like a prefix or suffix. Look at how the writer used the word in the sentence. Highlight the word and go back to it later.

Additional information, articles, and reading resources can be explored at the Reading Mama website (https://thisreadingmama.com/books-reading-comprehension-strategies). Matt Miller at Ditch That Textbook (https://ditchthattextbook.com/google-slides -interactive-notebooks-20-activities-to-fill-them) has an interactive digital template that students can investigate.

Attention and Motivation Strategic learners pay attention and are motivated to learn. Strong evidence suggests teachers can increase student engagement and on-task behavior by rearranging the classroom’s environment and routines to allow students opportunities to experience active learning (Bada, 2015; Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash, & Weaver, 2008). Teachers can create constructivist learning experiences, implement direct instruction to whole groups, offer support to small groups of mixed-ability-level learners, or help students with oneto-one interventions, acting as facilitators while students learn how to learn. Ultimately, the goal is for students to independently demonstrate their learning, but of course, good teaching strategies, such as modeling and guidance, precede independent practice. Prominent behavioral scientist Albert Bandura’s (1977) study of students’ social learning outlines four social cognition factors that teachers can relate to lessons: (1) attention, (2) retention, (3) reproduction, and (4) motivation. Whether students pay attention to lessons might depend on their mood, internal or external distracters, or stimuli or situations beyond their prior knowledge and experiences. Although video clips, curriculum songs, interactive whiteboards, and colorful charts or visuals will captivate many students, novel material is usually more difficult for them to learn. Many teachers attest that just because students pay attention during a lesson does not always indicate they will remember the learning. Students often retain lessons that include content-related, concrete or semiabstract visuals that connect to concepts in their lives. Learners often need to see an example or model before they can reproduce an action on their own. According to Bandura (1977), social learning has intrinsic factors as well, with students then internalizing or self-regulating their behavior. In addition, students who can imagine or envision their successes before actually applying a new behavior will then perform it better. Bandura (1977) equates this to Olympic skaters who visualize successfully

Figure 3.2: Example page in a reading-strategy book.

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accomplishing a routine before the event. Their vision of real-life success motivates them. He states that without the motivation or a reason to imitate a behavior, the behavior is not a lasting one.

Pacing and Complexity Quite often, the amount of curriculum teachers deliver during a forty- to fifty-minute class period can overwhelm students with special needs. Some teachers believe they need to cover the curriculum at the same steady pace, regardless of whether students are absorbing the knowledge. This consequently affects students with disabilities who cannot keep up with the rate of learning (King-Sears, 2008). Rather than repeatedly asking questions, some students prefer to pretend to know what’s going on until assessments reveal otherwise. Savvy educators circumvent this downward spiral toward student shutdown by periodically slowing down lessons with active discussion, oral and written informal checks, and intermittently asking students to paraphrase their understanding with wait time and positive corrective feedback (Collins, Cook, Sweigart, & Evanovich, 2018). Educators should slow down rapid deliveries to achieve pacing that allows for more student discussion, time for absorption, modeling, and appropriate scaffolding and guidance. Educators may also use pacing charts or map lessons with general objectives throughout each quarter of the year to maintain curriculum pacing and a consistent focus on annual goals. Effective educators create lessons that allow for varying degrees of representation, engagement, and assessment. Pacing that allows for differences has baseline objectives with gradual increments of difficulty and learning opportunities for students who require additional challenges (Karten, 2017b). For example, if the teacher is teaching the concept of structural analysis through dividing words into parts, then giving students a list of words with different difficulty levels will differentiate for varying reading levels in a whole-class activity (see table 3.1). Students work individually, ask for teacher guidance, or collaborate with peers in groups. Everyone is learning the same concept, just with different degrees of complexity.

Educators can apply Bandura’s (1977) theory on social behaviors to inclusion classrooms. Physical inclusion allows students multiple opportunities to model age-appropriate social thoughts and behaviors, which also honors students’ multiple intelligences and preferred learning modalities. Students must buy-in to the lesson, and teachers can accomplish this by providing motivating connections to students’ lives, thus increasing interest, participation, and learning. Feedback is also effective at increasing student motivation. When teachers give students immediate specific feedback—for example, handing back quizzes and tests within the same week—that reinforcement increases student motivation. Timely feedback and communicating progress to students help foster self-regulated learners (SRLs) who are cognizant of not only their numerical grade but also the level and quality of their work.

Addressing Students’ Needs

Table 3.1: Differentiated Word Lists to Develop Structural Analysis Easier

Proficient

Challenging

Compound words

bathtub

milestone

meltdown

Words with prefixes

untold

reshape

telescope

Words with suffixes

funny

bluish

personable

Words with prefixes and suffixes

unfriendly

reappointed

deportation

Educators who provide centers with sponge activities (activities that soak up time) and ongoing projects for students to review and absorb concepts are not concerned about how long it takes students to finish the unit, but about engaging students in meaningful learning opportunities. Students are involved in their own learning, not looking over one another’s shoulders to see who does what, while educators act as facilitators, not curriculum disseminators. A learning center can include sponge activities that range from playing a game of Monopoly or Minecraft, to student-created variations of Monopoly or Minecraft to coincide with a geography unit, to practicing mathematics computation skills with Math Baseball (www.funbrain.com/games/math-baseball) on a Chromebook or iPad. Students practice computations, conduct research, write poems or editorials for the school or class newspaper, or create infographics of what they learn. Sponge activities are useful during transitional periods and when teachers are working with smaller groups or are busy with upcoming or unannounced administrative directives. The “Sponge Activities” reproducible (page 98) outlines ongoing learning experiences for students throughout the year. Sponge activities allow students to simultaneously work on various assignments at different paces and give teachers the flexibility to review concepts with smaller groups or offer students enrichment. Students work on skills independently or in cooperative groups. Students need sufficient time to digest the learning, allowing for more cognitive thought and practice. As with Aesop’s fable “The Tortoise and the Hare,” slow and steady wins the race. Fast-paced lessons often lead to fewer understandings if the work is rapidly

Curriculum demands are enormous. In some teachers’ haste to move on and cover more, they fail to discover that less breadth or alternate approaches are sometimes better. The teacher must vary and adjust his or her delivery to meet the needs of all learners. Use curriculum pauses rather than maintaining classroom speeds that exceed students’ limits and create frustrating cerebral “traffic jams.” However, slowing down a lesson to benefit one or two students in whole-class instruction often disengages the other students. Options to avoid this problem include having group responses for lower-order questions, while allowing sufficient wait time for higher-order questions, or assigning individualized, short, structured tasks and then providing frequent formative, personal feedback.

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delivered and not reinforced and anchored to students’ prior knowledge, skill sets, and interests. The curriculum and standards are important, but isn’t student learning and understanding more important? Learners supersede the curriculum; therefore, it is the students who should determine the lesson pace. A lesson only has merit if it acknowledges students as the audience.

Effective Co-Teaching and Collaborative Practices

Administrators should lead their staff toward collaboration (which includes improving co-teaching instruction), but educators are the ones who model positive collaborative interactions and set the classroom cooperative social tone that students absorb (CaustonTheoharis & Malmgren, 2005; Hurd & Weilbacher, 2017). Therefore, relationships between co-teachers in the classroom must be ongoing and productive. Co-teachers may not always agree on every aspect of lesson plans, objectives, accommodations, modifications, and assessments, but they must respectfully agree that it’s OK to disagree (Karten & Murawski, 2020). This then leads to problem solving, negotiation, and often compromise. Sometimes it’s the general education teacher who ultimately decides on a content-related decision, while the special education teacher has the knowledge and experience to ensure that a student’s specially designed instruction is delivered with fidelity and accountability. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate respect for one another’s expertise. It is no longer an option for classroom teachers to do their own thing behind closed doors. Teaching is about sharing, and that includes time, ideas, lessons, worksheets, opinions, favorite books, and responsibilities. In inclusion classrooms, co-teachers and instructional support staff improve the learning scenarios for all students, both with and without disabilities. Collaboration is also about bridging the learning between grades and schools, so each year, the next-grade teachers build each student’s knowledge using helpful strategies, social histories, and more.

When teachers in inclusion environments work together to reach common goals for their students in collaborative cultures (where faculty share their expertise), there is more evidence of reforms (Berg, 2019; Brownell, Adams, Sindelar, Waldron, & Vanhover, 2006). It is also essential for principals and other administrators to offer guidance and ongoing support to staff to foster effective use of collaboration skills, with professional development that builds relationships and positive school and classroom cultures (Friend & Cook, 2009; Hall, 2019; Hines, 2008; Karten, 2013; Karten & Murawski, 2020). Collaborative attitudes and practices should be part of relationships with families, co-teachers, paraprofessionals, and other related staff.

Addressing Students’ Needs

Friend and Cook (1996) initially identified five co-teaching models and then separated the One Teach, One Support Model into One Teach, One Observe, and One Teach, One Assist to add a sixth approach. Co-teaching and collaborative options or spokes include, but are not limited to, the following five co-teaching or collaborative models, a student’s specially designed instruction, along with the evidence-based practices of differentiated instruction, universal design for learning, understanding by design, positive behavioral interventions and supports, social-emotional learning, and the multitiered systems of support (Karten & Murawski, 2020). the lesson together to model reflective thought and encourage more class discussion. Parallel/simultaneous small-group teaching: Two teachers divide the class

into two smaller groups and simultaneously teach either identical lessons or lessons that vary in complexity, types of interventions, layers of learning, or accommodations. One teaches, one supports: One teacher leads, and one teacher assists.

One teacher circulates, while the other teacher monitors behavior, keeps data, offers study skills tips, and just generally supports the lead teacher in multiple ways. Co-teachers inconspicuously offer increased proximity, clarify queries, and provide academic and behavioral supports and reinforcement. Small-group or alternative instruction: Co-teachers provide remediation,

practice, or acceleration for academic content or behavior to targeted groups, while other groups or individual students work independently. Station Teaching: Teachers and assistants use stations and centers to

simultaneously offer remediation and enrichment to individuals or small groups in busy but productive inclusion classroom environments. Use figure 3.3 (page 78) to plan how you will collaboratively support the learners in your classroom. Figure 3.4 (page 78) shows an example of how to identify co-teaching challenges and explore solutions. Word choices help you reflect on how to address perceived obstacles for students, staff, and families. Note chapter 11, “Practicing Professional Collaboration” (page 219), offers additional co-teaching insights, collaborative tools, and resources for planning, instruction, and reflection.

Team teaching: Two teachers bounce ideas off each other and lead

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Our Classroom Scenario Disciplines:

Grade:

Subject, concepts, skills (big ideas) Baseline level More advanced Small groups (for enrichment, practice, or repetition) Co-teaching models

Collaboratively think about the strategies, supports, and roles of: General education students Students with special needs General education teacher Special education teacher Paraprofessionals or instructional assistants Related staff Administrators Families

Figure 3.3: Collaboratively supporting learners in a classroom scenario. Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds for a free reproducible version of this figure.

Challenges

Possible Solutions I, We . . . He, She, They . . . Staff, Students, Families . . .

Co-planning lessons for or with learners or staff with different skill sets and experiences

We could assess our students at the beginning of the unit and use this information to plan and differentiate the lessons.

Supporting multiple classes, grades, or subjects

If we don’t have face-to-face planning time, we can share responsibilities and respond through digital documents and communications to students and families.

Learning new content

I’ll research the next topic and prepare additional resources.

Getting along with

Even though we didn’t co-teach before this year, let’s coach and encourage each other and our students.

Organizing

Let’s reflect on how we organize the lesson to include times for students to practice and for us to help with enrichment.

Teaching a student with an IEP

Our plan is to honor and elevate each student’s skills.

Controlling emotions

If a student can’t control his or her emotions, let’s teach him or her to better self-regulate and offer increased conference time to share positive reinforcement.

Understanding what co-teachers expect

If students or families are unsure of the expectations, let’s explore how we can better share ideas.

Juggling all I need to do

Let’s reflect on how to help students better manage their schedules, and ours too!

Evidence-Based Practices (DI, UDl, UbD, SEL, PBIS)

Addressing Students’ Needs

We can repeat directions for students and set up organization tools on a strategy table in the classroom and online.

Finishing class or homework on time

Let’s set up interim learning checks to approximate completion times and monitor and adapt assignments.

Listening to people I don’t agree with

It’s important to accept, listen, learn, and seek ideas from other teachers, related staff, and families.

Pacing lessons without frustrating or losing some students’ attention

We can offer parallel lessons and small groups to recognize and respond to students who need different pacing or engagements with a smaller teacher-student ratio.

Co-teaching with someone who has “That’s the way we’ve always done it” syndrome

Let’s research and explore how to modify and improve our collaborative practices by thinking about the outcomes as we design our curriculum units through a UbD approach.

Word Choices

access

acknowledge

adapt

collaborate

communicate

be  present

coach

document

encourage

include

internalize

mentor

modify

promote

enlist

instruct

monitor

provide

enrich outcomes

recognize

reflect

self-regulate

shape

work around

yield

zone in

adjust

assist

co-teach

elevate invite pace research slate

advocate

connect

evaluate involve plan

lead

respond tier

design

explore

prepare

differentiate guide

honor

learn practice

repeat try

approximate

listen preassess

scaffold validate

seek value

Figure 3.4: Co-teaching challenges and solutions. Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds for a free reproducible version of this figure.

Appropriate Interventions for Specific Students Even though some students in inclusion classrooms may share a disability classification, each student displays unique characteristics. Generally, there are appropriate interventions for particular learner classifications. However, keep in mind that the following classifications are heterogeneous with variations under each. These classifications denote possible characteristics of different groups, not descriptions of individuals. The overall objective of the following sections is to recognize the gifts of all students, including those who are gifted as well as those who have learning disabilities or challenges.

Above-Average Skills If teachers do not challenge students with above-average skills, they may learn the least in inclusion classrooms. These students need teachers to vary the depth, breadth, pacing, and complexity of instruction. Offer ongoing opportunities for students to creatively explore and manipulate concepts. Tap into their interests when possible. Strategies such as using contracts (outlining individual learning objectives) and compacting (eliminating objectives and curriculum material students already know and replacing them with enrichment activities) offer students with above-average skills challenging ways to expand

Remembering what I need to do

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their knowledge base. Content-based acceleration (with team-based decisions and systematic monitoring and evaluating) addresses learners’ personal and academic growth (Lupkowski-Shoplik, Behrens, & Assouline, 2018). Be cognizant of expanding social interactions for these students, as well as increasing their academic proficiency. Visit the Association for the Gifted (www.cectag.org) and the National Association for Gifted Children (www.nagc.org) for more information.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Academic interventions include redirecting students; providing alternate activities with smaller chunks of content distributed over time; more movement; decreasing distractions; and offering multiple ways to instruct. Offer pragmatic ways to control impulses, such as having the student jot down his or her question or thought rather than impulsively shout it out. Students with ADHD often take medication, so check with the school nurse for side effects and communicate your observations with families. School nurses can offer knowledge to support teachers with evidence-based strategies that optimize student educational and mental health outcomes (Lawrence, Estrada, & McCormick, 2017). Incorporate students’ interests into lessons and offer frequent praise and constructive, immediate, and specific academic, social, and behavioral feedback to students. Visit Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (www.chadd.org), the National Institute of Mental Health (www.nimh.nih.gov), ADDitude (www.additude mag.com), and Understood (www.understood.org/en) for more information.

Auditory Processing Difficulties Students with auditory processing difficulties (APD), such as a central auditory processing disorder, are unable to process the information they hear because their brains and ears do not coordinate sounds. They have normal hearing but may have trouble with the following tasks. Paying attention with background noises present Remembering information

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a developmental disorder with varying combinations of behavioral symptoms that often require multimodal treatments, depending on individual characteristics. Students may be hyperactive or impulsive; inattentive or hyperattentive to sensory cues or details; or have focusing difficulties. Behavior is a response to an antecedent and driven by a consequence. Using contingency management and planning—that is, providing reinforcement for desired behaviors and consequences for undesirable behaviors to help students better understand expectations—helps improve student attention and reduce disruptive behavior since students realize that the reinforcements they receive are contingent on their behavior (Webster, 2019). Adolescents with ADHD may also have difficulties with emotional regulation or executive functioning skills, and display anxiety (Jarrett, 2016). Systemic family therapy is also a promising approach for treating students with ADHD (Weyers, Zemp, & Alpers, 2019).

Addressing Students’ Needs

Following directions Detecting or discriminating differences between similar-sounding words

or letters Completing tasks Understanding verbal tasks requiring inferential skills

Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental disability that individuals typically evidence during the first three years of life. It is a lifelong condition; students do not outgrow autism. ASD is a neurobiological disorder that significantly impairs children’s social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and behavior. Students with autism have different levels of cognitive functioning, which impacts academic, social, emotional, and behavioral domains (Kimbi, 2014). Autism affects a person’s ability to communicate and socially interact with others. This may impact their verbal and nonverbal communications, such as establishing eye contact or understanding body language. Students can also be repetitive in their behaviors and want the sameness of routines. Levels of cognitive need vary within this broad spectrum. Organized and predictable environments that outline rules, routines, and structures assist students with autism. Following are some examples. Announce changes and transitions and post daily schedules. Offer quiet places in the classroom with less stimulation for students to

pause, reflect, and feel calm. Concentrate on students’ strengths and interests. Provide an array of materials with more opportunities for students to see,

hear, and touch what they are learning. Offer structured academic, behavioral, communication, and social supports. Help students understand the big picture rather than just focusing on

minute details. Frequently check students for understanding. Model how to improve peer relationships with direct social skills training,

such as using social narratives (www.autismsociety-nc.org/social-narratives) and increasing monitoring during guided cooperative learning activities.

Offer more visuals and frequently ask students to paraphrase their understanding. Use technology, such as classroom assistive listening devices, to amplify sounds. Increase students’ awareness of their progress and encourage them to ask for clarifications. Visit the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.org/public/hearing /Understanding-Auditory-Processing-Disorders-in-Children) and Kids Health (https:// kidshealth.org/en/parents/central-auditory.html) for more information.

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Factors such as appropriate teacher, co-teacher, and paraprofessional support; family involvement; professional learning; team approaches; behavioral plans; consistency; communication; and continuity are crucial for these students (Boroson, 2017; Crisman, 2008). Researchers Beth Ann Walker and colleagues (2017) offer a thematic synthesis of fifty-nine articles on effective strategies that influence the performance of students with autism spectrum disorder to reveal five themes.

2. Offering more inclusion strategies 3. Providing opportunities and guidance with social interaction 4. Using video modeling to increase positive behaviors 5. Implementing teacher training that includes collaborating with occupational therapists to assist students and teachers with daily routines Visit the Autism Society of America (www.autism-society.org) and Autism Speaks (www.autismspeaks.org) for more information and interventions.

Childhood Apraxia of Speech Students with childhood apraxia of speech (a motor-speech disorder that affects the planning, executing, and sequencing of sounds) need assistance to decrease their articulation errors since their brains are unable to properly coordinate tongue or mouth muscle movements. Teachers should scaffold as necessary to help students say sounds, then syllables, and finally words. Students respond to intensive, structured, multisensory programs with coordination from speech-language pathologists. Use mirrors for visual cues and teach sign language for communication, if needed. Provide safe environments that value all forms of expression. As the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (n.d.b) notes: “A naturalistic treatment environment is important for facilitating generalization and carryover of skills.” Model appropriate attitudes and behaviors to teach peers accepting attitudes. See the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.org/public/hearing /Understanding-Auditory-Processing-Disorders-in-Children), Apraxia Kids (www .apraxia-kids.org), and the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/apraxia-speech) for more information.

Communication Disorders Communication disorders include difficulties with pronouncing, understanding, perceiving, remembering, and reasoning. Categories of these disorders include speech-sound, social communication, mixed receptive-expressive language, expressive language disorder, childhood-onset fluency (stuttering), and speech-sound (volume, nasality, and hoarseness). Participate in frequent consultation and collaboration with the school’s

1. Minimizing disruptive behaviors

Addressing Students’ Needs

speech-language pathologist for class- and home-practice interventions. Teach all students to patiently and nonjudgmentally allow their peers to express thoughts at their preferred rates and competency levels. Provide these students with additional vocabulary, grammar rules, and sentence structure practice, and explain idioms. Use technology as appropriate with picture exchange communication systems and other augmentative devices. Visit the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.org) for more information.

IDEA defines deafness as a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification (IDEA, 2017b). Other hearing impairments vary in degrees of severity and the use of technological and medical devices may enhance residual hearing. Teach more complex vocabulary and comprehension across the curriculum with additional examples, visuals, and models. The National Council for Special Education (NCSE, n.d.) offers strategies to modify the physical, linguistic, and communicative environments for learners with hearing loss that include, but are not limited to, increasing visual representations and gestures, teaching self-advocacy, explaining new vocabulary in multiple contexts, and modifying the acoustics in the general education classroom. Check for understanding frequently, be certain to speak in a normal tone, and face the student if he or she reads lips. Offer accompanying visuals with graphic organizers and written outlines to clarify and solidify students’ knowledge. Peer mentors can also help students with day-to-day interactions. Practice sign language (www.handspeak.com) and visit the Hearing Loss Association of America (www.hearingloss.org) and the American Society for Deaf Children (www .deafchildren.org) to learn more about deafness and hearing impairment.

Dyscalculia Dyscalculia is a learning disorder that impacts students’ competencies with number sense, mathematical computations, time, spatial organizations, schedules, money, and budgeting. Students may lose their place when counting, have difficulties with patterns and sequencing, along with telling and managing time, keeping score, and manipulating data to solve word problems. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) lists dyscalculia as a specific learning disability with impairment in mathematics. Guided modeling with practice and repetition is helpful. Use uncluttered worksheets and encourage students to visualize or act out word problems. Employ more manipulatives to solidify abstract concepts. Try to relate mathematics learning to realistic practical applications such as comparison shopping, following daily schedules, and opening lockers. For example, Dyscalculia.org (https://dyscalculia.org) has a real-life connection that teaches place value by numbering parking spaces. Enlist peers to assist as appropriate.

Deafness or Hearing Impairment

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In addition, students with dyscalculia have greater and lesser degrees of impairment and remediation, and educators should focus on individual learner profiles (Kucian & von Aster, 2015). Visit Dyscalculia.org and Attitude (www.additudemag.com/what -is-dyscalculia-overview-and-symptom-breakdown) for more information on characteristics, tools, and strategies. More strategies are offered in chapter 6 (page 157).

Dysgraphia

Whether a student is writing a paragraph about dinosaurs or the electoral process, he or she will probably display more inappropriate letter formation and sentence composition than students with typical writing skills. A student who struggles to write will then have the dysgraphia spill over into other subject areas, such as mathematics, where the student might not align digits properly, which affects computations and most likely leads to more time spent on the writing aspect rather than on learning mathematics. Class notes may be illegible due to poor fine motor skills and disorganized thoughts when writing. Offer students advanced organizers to promote better note-taking and distribute copies of outlines (such as PowerPoint slides and writing frames), along with digital recordings of class instruction for students to listen to and pause at their own pace a later time. Early childhood instruction includes helping students by using multisensory approaches such as writing letters in salt, in the air, or perhaps on sandpaper. Peer notetakers can assist one another. Direct skill instruction is essential to improve studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; writing mechanics, editing skills, and confidence through corrective practice sessions. If appropriate, offer learning options such as oral presentations instead of written reports. Technology options, such as letter-tracing apps, word-prediction software, adaptive grip pens and pencils, along with digital recorders and voice typing in Google Docs are also appropriate adaptations. Visit Learning Abled Kids (http://learningabledkids.info/assistive-technology/assistive _technology_writing/assistive-technology-for-dysgraphia-and-writing-disabilities) and Don Johnston (www.donjohnston.com) to explore various technology options. Even lowtech options make a difference, such as drawing thin lines on unlined paper so a student can place letters in a straight line or turning horizontally lined paper vertically so the student can line up mathematics numbers. Visit LDInfo (www.ldinfo.com) and Learning Without Tears (www.lwtears.com) for more information and interventions.

Dyslexia Dyslexia is a neurologically based learning difference students evidence with a reading disorder. Appropriate early interventions include direct skill instruction on phonemic

Dysgraphia is a type of learning difference that students evidence by having difficulties expressing their thoughts in writing. Characteristics such as illegible handwriting (with poor letter or stroke formation), along with decoding issues, inappropriate spacing, incorrect spelling, poor gripping of writing tools, and general disorganization or sequencing of written expressions may also occur (McCloskey & Rapp, 2017).

Addressing Students’ Needs

The Research Excellence and Advancements for Dyslexia (READ) Act of 2016 has the purpose of achieving earlier identification of dyslexia, training educators to understand and instruct students with dyslexia and special learning disabilities, and to provide the necessary dyslexia interventions. The Every Student Succeeds Act (2017) addresses struggling readers with a funded initiative called the Comprehensive Literacy Center, which helps educators recognize early reading characteristics and then provide the necessary interventions. Students need specific instruction on how the smallest units of sounds (phonemes) are strung together to make the sounds in syllables and words (phonics). Recommended interventions include UDL and personalized literacy programs that address individual learner needs (Horowitz, Rawe, & Whittaker, 2017). Teachers should capitalize on students’ preferred modalities with visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile multisensory deliveries. For example, allow learners to tap out syllables or read and write on different surfaces with an assortment of materials, such as glitter glue, sandpaper, screens, shaving cream, or salt. Activate digital tools with text-to-speech for online sites, leave audio notes as feedback in Google Docs (to ease reading requirements), and offer curriculum-related visuals and videos. Highlight students’ strengths, allowing them alternate options to extensive readings. For example, creating a graphic novel or captioned picture as opposed to writing a five-paragraph essay circumvents reading difficulties but allows for multiple representations. Accepting environments with structured reading programs help students maximize their capabilities. Visit Learning Ally (https://learningally.org), Bright Solutions for Dyslexia (www.dys -add.com), the International Dyslexia Association (https://dyslexiaida.org), the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity (https://dyslexia.yale.edu), and the Institute for MultiSensory Education at (www.orton-gillingham.com) for more information. More strategies are offered in chapter 5 (page 125).

Emotional Differences Emotional differences are complex and often misunderstood. Emotional differences can range from externalizing behaviors that involve conduct disorders to internalizing

awareness, word segmentation and fluency, and repeated reading and comprehension skills practice. Unfortunately, there is still confusion regarding terminology and identification. Some school districts and families think the term dyslexia is synonymous or interchangeable with a specific learning disability, or that all students with reading differences are dyslexic, but to diagnose and determine levels and needs, an assessment of reading skills and early intervention is essential (Lindstrom, 2018). One single test does not determine if a student has dyslexia. A doctor reviews a child’s medical history; hearing, vision, and neurological tests may be given; a family profile is reviewed; and trained reading experts administer educational tests (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). This includes, but is not limited to, determining student levels and offering interventions for improving letter-sound knowledge of real and nonsense words, word decoding, reading fluency, spelling (encoding), and reading comprehension.

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At times, doctors prescribe medication for students, but it is also essential that students learn increased self-control. Educators can use functional behavioral assessments to determine the reason for the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior. Offer structured behavior incentives or behavioral report cards, along with direct social skills instruction, through social narratives and role playing. It is important for educators to concretize abstract emotions and offer students tangible ways to make better choices. Consistency, compassion, and connections are essential. Always put safety first and foremost, and document and date behaviors in anecdotal logs to see patterns, develop responsive interventions, and share concerns with interventionists, families, and students. Also explore how some students may prefer digital and virtual interventions and connections, such as online peer communities and virtual avatars (see Class Dojo [www .classdojo.com]) or mixed-reality classrooms with simulated students (see TeachLivE [http://teachlive.org/about/about-teachlive]). Be aware of children who are sometimes quietly crying out for attention through their dress or writings. Be sure to collaborate with the school guidance counselor and psychologist. Visit Mental Health America (www.nmha.org), the National Institute of Mental Health (www.nimh.nih.gov), the International OCD Foundation at (https://iocdf .org), Internet Mental Health (www.mentalhealth.com), the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (https://adaa.org), Do2Learn at (www.do2learn.com), and the Child Mind Institute (https://childmind.org) for more information and interventions.

Epilepsy Epilepsy is a disorder of the central nervous system, with unknown causes in many cases. Some factors can include birth or head injuries and infectious diseases such as encephalitis or meningitis. Partial or general seizures cause differences in electrical brain signals, resulting in symptoms such as fidgeting, blank stares, loss of consciousness, confused memory, fatigue, different perceptions and thoughts about sounds, repetitive behavior, and the inability to stand. Students may also have side effects from seizure medication.

behaviors such as depression or anxiety. Many students with affective disorders evidence with mood swings, from being compulsive and ritualistic (as with obsessive-compulsive disorder [OCD]), to being defiant (as in oppositional defiant disorders [ODD]). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2013) notes how irritability and uncontrollable social behavior may occur without provocation in students with disruptive mood dysregulation disorders, while some students may evidence depressive disorders with physical symptoms, such as headaches, stomachaches, or difficulties concentrating. There may also be comorbidity, when a student who has another disability also is displaying emotional, social, or behavioral needs. For example, teachers must address a student with dyscalculia who may also have anxiety, while a student with autism may also have behavioral and social needs.

Addressing Students’ Needs

Students with epilepsy often feel stigmatized. If a student has a seizure, ensure the student’s head is protected and reassure the student if he or she is in a confused state following the seizure. Offer assistance with learning gaps that may occur if the student misses class time, such as an extra copy of notes, study guides, and peer mentors. An accepting, academically stimulating environment with teachers and peers who are knowledgeable about epilepsy is essential. Qualified medical experts and families can share helpful firstaid information. Visit the Epilepsy Foundation (www.epilepsy.com) for more information.

Students with executive dysfunction have difficulties setting goals. Provide appropriate scaffolding and strategies such as checking agendas and providing daily schedules, weekly and monthly calendars, study skills, ways to break up more complex directions, and organizational tips for short- and long-term tasks. Students must learn how to pick up environmental cues and sort knowledge from past experiences to gain more direction and metacognition. Help students develop more self-confidence through successful academic and social classroom experiences. Establish school-home communication that reinforces organizational strategies in both environments. Assist adolescents with transitional plans during IEP meetings. Visit Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (https://chadd.org/about-adhd/executive-function-skills) and the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (https://developingchild.harvard.edu /resources/activities-guide-enhancing-and-practicing-executive-function-skills-with -children-from-infancy-to-adolescence) for more information.

Intellectual Disabilities Students with intellectual disabilities have developmental differences, with IQ scores usually in the 70–75 range. Affected areas can include cognition, communication, and social and adaptive skills. There are three major criteria for intellectual disability: (1) significant limitations in intellectual functioning, (2) significant limitations in adaptive behavior, and (3) onset before age eighteen (American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities and The Arc, 2018). In their joint position statement, the American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities and The Arc (2019) say: Students with IDD [intellectual developmental disabilities] frequently do not have appropriately ambitious and personalized goals, challenging objectives, high quality instruction, individualized transition planning, and related services and supports necessary to engage as full members of their school learning communities. Consequently, many students with IDD leave school unprepared for further education, employment, and independent living in the community.

Recommended interventions include accompanying abstract concepts with more explanation and concrete examples. Teachers should break down assignments with complex and multiple directions into steps using a discrete task–analysis approach. For example, if

Executive Dysfunction

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a student needs to count a group of coins, the teacher must first determine if the student can identify the different types of coins and their values. Teachers might repeat instruction to ensure retention and generalization.

When offering adaptations, be certain that they match a student’s level of understanding. For example, a sixth-grade middle school science teacher who presents vocabulary with the following written definitions of tragedy of the commons and decomposer is not offering students with intellectual disabilities the appropriate adaptations to learn these terms. Instead, the teacher might ask the student to use a website like Rewordify (www .rewordify.com) to simplify the text and read it aloud as an appropriate adaption. In addition, breaking up longer words into syllables will assist a student with intellectual disabilities who may be at a below-grade reading level.

Adaptations for Sixth Grade Terms and Definitions Original Definition Tragedy of the commons: “The depletion (using up) of a shared resource by a person for his or her own, selfish benefit even though he or she understands that depleting the common resource is not in humanity’s best interest” (Quizlet, 2020b). Appropriate Adaptation Tragedy of the commons: The com-plete using up of shared things by a person even though this is not a good thing for other people in the world if it is gone. This happens when things are taken from our en-vi-ron-ment (where people, animals, and plants live). Original Definition Decomposer: “Organisms that break down biotic wastes and dead organisms and return the raw materials to the ecosystem” (Quizlet, 2020a). Appropriate Adaptation Decomposer: A living thing that breaks down other living things and returns the raw materials (things found in nature) to the com-mu-ni-ty.

Adding audio, visual, and interactive components tender more appropriate strategies than just a written definition. Using pictures, science videos, online flashcards, digital games, quizzes, and tutorials such as YouTube (https://youtube.com), Quizlet (https:// quizlet.com) or Khan Academy (https://khanacademy.org) helps students to solidify more complex terms and concepts with visual, verbal, and digital explanation. Of course, this

Whenever possible, teachers should relate instruction and concepts to learners’ lives. For example, when teaching the concepts of classification and taxonomy, talk about more familiar living things or perhaps how to categorize different nutrition, transportation, or hygiene items. Ensure peers meaningfully involve students with intellectual differences in activities. Teachers should also first think how a student with intellectual disabilities will learn something in the general education lesson, rather than assuming a student can’t learn something because he or she has a label such as intellectual disabilities or Down syndrome.

Addressing Students’ Needs

takes additional planning and instructional time, but it’s time well spent that increases student understanding and retention. Teachers should also coordinate how to use these tools with families. The next chapter offers more discussion about appropriate adaptations with accommodations and modifications.

Physical Impairment Types of physical impairment or disabilities vary in how they affect muscle movement and mobility. Teachers must model attitudes that proclaim students with physical disabilities are just as capable as their peers in terms of academic content and socialization, regardless of their range of motion. Help students as needed, but always try to promote increased independence and self-determination skills. Accommodations will vary depending on each student’s individual needs and strengths. If a learner with a physical impairment receives an IDEA classification, he or she is usually put into the category, orthopedic impairment (for example, cerebral palsy, poliomyelitis, and fractures) or other health impairment (OHI) (for example, asthma and diabetes; Center for Parent Information and Resources, 2017a). Classroom arrangements and school environments should allow students maximum access to all academic and extracurricular activities. Explore assistive technology for students, such as word-prediction and voice-recognition programs or alternate keyboards (such as controlling a computer from a smartphone or using eye-gaze technology). Collaborate with physical and occupational therapists for best classroom practices and how to know a learner’s stamina and individualized needs. Visit the National Council for Special Education (www.sess.ie/categories/physical -disabilities), PE Central (www.pecentral.org/adapted/adaptedactivities.html), Disabled World (www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/mobility), and the Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training (www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-technology /physical-disability) for more information.

Specific Learning Disabilities Specific learning disabilities (SLDs) include difficulties understanding or using spoken or written language and symbols. Specific learning disabilities affect the way a student listens, speaks, reads, writes, spells, does mathematics calculations, and solves problems. Along with dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia, these disabilities often impact any one or a combination of the following.

Visit The Arc (www.thearc.org), the American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (www.aaidd.org), and Think College (inclusion higher education options for people with intellectual disabilities [www.thinkcollege.net]) for more information.

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Oral expression Listening comprehension Reading fluency Reading comprehension Basic reading skills Written expression Mathematical problem solving

For a school professional, such as a learning disabilities teacher consultant, to classify a student as having a specific learning disability, documentation includes a team-based review of a learner’s cumulative records, class work, anecdotal teacher notes, and statewide and districtwide assessments, along with formal, diagnostic, and informal tests; curriculum-based evaluations; and family input. IDEA also considers information processing, along with a learner’s rate of progress and response to evidence-based interventions. If his or her learning problems directly relate to a visual, hearing, motor, emotional, environmental, intellectual, or cultural or economic disadvantage, then qualified professionals, such as a learning consultant or school psychologist cannot classify the student as having a specific learning disability. In addition, other qualified staff, such as social workers, speech-language pathologists, remedial reading teachers, or literacy and mathematics interventionists, offer input with evaluations and observations. If a student does not respond to evidence-based intervention (such as those given with MTSS), then teachers should communicate intervention results and concerns to school personnel and families to problem solve and collaboratively determine if a specific learning disabilities evaluation or a 504 plan is warranted. Increase students’ self-awareness by teaching them how to track their progress and set learning goals. Employ the principles of UDL and capitalize on student strengths to help learners shine. For example, if a student dislikes mathematics but likes music, then incorporate mathematics songs that highlight the concepts. Or if a student dislikes reading but loves theater, incorporate curriculum scripts, which allow the learner to act out the concepts. This yields literacy gains while highlighting student interests. Offer students repeated application and review of learning to solidify concepts. Utilize multisensory learning strategies, such as hopping to multiplication facts while skip counting, reading stories of interest, or tapping out syllables. Teach students to advocate for themselves by letting teachers know which accommodations they need. Monitor and share student progress with students and families. Scaffold instruction and provide interventions, but also know when to wisely fade (or phase out) supports. Encourage peers to assist as mentors. Visit the Learning Disabilities Association of America (https:// ldaamerica.org) and the National Center for Learning Disabilities (www.ncld.org) for more information.

Mathematics calculation

Addressing Students’ Needs

Tourette Syndrome

Offer behavioral interventions with private individualized feedback and define and reinforce your expectations to increase learner awareness and self-regulation. Provide an accepting environment with educated peers who understand the needs of a student with Tourette syndrome, the characteristics that he or she may display, and how they can help. Visit the Tourette Syndrome Association (https://tourette.org) for more information.

Traumatic Brain Injury Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can occur following a head injury, such as a blow to the head from a sports accident, a car accident, or a fall. Depending on the severity, students may experience short- or long-term memory difficulties. Families need extra support to accept the sudden change in their children’s abilities. Try some of the following strategies to help a student with traumatic brain injury. Establish and coordinate school-home support programs that help the

student regain, relearn, and reinforce skills in both environments. Communicate predictable and consistent routines. Proactively offer classroom environments that facilitate attention and

mobility. For example, if sensory elements overstimulate the student, minimize noises or provide earplugs, adjust the lighting, provide study carrels, or offer different seating and direct access to adaptation resources. Be sensitive to the student’s frustrations and introduce learning in smaller

steps he or she can master, rather than overwhelm the student with too many tasks at once. Teach the student how to chunk information and implement organizational

strategies such as using calendars, academic planners, sticky notes, and colorcoding information. Allow the student extra time to complete assignments and think about

how to solidify more abstract concepts or tasks with additional visuals or verbal explanations. Enlist the student’s peers as mentors.

Involuntary tics, rapid sudden movements, and excessive vocal engagements (such as repeated throat clearing or calling) characterize Tourette syndrome, a neurobiological disorder. Tics may include extra eye blinking and differing facial expressions. IDEA usually classifies these students under other health impairments. Their sudden movements in the classroom are often embarrassing to them, so try not to seat them at the center of your instruction. Help students with Tourette syndrome find acceptable ways to channel their motor energy by implementing more kinesthetic instruction. Since attention issues and distractibility, along with impulse control, are associated with Tourette syndrome, students may need additional assistance to stay focused.

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Involve the student in all class activities on his or her instructional levels. Praise the student for steps toward goals as well as mastery.

Visit the Brain Injury Association of America (www.biausa.org) for more information.

Twice Exceptional

Encourage social growth through appropriate direct skill instruction that promotes self-confidence and self-efficacy. Explore cooperative learning activities to increase positive peer interactions and clearly define your expectations. Also, value and expand collaboration with families by sharing strategies for academic and social growth and monitoring. Visit the National Association for Gifted Children (www.nagc.org/resources -publications/resources-parents/twice-exceptional-students) and the Child Mind Institute (https://childmind.org/article/twice-exceptional-kids-both-gifted-and-challenged) for more information.

Visual Impairments and Blindness This IDEA classification includes a broad range for these studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;from those who have low vision to those with blindness. These students require specialized services with the appropriate physical and human resources. Teachers must teach skills parallel to the general education curriculum with the addition of daily living and social skills. Technology may include, but is not limited to, the following: magnifiers, screen enlargers, additional tactile elements, specialized braille books, braille label makers, talking websites, speaking calculators, and optical character recognition (OCR), which scans, speaks, and stores printed text from digital cameras. Infuse as many verbal and kinesthetic or tactile elements as possible into your lessons. For example, present lines of latitude and longitude on a map using skeins of yarn, and then ask peers (who act as verbal helpers) to describe lessons and assist students. Reduce environmental and physical detriments, such as glare from windows or lights, or provide preferential seating and adjust contrast with print and backgrounds on materials and online websites for students with low vision. Be aware of nonverbal communications and use the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first name before giving directions. As with all disability groups, always assist but promote as much independence as possible. Consult with related service providers (such as mobility trainers) and collaborate with families. Visit the American

Twice-exceptional (2e) learners are gifted, but may have learning, emotional, or physical disabilities (Wang & Neihart, 2015). For example, a student may have excellent literacy skills but be challenged in mathematics, have high-anxiety or low-frustration levels, or perhaps have difficulties with written tasks. Students who are twice exceptional are stronger in areas that require teachers to capitalize on their strengths and interests with enrichment activities (such as problem-based learning), along with direct instruction. Teachers also need to help these students advance in their weaker areas, which may require interventions and other strategies. Like other students, 2e learners display a wide range of abilities, strengths, and preferences for teachers to tap and nurture.

Addressing Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Needs

Council of the Blind (www.acb.org), American Foundation for the Blind (www.afb.org), National Eye Institute (www.nei.nih.gov), National Federation of the Blind (www.nfb .org), and National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled Library of Congress (www.loc.gov/nls) for more information and resources.

Beyond the Labels If teachers take the extra time to get to know their students, they will be better equipped to assist them in becoming better learners, regardless of differing abilities. In addition to increasing their knowledge about specific disabilities, educators must look beyond the disability and find ways to reach students both academically and emotionally. Find out what students like and dislike and then, if possible, infuse those interests into your lessons. That is the spark that entices students to listen and learn. For example, teachers can gain plenty of mileage by relating counting skills to sharks or superheroes, and physics concepts to something a student enjoys, such as roller coasters or race cars. Enliven the concepts of speed, inertia, gravity, friction, acceleration, potential and kinetic energy, and force with the loops and turns of a roller coaster or by watching a video of the Indianapolis 500. Educators who constantly observe their students figure out ways to help them sharpen their skills and grow individually and collectively as peers learning side-by-side in inclusion classrooms. Teachers can accomplish this through gratitude journals or notebooks, recognition envelopes, classroom awards, digital badges, private incentive charts, and academic celebrations. Positive social opportunities include cooperative learning with clearly defined student roles such as the encourager, focuser, and gluer (who makes sure group members bond with one another), in addition to the more traditional roles of reader, recorder, and timekeeper. When teaching all students, it is also important to know labels often have emotional, social, and behavioral implications, and students are aware of the stigmas associated with these labels. These implications apply to both students with visible differences (such as a physical disability, Down syndrome, short stature, or blindness) and students with less-apparent differences (such as learning or emotional challenges or autism). Teachers should offer a fostering attitude that accepts, respects, and values all students as positive contributorsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;regardless of intellectual levels or behavioral needs.

Although the IDEA offers disability characteristics under specific headings, please note that all differences contain diversity under the same category. It is important for educators to increase their awareness of possible characteristics and individualize interventions as they connect with each student. Never allow perceived limitations to minimize your expectations! The National Center on Disability and Journalism (https:// ncdj.org/resources/organizations) provides additional resources on disabilities to explore under headings such as General Advocacy, Education and Technology, and Family and Social Services.

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Question to Investigate

How can I quickly assess who understands the content and who needs extra help or different pacing?

Before I thought

Now I know

I plan to learn more by

Ask students to paraphrase directions or concepts or write key facts in a graphic organizer to quickly discover who gets it and who needs extra help. You may also give students practice tests or ask them to respond to oral questions in a game format. Explore game templates and online tools such as baseball, crossword puzzles, Chakalaka, Jeopardy!, bingo, Spin to Win, tic-tac-toe, and Trivatron at WISC Online Game Builder (www.wisc-online.com/gamebuilder). Use formative assessment tools for interactive feedback from Plickers (www.plickers .com) and Kahoot (https://kahoot.com) to vary learner engagement while getting immediate assessment and giving feedback. Explore EasyCBM (www.easycbm.com) for curriculum-based measurements to track student understanding and guide instructional decisions. Find more information about reading and mathematics skills at aimwebPlus (www .pearsonassessments.com/professional-assessments/digital-solutions/aimsweb/about .html) and using universal screeners and progress monitoring to adjust tiers in RTI programs. Chapter 4 (page 101) presents additional assessment strategies, interventions, and resources.

Effective teachers circulate around the classroom to look over studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; notes or answers during independent practice and conference with students to monitor progress and personalize instruction. If too much time passes before teachers assess what students know, then they may repeat misunderstandings or mistake them as facts. Measuring or probing what students know once a week offers valuable information, not for just a grade but for error analysis. This weekly monitoring then impacts the next instructional steps. Informal assessments (such as an exit card with prompts like the following) are a great way for teachers to discern who knows what before giving summative assessments.

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Inclusion Educator Checklist Check off the appropriate column that best answers each question. Use the blank spaces to add your own materials and accommodations.

Do We . . .

Definitely

Perhaps

Rarely

Create a comfortable, accepting learning environment?

Keep an organized classroom? Establish students’ prior knowledge? State the lessons’ objectives? Respect students’ individual interests, strengths, and levels with different instructional deliveries? Believe in varying the types of assessments? Offer students timely feedback on their progress? Set up a multitiered system of supports that monitors students’ levels and progress at regular intervals throughout the school year (for example, each week, month, or marking period) and responds with the appropriately tiered instruction? Develop strategic learners who are aware of how they learn? Offer help but do not enable students? Share students’ progress with their families? Regularly communicate with grade-level colleagues, co-teachers, team members, and other staff? Continually seek out best practices from independent research, workshops, and conferences? Believe learning is an evolutionary process? Admit we do not always have all the answers?

Source: Adapted from Karten, T. J. (2012). Inclusion lesson plan book for the 21st century: Teacher training edition. Naples, FL: National Professional Resources. Inclusion Strategies and Interventions © 2021 Solution Tree Press • SolutionTree.com Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download this free reproducible.

Have a positive attitude with high expectations for all students?

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Inclusion Classroom Checklist Check off the materials and accommodations you have in your classroom to ensure it is inclusive.

Inclusion Classroom Materials

Strategy tables are set up so all students can access, with resources such as extra pencil grips, graph paper, transitional word lists, calculators, electronic dictionaries, visual dictionaries, student-friendly graphic organizers, rubrics, and models of acceptable work available. Ongoing stations with sponge and enrichment activities are permanent classroom fixtures. School and classroom libraries have curriculum-related materials and appropriate resources, such as texts, journals, professional organization periodicals, and teacher magazines with viable lesson ideas across genres and cultures. Furniture is arranged to allow all students easy access to materials and learning. For example, clutter is removed to increase mobility for students with physical and visual differences, and desks are set to appropriate heights. The classroom setup values students’ varying sensory needs. For example, there are lighting and glare considerations, seating is away from distractions (such as an open window or door), or circular seating if a student reads lips. Assistive technology is available, such as interactive whiteboards, braille note-taking devices, portable word processors, word-prediction programs, voice-recognition systems, electronic dictionaries, and augmentative communication and amplification systems.

Student materials are available with modified levels of complexity, such as differently leveled texts on the same concepts or topics.

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Ideal Versus Pseudo Inclusion Use the following table to track inclusion dos and don’ts. Use the blank spaces to add your own ideal and pseudo inclusions.

Ideal Inclusion

Pseudo Inclusion Teachers standardize assignments, despite students’ prior knowledge or differing instructional, independent, and frustration levels.

Instructional goals, methods, and materials vary to match students’ strengths and the data that reveal academic levels.

The teacher uses identical instructional goals, methods, and materials for the entire class, regardless of data.

Students are inconspicuously part of the class, without being singled out as being different, less, or more competent than their peers.

It is obvious who the included students are by where they sit and how the teacher treats them.

All students are integral to the classroom, both socially and academically.

There are limited times when students with disabilities socially or academically participate in age-appropriate activities with their peers without disabilities.

Teachers share responsibilities with planning, instruction, and assessments.

The general education teacher is the main teacher, while the special educator has minimal input with the lessons.

Ongoing collaboration exists among administrators, teachers, other staff, families, and students.

Administrators, teachers, other staff, families, and students rarely share philosophies and objectives.

Teachers honor students’ instructional levels by giving them academic work within their zone of proximal development.

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Sponge Activities

October–December January–February

These back-to-school months are a wonderful time for establishing students’ prior and baseline knowledge across disciplines through informal interactive quizzes and fun activities such as crossword puzzles, computer games, bingo, and more. This is also an excellent opportunity for students to share their favorite summer activities with pictures, poems, journals, essays, songs, plays, discussions, meetings, dioramas, and bulletin boards. Establish research centers with online curriculum-related websites, WebQuests, performance centers, artists’ corners, writing centers, and mathematics-related activities. Distribute interest inventories and people finders to get to know students and help students get to know one another. Students circulate around the classroom to find peers to sign academic or personal descriptors about something they can do or about something they have or know (for example, ”Find someone who can name three words that begin with the consonant blend br,” or “Find someone who speaks a different language at home or has two dogs.” Encourage students to share their strengths and preferred learning styles. Celebrate Labor Day, autumn, grandparents, Johnny Appleseed, and Native Americans with fun centers and activities. Review lessons with cooperative and collaborative open-book quizzes that honor cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills. Center questions could ask students to retell a story in another genre or from another character’s point of view; write a letter to a character; create a soliloquy for a protagonist; pretend to be a scientist who made a recent discovery pertaining to a lesson unit; perform a play set in a historical time frame or on another continent; or create a clay sculpture or collage. This is also a time of giving thanks, celebrating holidays with families and friends, and sharing with those less fortunate. Students could write letters to soldiers overseas or seniors in local assistedliving facilities, or gather community donations, such as PTA-sponsored food drives to send to various charities. Celebrate firefighters, literacy, the Statue of Liberty, veterans, the harvest, and the close of the calendar year with assignments that value visual, auditory, and kinesthetic elements. This is the time to make resolutions and honor people such as George Washington, Martin Luther King Jr., and Abraham Lincoln. Sir Isaac Newton, Susan B. Anthony, Elvis Presley, Garth Brooks, and John Steinbeck are just a few famous people who were born in these two months. Students can investigate these individuals by writing biographies, dressing in costume, and giving oral presentations. Remember groundhog and leap-year activities too! Celebrate Dental Health Day and Valentine’s Day, along with the Chinese New Year, African American history, and the civil rights movement.

August–September

Introduce students to the idea that at certain times of the day or week, everyone will be working at a different pace on varied assignments. Students may complete this work independently or cooperatively at classroom centers. Subject-specific assignments or ongoing stations provide an opportunity for co-teachers and instructional assistants to offer students additional guidance, modeling, practice, review, reinforcement, or enrichment as they circulate around the classroom. The following table provides suggestions for sponge activities throughout the school year.

May–July

Students may be thinking school is almost over, but now is the perfect time to involve them in different sponge activities. March is a month to honor women, music, crafts, and the American Red Cross. Students could help one another with community projects and figure out ways to better their own school environment. Students could create a dance and song for a musical comedy, drama, mystery, or operatic performance with a cast of characters, instruments, scenery, and backdrops that relate to the curriculum. Students delve into higher-order thinking while reading, writing, and researching. They could perform for families or for students in younger grades. Collaborate with other classes about ways to use music, dance, world languages, physical education, and art. Celebrate spring, good nutrition, and women’s history and accomplishments. Honor Dr. Seuss’s birthday on March 2 by reading or critiquing a few of his books or by having students emulate his style by creating some of their own stories, either independently or in cooperative writing groups. Things are warming up as students in some regions think about diving into swimming pools and visiting beaches. Create class environments that encourage students to investigate the seashore with mathematics, science, social studies, reading, and writing connections. Allow learners to cooperatively review and jigsaw topics in textbook tables of contents, and then teach the concepts to the rest of the class. Lessons can include student-created tests, digital slides, videos, songs, dances, plays, collages, class debates, and more. Honor moms on the second Sunday of May and dads on the third Sunday of June. The first week of May is Teacher Appreciation Week. Flag Day is on June 14, and June is National Safety Month. The first full week in June is also about appreciating your pets. Celebrate Cinco de Mayo, Memorial Day, summer, and the Fourth of July. Appropriate age-level projects and activities correlate curriculum topics with students’ interests to develop literacy and numeracy skills and strengthen peer relationships.

Source: Adapted from Karten, T. J. (2012). Inclusion lesson plan book for the 21st century: Teacher training edition. Naples, FL: National Professional Resources.

March–April

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2nd Ed.

INCLUSION STRATEGIES & INTERVENTIONS

2nd Ed.

K–12 educators will:

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/specialneeds to download the free reproducibles in this book. SolutionTree.com

Toby J. Karten

2nd Ed.