Michelle Stein M.Arch. Candidate, 2015 Advisor Li Shiqiao
urban conflict transforming
209
3
0
topic introduction Cities globally are breeding grounds for conflict. The pronounced diversity of wealth, opinions, and rituals in the urban context precipitates man-made structures of division that in turn generate innumerable forms and scales of conflict. Religious and ethnic clashes dominate much of the middle east, economic disparity saturates global cities whose power-seeking corporations feed off the poor, and injustice perpetuates areas of rapid urbanization where growing economies prioritize advancement at the expense of the poor. While most of these divisions are embedded in invisible systems, the built environment is often indicative of their existence, providing visible scars or even contributing to its effect. Repeatedly, architects and theoreticians confront the urban condition with designed utopian models of conflict-free cities. Their ideal environment is defined as homogenous, isolated, and controlled, through specific formal elements to construct their ideal.
1
topic introduction
While conflict certainly has destructive outcomes, contention is inevitable in cities where diverse communities reside in close proximity. However, such friction in urban communities is essential to a city’s growth and vitality. If addressed in an appropriate manner, such clashing of opinions has productive potential. This thesis questions the role of the architect and the designed environment in urban conflict. Designers have the responsibility to understand the negative impacts of design in conflict and engage the diversity of the city, recognizing inherent conflict and encouraging positive friction. Rather than eliminating conflict through a highly controlled environment, can we instead inform how conflict might contribute to a city’s vitality in a positive way? Can design reflect the nuances of conflict’s effects to better engage the needs of the city, of the people, and help the vibrancy and vitality of the city?
2
3
topic diagram
emerging economies
mega cities
NEW DELHI LONDON NEW YORK CITY
global cities MINNEAPOLIS
generic
atypical historic cities
NEW ORLEANS
CAIR
generic
BERLIN
HONG KONG
LOS ANGELES
religious
ethnic
BEIRUT WALL
STOCKHOLM
03 URBAN CONFLICT
cultural
ROAD ZONE RIVER
ideological SQUARE
HOUSING
STREET
WATER LAND SANITATION
access to resources
stage
02 STRUCTURES OF DIVISION
economic
income
WALL
transforming
class
ISLAND
CITIES OF CONFLICT
scale
Koolhaas Exodus
SOVEREIGN CIVIL CIVIC
01 DEFINING CONFLICT
type
ecology
U imagin
SYSTEMIC VS. NON-SYSTEMIC ACUTE VS. CHRONIC
CURVILINEARITY Greg Lynn
VIOLENT VS. LATENT
THE FOLD Deleuze
resolution
folding
geometry
06 CONFLICTED ARCHITECTURE
Led
COLLAGE CITY Rowe COMPLEXITY + CONTRADICTION Venturi
4
mutual benefit
hos
layers
collage
research
01 DEFINING CONFLICT type scale
developing cities
I
02 STRUCTURES OF DIVISION ideological economic
JERUSALEM
03 URBAN CONFLICT generic
Postcolonial PROTESTS
RO
DIVERSITY
productive
EDUCATION
control
atypical
BEIRUT CAIRO DELHI JERUSALEM HONG KONG
FRICTION
divider
MINNEAPOLIS NEW ORLEANS
MUTUAL BENEFIT
TOWER
expressions
elements
expressions
isolation destructive INEQUITY RIOTS CRIME VIOLENCE WAR OPPRESSION
Smart Cities
INJUSTICE
ISLAND
05 UTOPIA ned solutions
doux
SQUARE WALL ROAD
04 FORMS OF CONFLICT
ISLAND
Thomas More Utopia
04 FORMS OF CONFLICT formal elements
05 UTOPIA le corbusier TOWER archigram WALKING CITY koolhaas WALL ledoux thomas more ISLAND 06 ARCHITECTURE OF CONFLICT folding CURVILINEARITY
dualities
COLLAGE CITY COMPLEXITY + CONTRADICTION
Le Corbusier
Contemporary city for 3 million inhabitants
design
01 DESIGN SPECULATIONS
Archigram
techno-popular future cities
spital
TOWER
02 TRANSFORM URBAN CONFLICT IN A CITY
TECHNOLOGY
5
conflict defined
6
1
conflict defined 1. A serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one 2. A prolonged armed struggle 3. An incompatibility between two or more opinions, principles, or interests1 Expressions of conflict range from a simple argument between individuals to systemic, chronic division rooted in complex structures of a city or nation. Though often manifested in violence, conflict is perhaps just as prevalent in latent forms, described by one as “social tension, antagonisms, and the many forms of lowlevel instability that occur frequently in the urban environment.�2 Eruptions of conflict in traumatic events reveal the latent, often chronic, systemic conflicts embedded within cities.
1. Oxford Dictionary 2. Lombard, 2013.
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Types of Conflict
x Sovereign
Sovereign
8
Terminology from Beall, Goodfellow and Rodgers, 2013.
C
Ci
Civil
ivil
x
x Civic
Civic
9
Types of Conflict
non-systemic
vs. systemic
10
acute
vs. chronic
11
Types of Conflict
violent
vs. latent
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Urban conflict – understood as social tensions, antagonisms and the ‘many forms of lowlevel instability’...that occur frequently in
“
the urban environment – does not necessarily result in violence and so tends to receive less research and policy attention than civil war or violent insurgency. However, ‘
Protracted social conflict’..., marked by successive violent episodes, is arguably more common and more intractable; and although less visible, latent or everyday conflict may be equally damaging for local populations. Conceptions of conflict need to be rethought in urban contexts, to take account of the diversity of urban social and political contexts, plural legal and governance systems, and the tendency for land conflict to overlap with and be exacerbated by ethnic or other identitybased tensions,
blurring the boundary between ‘divided cities’ and ‘peaceful’ ones”
Lombard. “Urban land conflict in the global south.”
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Types of Conflict
destructive conflict
14
productive conflict
15
Types of Conflict
FOR A NECESSARY DIVISION... “Rapidly
growing, incredibly dense
dramatically heterogeneous and
cities
have become a characteristic of new urban
catalyzing future violence and conflict.”
environments that risk
Patel and Burkle. “Rapid Urbanization and the Growing Threat of Violence and Conlict: A 21st Century Crisis”
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‘Large streets, boulevards, tall facades for stores and homes, installation of water and electiricty are necessary [for Europeans, all of] which upset the indigenous city completely, making the customary way of life impossible. You know how jealous the Muslim is of the integrity of his private life; you are familiar with the streets, the facades without opening behind which hides the whole of life, the terraces upon which the life of the family spreads out and which must therefore
All the habits and all the tastes [of these two ways of life] oppose one another remain sheltered from indiscreet looks….
.’”
-Spiro Kostof, A City Assembled
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Types of Conflict
FOR PRODUCTIVE FRICTION...
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...a state is not made up only of so many men, but of different kinds of men; for similars do not constitute a state .
-Aristotle. Politics. Book 2
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Types of Conflict
heterogeneous
20
v
vs.
homogeneous
21
structures of division topic
22
2
structures of division In planning for a city’s development it is important to understand where conflict occurs within a city and how a city’s structures - i.e. socio-economic, cultural, religious, etc. - contribute to the tensions within its communities. Since most of these structures are human-made, an understanding of their contribution could help reverse their effects. Spiro Kostof describes these structures within the city as being invisible, yet manifested in the urban form and contributing to division and conflict within the city. In mapping out the framework of these structures and their contributions to various forms of conflict in cities, there are essentially two categories under which all structures of division fall: economic and ideological.
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structures of division
“...there are arbitrated, legalistic, invisible urban divisions which we are not ordinarily aware of at all. They are designated on city maps, and have quite specific consequences... They are political, or more generally administrative, divisions, and since the beginning of cities they have governed the ways we are managed within the urban order--how we are taxed, serviced, pressed into military service, or kept under control. In other words, the object of these divisions is to design the population
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within the urban form, an arrangement that is either coerced
because they deal with people, the divisions were often coincident with deep social schisms, and their very existence brought about tensions and open conflict.�
or de facto. And
Spiro Kostof, A City Assembled, 71-72
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ideological structures of division
Racial or ethnic, cultural, and religious conflicts all stem from ideological differences. Different beliefs and desires lead to various forms of tensions. A personal argument, a long-term relational conflict, injustice, reactionary protests or riots, and war are all expressions of ideologicl conflict. Today, uprisings in the Middle East are a prime example of ideological conflict stemming from religious differences.
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ideological division
Israeli/Palestinian War segregation
war
persecution
ISIS
terrorism
violence
tension between communities
religious
ethnic
expressions riots
war
displacement
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economic structures of division
Economic structures contribute to division in cities in the form of income disparity and conflict related to the governance of a city’s economy. Economic status shapes citizens values and goals in economic management. The World Economic Forum and the World Social Forum come out of starkly different economic managerial agendas.
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ECONOMIC division
waste removal
food health care
water
housing
sanitation
education
access to resources
distribution of wealth
land
infrastructure
29
class
economic structures of division
vs.
protelatrian
30
bourgeois
A lively new polemic about the concepts “one divides into two” and “two fuse into one” is unfolding on the philosophical front in this country. This
debate is a struggle between those who are for and those who are against the materialist dialectic, a struggle between two conception conceptions of the world: the conception. Those who maintain that and the
bourgeois
proletarian
“one divides into two” is the fundamental law of things are on the side of the materialist dialectic; those who maintain that the fundamental law of things is that “two fuse into one” are against the materialist dialectic. The two sides have drawn a clear line of demarcation between them, and their arguments are diametrically opposed. This polemic is a reflection, on the
ideological level, of the acute and complex class struggle taking place in China and in the world.
Red Flag, (Peking), 21 September 1964 (from The Society of the Spectacle)
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economic structures of division
isolation of technology
32
isolation
“The economic system founded on is a circular production of isolation. The technology is based on isolation, and the technical process isolates in turn. From the automobile to television, all the goods selected by the spectacular system are also its weapons for a constant reinforcement of the conditions of isolation of “lonely
crowds.””
“The spectacle originates in the loss of the unity of the world… The spectacle reunites the separate, but reunites it as separate.” (from The Society of the Spectacle)
33
economic structures of division
World Economic Forum
vs elite advocacy economic elite
34
World Social Forum
s. grassroots activism civil society
35
economic structures of division
vs wall street capitalism corporate america big businesses
36
s. main street market locally owned small businesses
37
conflict in cities topic
38
3
conflict in cities Structures of division in cities manifest themselves formally to reinforce or facilitate conflict. Identifying the formal elements that have come out of these structures reveals parallels between expressions of conflict and architectural forms (i.e. protest and square, respectively). In many conflicts, the dominant party uses architecture to increase control over their opponent. For instance, Haussmann’s wide boulevards in Paris and Israeli bypass roads through Palestine ensure the ease of military circulation. The one in power has ensured military control. Simultaneously, the dominant party limits the opponent’s circulation to diminish their power. In most riots or protests, police set up barricades or fences to limit the movement of the protestors. Used in this way, the wall contains, controls, and limits the movement of the opponent.
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conflict in cities Whether they are isolating or protecting, walls inherently create a division between two parts: inside and outside, east and west, etc. An enclosed wall has interiority and exteriority. Whether one is inside or outside is desirable according to other factors of the conditions within and without the wall. Walled forts and gated communities implement walls for protection from exterior conditions. However, enclosures such as the Berlin Wall, or the wall around Palestine contain to protect those in its exteriority. While the wall protects the one side, it isolates the other. However, the wall controls conditions on both sides through its division. Control increases with the addition of surveillance through towers and cameras. Isolation is also instigated through zoning plans as well as the homogeneity of neighborhoods. While the isolation of a gated community might be desirable, the isolation of social housing leads to increase crime rates and violence. One person’s utopia is another’s dystopia. The isolated poor living conditions in many social housing communities has proven to be a breeding ground for uprisings in the form of riots, where expressions of frustration take form in the burning of cars and businesses. Protests and marches are typically proximal to the center of the city, often located in public squares and streets near government buildings. Disruptions of latent conflicts, the oppressed act out against the oppressors by vocalizing their concerns and disappointments. In each of these cases, the expression of conflict is closely linked with specific formal elements. Studying their relationship reveals architecture’s role in conflict.
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41
city types
mega cities NEW YORK CITY LONDON
MINNEAPOLIS
global cities
generic NEW ORLEANS
BERLIN
LOS ANGELES
STOCKHOLM
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historic cities
emerging economies NEW DELHI
developing cities
JERUSALEM
atypical
Postcolonial CAIRO
HONG KONG
BEIRUT
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conflict in cities
French
British
Soviet
American
Berlin Wall Crosspoints
control, division wall
control, surveillance watchtower
Berlin Wall 44
Berlin 1961-1989
ideological
“...this violent and bluntly physical barrier” -Spiro Kostof
Tank Traps Lighting
Watchtower
Rear wall Signal Fence Spike Mats
Guard Road Death Strip Vehicle Ditch Outer concrete wall
control, division wall
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
45
conflict in cities
Israel
Jerusalem
West Bank
separation, isolation
Israel
Coiled
separation, military efficiency israeli by-pass roads
israel+palestine 46
Jerusalem 1965-Present
religious
West Bank
Coiled barbed wire
8 Foot deep anti-vehicle trench Patrol road Fence loaded with electronic detection sensors Sand strip Dirt road
d barbed wire
dividing wall
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
ZONE
+
+
CAMERA
diagram adapted from map by Gene Thorp
ROAD
+
SUBURB
47
conflict in cities
wide boulevards, military efficiency
haussman’s re-appropriation of paris
Outer ring suburbs
Rioter Burning car
Expression: Riot
Element: Suburb
Haussman+riots 48
Paris 1860 + 2005
ethnic
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
CAMERA
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
SUBURB
Homogeneity and Isolation
49
conflict in cities
Burning car
riot
suburb
Stockholm riots 50
Stockholm Suburbs 2013
ethnic
“It is very similar to what we have seen in London or Paris but not yet on that scale. But it is a sign of a similar problem;
it is a sign of failing integration”
Per Adman, associate professor at Uppsala University
+
TOWER WALL inequality, isolation, homogeneity WALL
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
SUBURB
ZONE
51
ROAD
conflict in cities
urban planning
minneapolis freeways
Freeway Division 52
Minneapolis 1960
ethnic
division of neighborhoods
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
53
ROAD
conflict in cities
Prop
Protester
New
Protest Street Clinic
Tahrir Square
Egyptian Revolution 54
Cairo 2011
ideological
KFC Clinic
wspaper wall
Main Stage
Pharmacy Bloggers
Campsite
Trash bins
Kindergarten Water Point
Food Stalls
+
ToiletsWALL Flag Sellers TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
SUBURB
+
ROAD
ZONE
SQUARE
SQUARE
Stage
+ +
ROAD diagram data from BBC
ROAD
+ 55
conflict in cities
Prop
Protester
protests
police barricade
causeway bay
connaught road
Hong Kong Protests 56
Hong Kong 2014
economic
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
CAMERA
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
ROAD
+
WALL
SQUARE
+
ROAD
+
WALL
ZONE
+
ROAD
stage
57
conflict in cities
Sign
Inf Tent
Tent
Social Area
occupation
Sacred Space
liberty square
Occupy Wall Street 58
New York City 2011
economic
Library Art Kitchen
Media Outreach Info
Sanitation
Assembly
Art/Flex
fo Comfort
Medical
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
CAMERA
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
ROAD
WALL
Sleeping
Art
Info
SQUARE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
ROAD
+
WALL
SQUARE
+
ROAD
+
WALL
ZONE
+
house, stage
Diagram adapted from diagram by Jonathan Massey
ROAD
59
conflict in cities
American Quarter
Neutral Ground
French Quarter
urban planning
canal street
Canal Street 60
New Orleans 1803
ideological
an
Am
c eri
er
Q
rt ua
”
nd
,“
l
na
Ca
eet Str
ral
ut Ne
ou Gr
nch Fre
WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
SUBURB
r rte a u QZONE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
SQUARE
division, segregation ROAD
+
SQUARE
+
+
ROAD
+
ROAD
ZONE
+
ROAD
WALL
+
ZONE
61
conflict in cities
cordon sanitaire
Old
walled city
Old + New Delhi 62
Delhi
economic
Del
hi
Old Wall
New
Del
hi
Cordon Sanitaire WALL
+
TOWER
WALL
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
+
ZONE
+
SUBURB
ZONE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
ROAD
SQUARE
+
ROAD
+
SQUARE
+
ROAD division
+
ZONE
+
ROAD
WALL
+
ZONE
TOWER
63
conflict in cities
High Rise
Slum
income gap
tower
Income Disparity 64
Mumbai
economic
WALL
+
WALL
+
ZONE
+
ZONE
+
ZONE
+
SQUARE
+
SQUARE
+
SQUARE
+
+
oppression ZONE
WALL
+
TOWER
65
conflict matrices CONFLICT
ELEMENT
BERLIN WALL
HAUSSMANN’S PLAN FOR PARIS
EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION
WALL
ZONE
PARIS RIOTS ROAD FREEWAY PLANNING RIVER ISRAELI/PALESTINIAN WAR
HONG KONG PROTESTS
STOCKHOLM RIOTS
MUMBAI INEQUALITY
CAMERA
TOWER
SQUARE
OCCUPY WALL STREET SUBURB NEW DELHI/OLD DELHI 66
ACTION
isolate
divide
EXPRESSION
riot
inequity
protests
stage
injustice
war
control oppression
surveillance
violence
crime
protect 67
conflict matrices DIVISIONTHROUGH AND CONTAINMENT MILITARY CONTROL CIRCULATION
control
BERLIN WALL
HAUSSMANN’S PLAN FOR PARIS
FREEWAY PLANNING
HAUSSMANN’S PLAN FOR PARIS ISRAELI/PALESTINIAN WAR
inequity
ROAD
divide
WALL
injustice
RIVER
protect protect
ZONE ROAD
NEW DELHI/OLD DELHI ISRAELI/PALESTINIAN WAR
war war inequity
SUBURB
control isolate
oppression oppression
DIVISION STAGE AND CONTAINMENT
control
BERLIN WALL
ROAD
HAUSSMANN’S PLAN FOR PARIS EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION
WALL
FREEWAY PLANNING HONG KONG PROTESTS ISRAELI/PALESTINIAN WAR OCCUPY WALL STREET NEW DELHI/OLD DELHI
inequity
divide injustice riot
SQUARE RIVER
stage protect
ROAD ZONE
SUBURB
war protests
oppression
isolate
68
OMOGENEITY
KEY:
CONFLICT
ELEMENT
action
expression
isolate
MUMBAI INEQUALITY TOWER
inequity
MILI D
oppression NEW DELHI/OLD DELHI
SUBURB
oppression
isolate
DIVISION AND CONTAINMENT STAGE
control
BERLIN WALL
HAUSSMANN’S PLAN FOR PARIS
FREEWAY PLANNING
inequity
ROAD
WALL
divide injustice
RIVER
EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION
ISRAELI/PALESTINIAN WAR
ZONE SQUARE
HONG KONG PROTESTS
NEW DELHI/OLD DELHI OCCUPY WALL STREET
protect
war riot
stage SUBURB ROAD
oppression protests
ENEITY
STAGE ISOLATION AND HOMOGENEITY
isolate
MUMBAI INEQUALITY EGYPTIAN REVOLUTION PARIS RIOTS
HONG KONG PROTESTS STOCKHOLM RIOTS
OCCUPY WALL STREET
isolate
inequity
TOWER
riot injustice
SQUARE SUBURB
ROAD
stage control
protests oppression
69
utopia topic
70
4
utopia Repeatedly, architects and theoreticians confront the urban condition with designed utopian models. For most, the ideal city is a conflict-free city, enforced through homogeneity, isolation, and control. In Thomas More’s Utopia, its island location protects it from outside enemies and its 54 homogeneous cities are free of internal inequality. A dome protected the highly controlled, safe environment of Truman’s Seahaven from the outside world. The wall of Koolhaas’ New Architecture enclosed a hedonistic world, isolating it from the undesirable conditions of London. Today’s Smarter Cities utilize precise technological surveillance of the city ensure greater safety and efficiency of all its systems. Using formal elements to remove unsafe or undesirable conditions, these utopias arise from the desire to eliminate conflict in its entirety.
71
utopia - thomas more
72
houses no locked doors: no privacy or autonomy
garden
3-storey house
street
agriculture surrounding city mandatory 2-year stint to work in fields: removes class structure surplus given to other cities for free: no commodification of goods
54 cities homogeneous equality unity
crescent-shaped island protection isolation 73
the truman show
without: the world
uncontrolled exposed to danger living vicariously through Truman
Hollywood 74
within: Seahaven controlled safe “real�
Seahaven
Hollywood
“It’s all true. It’s all real. Nothing here is fake. Nothing you see on this show is fake. It’s merely controlled.”
-Christof, The Truman Show
“I’ve given Truman the chance to lead a normal life. The world, the place you live in is the sick place. Seahaven is the way the world should be.” -Christof, The Truman Show
75
exodus, or the voluntary prisoners of architecture
“Division, isolation, inequality, aggression, destruction, all the negative aspects of the Wall, could be the ingredients of a new phenomenon: architectural warfare against undesirable conditions, in this case London... “...this new architecture...is the hedonistic science of designing collective facilities that fully accommodate individual desires.” Koolhaas, “Exodus, or the voluntary prinsoners of architecture.” 76
Without: London undesirable conditions Within: A New Architecture collective facilities designed to fully accommodate individual desires
The Wall Division, isolation, inequality, aggression, destruction: creating “warfare against undesirable conditions� 77
corbusier - the contemporary city for three million
Housing for the proletarian workers
78
Housing for the wealthy
79
new babylon - constant nieuwenhuys
Labyrinth Drifting Anti-Capitalist Escapes transcendental control Resistive architecture 80
“New Babylon -- a provocative name, since in the Protestant tradition Babylon is a figure of evil. New Babylon was to be the figure of good that
took the name of the cursed city and transformed itself into the city of the future.�
Henry Lefebvre
81
technological utopia - archigram Crane
Moveable units
plug-in city varietous not static or dreary like other regularized systems
82
City
Feet
Changing landscape
walking city adaptable moves where technology leads
83
today’s technological utopia - smart cities
IBM’s Smarter City
“With a new government in Delhi, India’s urban agenda is now focused on the creation of “Smart Cities” in industrial corridors. Such an initiative is driven by the demand of foreign investors to find sanitized spaces in developing countries in which they can operate easily unhampered by politics.”
Idiculla, “Crafting ‘smart cities’”
“Our cities should no longer remain a reflection of poverty and bottlenecks. Rather they should become symbols of efficiency, speed and scale.”
Idiculla, “Crafting ‘smart cities’”
84
“The very idea of Smart Cities seems to be based on the assumption that there are technocratic solutions for the routine problems that citizens face. Technology is heralded as the “apolitical” means by which governance can be fixed and saved from the operation of “politics”. Problems of inefficiency that are seen to dominate the old bureaucratic-political order are hence given a “smart” solution by employing “Big Data”. However such a vision does not take into consideration the fallibility of technology or the fact that the
technology-centric governance that Smart Cities promote can further exclude the people at the margins of power.” Idiculla, “Crafting ‘smart cities’”
“The proliferation of ‘smart’ solutions to a deluge of political and economic problems in today’s cities may
well serve to reinforce urban inequality at a time when new radical alternatives are in desperate need.” Vanilla, “Whose smart city?”
85
architecture topic of conflict
86
5
architecture of conflict A number of theorists have suggested methodologies to confront, rather than eliminate conflict. Whether through layering, folding, or seeking mutual benefit, each methodology addresses the various perspectives of the conflict. Could these methodologies provide a solution for transforming architectural elements of conflict to mitigate destructive outcomes and channel the friction to generate positive results?
87
architecture of conflict
88
1
Layers.
Methodology: Collage. Superimposition.
Layered outcome
Goal: . No resolution but collaged, layered oucome. Thinkers: Robert Venturi, Colin Rowe
89
architecture of conflict
90
2
Methodology: Folding.
Geometry.
Resolution.
Goal: Solution to resolve based on science and technology. Thinkers: Gilles DeLeuze, Greg Lynn
91
architecture of conflict
92
3
Ecology. Goal: Mutual dependency. Methodology:
Systemic production of dependencies contributing to viability of whole and enforcing relational thinking.
Thinkers: Jane Bennett, Bruno Latour, Timothy Morton
93
designing for conflict topic
94
6
designing for conflict Beginning with a site-less condition, the complex variables of a city’s structure are removed in order to isolate the formal elements of conflict as pure space and test various spatial transformations. With the addition of site, these tests will inform an appropriate methodology for confronting urban conflict through design. The sites chosen represent two distinct scenarios of economic conflict: the first in New York City, a leading global city experiencing a widening income gap; the second in New Delhi, an emerging economy facing the challenges of rapid urbanization. The site in New York City engages a square and a tower. The site in New Delhi engages a square and a wall.
95
design speculations
96
transformations The methodologies from the previous section suggest possible operations to confront expressions of conflict through design. Isolated as pure space, these formal studies shed light on architecture’s role in shaping spaces of conflict in cities. The following are the first of many studies that will be conducted in the spring. These studies will inform the architectural proposal and gain more specificity when interacting with specific site conditions.
97
transformations
TOWER
Existing conditions: Limited access
98
Transformation #1: Move public space into tower
Transformation #2: Tilt to allow increased access
Suburb
Existing conditions: Homogeneous and isolated from outside conditions
Transformation #1: Re-arrange to create formal heterogeneity
Transformation #2: Add other programs and public space
99
new york city
100
site option #1: NYC New York City is an economic hub, a leading global economy in the world, second to London. However, as its economy grows, so too does its income gap. Can architecture play a part in reducing destructive conflict and contributing to productive friction in the city? Here the economic structure of division is capitalism. Expressions of this chronic economic disparity include the large income disparity and gap in wealth distribution, corruption in investement bankers, insurance companies, and the government. These chronic forms of economic disparity erupted in the Occupy Wall Street movement which shed light on deeper issues in its economic systems. Spatially, the economic disparity is manifest in neighborhood divides, division of resources which lend to the quality of living. Occupy Wall Street allowed “the other 99%” to express their frustrations with the current economic structures through their use of “public” space in both plazas and streets.
101
new york city Targeting formal manifestations of economic disparity in the city, this scenario focuses on two of the most extreme divides in city: 96th Street, the neighborhood divide between East Harlem and Upper East Side, as well as the Harlem River, between Manhattan Island and South Bronx. Park Avenue, and the metro that runs along it, connects the three neighborhoods and provides an opportunity to work with this public program. The design proposal will work at the fringe of two colliding systems, between or across the divides, to integrate the two with a program and space that engages both parties to engender more integration and allow for mutual benefit.
102
NYC: a leading global city
103
new york city
occupy Wall Street
104
“We are the 99%” 105
new york city
Zuccotti Park
Wall Street
106
107
new york city
Sanitat Art/Flex Info Comfort Social Area Sacred Space Art
zuccotti park
108
Medical
Library Art Kitchen
tion
Media Outreach Info
Assembly
Info
Sleeping
109
new york city
Manhatta economic disparity
110
an’s
111
112
Date from “Watch The Rich Take Over New York City In 2 Charts.� Upper 10% Upper 5% 2010
$452,415
$400,628
$378,113
400
2000
$264,756
$262,010
500
5% 1%
Bottom 20% $230,744
$205,193
300
1990
$14,168
$12,769
$631,441
700
10%
Bottom 10% $13,140
$9,455
100
20%
$7,959
$8,468
0
10%
0%
Annual median income (in thousands of dollars)
$716,625
new york city
600
200
Upper 1%
55 54
Percent (%) of Income in NYC
53
53.7%
Top 20%
of New Yorker’s Share of Income
52.5% 52.2%
52 51
income gap
50 49 47.8%
48 47.5% 47
46.3% 46
1990
1995
2000
2005
Remaining 80% of New Yorker’s Share of Income
2010
Year
113
new york city
“Land is back up to stupid levels again”
Scott Alper, Principal of Witkoff Group
114
Cost of land in Manhattan
$511 per sq. ft.
35.5% increase from 5 years ago
Data from New York Times
115
Harlem River
new york city
Pa rk Av en
ue
Harlem
96t
hS
116
t.
Upper East Side
South Bronx
Two divides
HARLEM RIVER
96TH STREET 117
new york city
occupation
118
median household income
119
Harlem River
new york city
Pa rk Av en
ue
Harlem
96t
hS
t.
$1,500,000 120
Data from Zillow.com
Upper East Side
$699,000 (East Harlem)
Average listing price of housing
South Bronx
$339,900
UES
H
SB
121
new york city
Harlem River
Pa rk Av en
ue
Harlem
96t
hS
t.
$125,363
122
Upper Data from Business Insider, New York Public Radio, and Realtor.com East Side
$30,000
(East Harlem)
South Bronx
Median household income
$8,694
UES
H
SB
123
design proposition
Harlem River
Pa rk Av en
ue
Harlem
96t
hS
124
t.
Upper East Side
South Bronx
Design proposal
1 BRIDGE
Engage the metro, and provide a better, more intimate connection between both sides of the river.
2 TOWER
Incorporate free housing, as a critique of the ridiculously high land prices in Manhattan. Include a metro station as well as the provide public programming and public space for all income levels to utilize. 125
new delhi
126
site option #2: New
Delhi
A BRICS nations, India is one of five emerging economies. While its economy is quickly growing, it is also experiencing the growing pains of rapid urbanization. Rapid urbanization, brings about risks of inequality and vulnerability to harmful divisions. New Delhi, the nation’s capital, is at the center of this economic development and is experiencing growth and stress on its economy. Conflict expresses itself in the power structure of its post-colonial society, in the gap between rich and poor, in the corruption of the leaders, in caste conflict and violence, in protests and political rallies. These divisions influence the built environment constructing physical walls, unequal divisions of resources and access to food, water, sanitation, and housing, and the tragedy (or conflict) of the commons which has contributed to a tainted understanding of public space and therefore a lack of ownership and maintenance.
127
new delhi
The maidan, historically, is India’s commons. It was a place where the wealthy and the poor met, an unprogrammed public space that took on the life of the users. This scenario focuses on the Ramlila Maidan as a potential site for intervention, a site which has a history of conflict. From the wall around the old city to the British’s cordon sanitaire this divide is manifest today in its separation between the poorest and richest areas in Delhi: the old informal walled city and the city center of the nation’s capital. As a no-man’s-land near the governmnet’s headquarters, it also happens to be a site of protest for social justice and against corruption in the government. A design intervention could engage this fringe through a plan for the city’s growth. Both at the center of the city, and at the fringe of two systems, it would provide a model for internal densification of the city and the integration of housing typologies and programs engaging the pluralisms of the city. It would maintain a maidan but expand to engage larger issues of the city’s rapid development.
128
BRICS india
one of five emerging national economies
410,404,773 india’s urban population 32% of india’s population
1,267,401,849 india’s population
17.5% of the world’s population
7,243,784,121
world’s population
129
delhi
Delhi’s Current Population:
22,830,000
Data from Kotkin and Cox. “The World’s Fastest-Growing Megacities.” 130
18,000,000
Total Population
18,000,000 16,000,000
Urban Population Total Population
16,000,000 14,000,000
Urban Population
14,000,000 12,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000
2011 2011
2001 2001
1991 1991
1981 1981
1971 1971
1961 1961
1951 1951
1941 1941
1931 1931
1921 1921
1911 1911
0
1901 1901
2,000,000 0
100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20
97% Urban 2011 2011
2001 2001
1991 1991
1981 1981
1971 1971
1961 1961
1951 1951
1941 1941
1931 1931
1921 1921
1911 1911
0
1901 1901
20 0
97% Urban
Data from Govt. of NCT of Delhi 131
fastest growing megacities
11. Istanbul, Turkey
Population (Est.): 12.92 million Population growth (2000-10): 25.3%
3. Lagos, Nigeria
Population (Est.): 12.09 million Population growth (2000-10): 48.2%
132
Data from Kotkin and Cox. “The World’s Fastest-Growing Megacities.”
1. Karachi, Pakistan
Population (Est.): 20.88 million Population growth (2000-10): 80.5%
9. Delhi, India
Population (Est.): 22.83 million Population growth (2000-10): 39.2%
4. Beijing, China
Population (Est.): 18.24 million Population growth (2000-10): 47.6%
6. Dhaka, Bangladesh
Population (Est.): 14.34 milion Population growth (2000-10): 45.2%
8. Shanghai, China
Population (Est.): 21.77 million Population growth (2000-10): 40.1%
7. Guangzhou-Foshan, China Population (Est.): 17.69 million Population growth (2000-10): 43.0%
2. Shenzhen, China
Population (Est.): 12.51 million Population growth (2000-10): 56.1%
5. Bangkok, Thailand
Population (Est.): 14.54 million Population growth (2000-10): 45.2%
10. Jakarta, Indonesia
Population (Est.): 26.75 million Population growth (2000-10):34.6%
133
rapid urbanization
“Furthermore, virtually all of this urbanization will happen in the world’s least developed areas, by definition the poorest equipped to handle it: a
recipe for conflict, and crises
in health, education, governance, food, energy, and water scarcity.” Kilcullen, David J. “The City as a System: Future Conflict and Urban Resilience.”
134
“Rapid urbanization creates economic,
social and governance challenges while simultaneously straining city infrastructure, making the most vulnerable cities less able to meet these challenges. The implications for future conflict are profound, with more
people fighting over scarcer
resources in crowded, under-serviced, and under-governed urban areas.” Kilcullen, David J. “The City as a System: Future Conflict and Urban Resilience.”
135
Rapid Urbanization
In areas of rapid urbanization...
RISK 1. high levels of material deprivation 2. deep vertical and horizontal inequalities 3. fragile political institutions
136
Data from Beall and Fox. “PD4: mitigating conflict and violence in in Africa’s rapidly growing cities.”
result 1. uncertainty 2. injustice 3. insecurity (real and perceived)
137
india
s on
ay
Data from The World Bank 138
32.68% of the population lives on
< $1.25
per day
139
india
%
%
India
20%
%
lowest10%
India
3.7% of income in India Data from The World Bank 140
28.8% of income in India highest 10%
Top 20%
42.8%
of income in India
income gap
Lowest 20%
8.5%
of income in India
141
delhi’s rich
“...Delhi’s rich... eschew the urbane. They do not, as the rich do in Mumbai or New York, dream of apartments with sparkling views of the city from which their fortune derives. They are not drawn to that energy of streets, sidewalks and bustle which was so heroic a part of great nineteenth- and twentieth-century cities. No:
the Delhi rich like to wake up looking at empty, manicured lawns stretching away to walls topped with barbed wire.”
Rana Dasgupta, Capital: The Eruption of Delhi
142
“Modern Delhi was born out of the catastrophe of India’s partition, whose ravages turned
its culture towards security
and self-reliance. The compounds in which its richest citizens take refuge from society are only the most extravagant manifestations of a more widespread isolationist ethos. Delhi is the pioneer, after all, of India’s private townships, where life is administered by corporations and surrounded by fences, and where one is cut away, therefore, from the broad currents of the country.” Rana Dasgupta, Capital: The Eruption of Delhi
143
delhi’s rich: gurgaon
“An expanse of fields until thirty years ago, Gurgaon’s
looming apartment blocks and steely towers now look as if they have emerged from a computer game set in some supersaturated future. Gurgaon makes no pretence of being a ‘public’ space: the great numbers of the poor who clean and guard its houses and offices, for instance, cannot live there. To live in Gurgaon is to live in a housing complex protected from the outside by security cameras and armed guards, where residents pay corporations to service all their fundamental needs: garbage collection, water supply and even, in the frequent event that state-owned electricity fails, electricity generation. It therefore appeals to a group of people for whom the corporation has come to seem a far more fertile form of social organisation than the state, and who seek out enclaves of efficient, post-public living” Rana Dasgupta, Capital: The Eruption of Delhi
144
Homogeneity Isolation
Towers
Wall + Gate Security Exclusivity
145
delhi’s poor
PLANNED COLONY
76%
76%
JJ CLUSTER SLUM DESIGNATION UNAUTHORIZED COLONY RESETTLEMENT COLONY RURAL VILLAGE REGULARIZED COLONY URBAN VILLAGE
OF POPULATION LIVES IN SUBSTANDARD HOUSING
of the population lives in substandard housing
Data from King. “Inclusive City Building and the Promise of Freedom.” 146
800,000
>15K
5-15K
JJ CLUSTER
RESETTLEMENT COLONY
UNAUTHORIZED AND REGULARIZED COLONIES
URBAN VILLAGES
200,000
WALLED CITY
400,000
PLANNED COLONIES
# OF UNITS
600,000
0-5K
Housing is typically reflective of income
Data from Narayanan, Nipesh P. “Housing In Delhi,” 147
delhi’s poor
“A majority of the city’s 18 million residents have to queue up for water supplied by the government or private tankers, as piped supplies are either defunct or unavailable. The water supplied by the Delhi authorities is discolored or odorous, and thus considered unsafe for drinking.
Everyday conflicts around water are common.”
Manchanda, “Water Movements in Delhi”
148
.38 slum households .38 million MILLION SLUM HOUSEHOLDS
97% access TO toELECTRICITY electricity 97% have HAVE ACCESS
51% have HAVE ACCESS WITHIN PREMISES 51% access TO toWATER waterFACILITY facility within premises
50% have HAVE ACCESS 50% access TO toLATRINE latrineFACILITIES facilities
44% HAVE ACCESS TO ELECTRICITY, WATER AND 44% have access toWITHIN electricity, water, and latrine LATRINE FACILITY THE PREMISES facilities within the premises
Data from “Human Development Report 2013: Shelter and Basic Service,” Govt. of NCT of Delhi 149
the site
ramlila maidan
150
151
delhiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the sitepoor
New Delhi 152
Old Delhi
Cordon sanitaire
153
the site
Old Delhi
Wall of walled city for protection
154
Cordon sanitaire for separation
New Delhi
155
the site
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Neither Wilderness Nor Home: The Indian Maidanâ&#x20AC;? Anuradha Mathur
156
“...that part of the environment that lay beyond a person’s own threshold and outside his own possession, but to which, however, that person had a recognized claim of usage--not to produce commodities but to provide for the subsistence of kin. Neither wilderness nor home is commons, but that part of the environment for which customary law exacts specific forms of community respect.
These places that are neither wilderness nor home are being threatened today by the demands of modern urbanization, and yet they offer the only real
hope of individual freedom and collective engagement in the enclosure of the city.” (206)
“In spite of this royal patronage, the maidan was a place open to all for gathering and thoroughfare, where the royalty and commoners met.” (208) “The maidan is not a distinct enclosure... the peripheral boundaries of the maidan are more decorative frames than spatial features. In other words, although it is a bounded space within the city, the maidan does not exist as a perceptible room. This lack of definition is, perhaps, appropriate, for in a landscape where horizons are broad, the maidan is a place born of a desire to establsh human domain by marking boundaries while maintaining a sense of immensity--a phenomenal landscape quality retained from nomadic ways of life.” (209) “Maidans have emerged as a result of human intervention directed not toward the addition of identity, events, or character to a level ground but rather toward keeping land free and indeterminate.” (215) “City landscapes are being increasingly commodified, monitored, and constructed in ways that discourage spontaneous appropriation and unplanned transformation.” (216)
157
the site
history of political rallies
anti-corruption social justice
158
159
appendix
160
8
appendix
161
elements of conflict
162
elements of conflict
163
elements of conflict
wall
division separation segregation security peace
security civitas veri
164
control hong kong riots
control hong kong riots
oppression berlin wall
separation exodus
protection walled city, delhi
protection red fort, delhi
165
elements of conflict
road
166
division separation ignorance protesting marching military efficiency
division canal street, new orleans
military efficiency haussmannâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plan for paris
protection, control israeli by-pass roads
protection, control israeli by-pass roads
protest hong kong, street
division minneapolis freeways
167
elements of conflict
zones
168
segregation division inequality
division haussmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s re-appropriation of paris
division cordon sanitaire, delhi
division no-manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-land, canal street, new orleans
169
elements of conflict
square
170
gathering protesting
gathering, protesting tahrir square
gathering, protesting hong kong
occupation occupy wall st., zuccotti park
171
elements of conflict
tower
172
oppression division protection inequality
oppression tower of london
oppression, division, inequality mumbai
control berlin, watchtower
control panopticon
173
elements of conflict
suburb
174
isolation homogeneity
isolation, homogeneity paris suburb
isolation, homogeneity stockholm suburb
175
elements of conflict
176
proposed calendar
177
WK 10
WK 09
WK 08
WK 07
WK 06
WK 05
WK 04
WK 03
WK 02
WK 01
begin design speculations to narrow research
compile book
utopia; formal analysis of cities
develop research framework
RESEARCH/ DESIGN FOCUS
site analysis
complete primary research
WK 16
WK 15
WK 14
WK 13
WK 12
WK 11
WK 10
WK 09
WK 08
WK 07
WK 06
WK 05
WK 04
While continuing supplementary research, be test design propositions.
WK 03
Develop a framework for research. Conduct foundational research for design proposition.
WK 02
WEEK #
SPRING 2015 | conflictual forms and
WK 01
GOALS
FALL 2014 | cities of conflict
EVENTS
advisor meetings
lunch submission
grants, fellowships, and papers
buckminster fuller challenge
thesis reviews
deanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grant, pellecia, nix
book and poster due
design research
india
studio
PHASING
CONTINUED RESE
RESEARCH
SPECULATION AND DESIGN TESTING
KEY
178
assignment deadline
review
project deadline
email correspondence
submission deadline
meeting
tentative time frame
compile materials
secondary design proposal
initial design proposal
compile reflections
potential international travel for nix, pellecia, or site visit
final design proposal
FALL 2015 | design city for conflict + transformation
Supplement research and design with in-depth research and analysis of site. Develop design proposition to completion. Conduct supplementary research as necessary.
WK 01
WK 16
WK 15
WK 14
WK 13
WK 12
WK 11
WK 10
WK 09
WK 08
WK 07
WK 06
WK 05
WK 04
WK 03
WK 02
WK 12
WK 11
WK 10
WK 09
WK 08
WK 07
WK 06
WK 05
WK 04
WK 03
WK 02
SUMMER 2015 | site study
WK 01
WK 16
WK 15
WK 14
WK 13
WK 12
WK 11
egin speculation and
local site visit
test design speculations on chosen site
d spaces
EARCH
TRAVEL
DESIGN
time frame
179
bibliography topic
180
9
bibliography
181
bibliography Aristotle. Politics: Book 2. “A tale of many cities” February 10, 2011 (from the print edition) http://www.economist.com/node/18111592. Review of: Triumph of the city by Edward Glaeser. Bender, Barbara and Margot Winer, ed. Contested Landscapes: Movement, Exile and Place. Berg, New York: 2001. Bishop, Ryan, Gregory K. Clancey, and John Phillips. The City as Target. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2012. Beall, Jo and Sean Fox. “PD4: Mitigating Conflict in Africa’s Cities.” Government Office for Science, London, UK. 2011. Beall, J., T. Goodfellow, and D. Rodgers. “Cities and Conflict in Fragile States in the Developing World.” Urban Studies, 2013, 3065-083. Benjamin, Andrew. “Trauma within the walls: Notes towards a philosophy of the city,” Post-Traumatic Urbanism. Architectural Design. Burke, Anthony. “The Urban Complex: Scalar Probabilities” Post-Traumatic Urbanism. Architectural Design. “Rapid Urbanization and the Growing Threat of Violence and Conflict: A 21st Century Crisis” Calame, Jon, and Esther Ruth Charlesworth. Divided Cities: Belfast, Beirut, Jerusalem, Mostar, and Nicosia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009. Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. New York: Zone Books, 1994. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/debord/society.htm Deleuze, Gilles. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. De Zegher, Catherine and Mark Wigley, Eds. The activist drawing: retracing situationist architectures from Constant’s New Babylon to beyond. New York: Drawing Center, 2001. Kenzari, Bechir. Architecture and Violence. Barcelona: Actar, 2011. Kilcullen, David J. “The City as a System: Future Conflict and Urban Resilience.” Koolhaas, Rem. “Exodus, or the voluntary prisoners of architecture.” (article written by Fosco Lucarelli, March 19, 2011). http://socks-studio. com/2011/03/19/exodus-or-the-voluntary-prisoners-of-architecture/. Kostof, Spiro. The City Assembled: The Elements of Urban Form through History. Boston: Little, Brown, 1992. Lahoud, Adrian. “Post-Traumatic Urbanism.” Architectural Design: 14-23. Lambert, Le. Weaponized Architecture: The Impossibility of Innocence. New York: Dpr-barcelona, 2012. Lombard, Melanie. “Urban land and conflict in the global South.” cities@manchester, University of Manchester. April 29, 2013. Accessed October 15, 2014. http://citiesmcr.wordpress.com/2013/04/29/urban-land-and-conflict-in-the-global-south/ More, Thomas. Utopia. Raleigh, N.C.: Alex Catalogue, 1990. N.L. “The city triumphs, again,” Babbage. The Economist. June 6, 2013 Accessed September 25, 2014. http://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2013/06/ urbanisation Patel, Ronak B., and Frederick M. Burkle. “Rapid Urbanization and the Growing Threat of Violence and Conflict: A 21st Century Crisis.” Prehospital and Disaster Medicine: 194-97. Post-Traumatic Urbanism. Architectural Design. September/October 2010. Profile No. 207. Guest-edited by Adrian Lahoud, Charles Rice, and Anthony Burke. http://issuu.com/alejandrosax/docs/120823201906-992c8c7334094c6eb9538cbcf3b426eb. Rowe, Colin, and Fred Koetter. Collage City. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978. Rykwert, Joseph. The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976. “Sweden: Riots Continue in Immigrant Neighborhoods.” The New York Times. May 22, 2013. Accessed November 30, 2014. http://www.nytimes. com/2013/05/23/world/europe/sweden-riots-continue-in-immigrant-neighborhoods.html?_r=0. “The Architecture of Violence.” Rebel Architecture. http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/rebelarchitecture/ “The urbanisation trap,” The Economist online. October 2nd, 2012. Accessed September 25, 2014. http://www.economist.com/blogs/ graphicdetail/2012/10/daily-chart.
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bibliography Images and graphics (by Page #): Pg. 8-9: Names from Beall, Jo, Tom Goodfellow and Dennis Rodgers. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Cities and Conflict in Fragile States in the Developing World.â&#x20AC;? Urban Studies 2013. May 30, 2013. Pg 14-15 (Left) http://mainstream.com.mx/2014/01/24/el-contraataque-del-vih-antes-de-terminar-el-2013/ (Right) http://imgarcade.com/1/nonviolent-protest-mlk/ 18-19 http://ciberneticon.com/tecprehistorica/ 20-21 Kostof, A City Assembled 34-35 (Left) http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/photo/photoDetails.cfm?sitelang=en&ref=024750#0 (right) http://electronicintifada.net/content/2006-world-social-forum-european-social-forum-and-beyond-new-energy-quest-justice-and 36-37 http://catwalkartresidency.com/news The following images have been altered from these originals: 44-45 (left) http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/11/the_berlin_wall_20_years_gone.html (left bottom) https://mrkscoldwarc.wikispaces.com/Berlin+Wall 46-47 (left top) http://www.usacbi.org/2012/02/educators-cant-stay-silent-about-israeli-apartheid/ (left bottom) http://www.panoramio.com/photo/1353321 48-49 (left top) Kostof, A City Assembled (left bottom) https://architokyo.wordpress.com/exposition/ (Right top) http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/21/toulouse-shootings-french-islamist-threat (right middle) http://www.dw.de/french-riots-anniversary-passes-with-minor-skirmishes/a-2217658 (Right bottom left) http://www.lebanonwire.com/0711MLN/07112711STR.asp 50-51 http://www.theneworder.org/news/2014/04/sweden-model-national-sliding-toward-third-world-status/ 52-53 http://tropmag.com/2012/highways-and-rivers/ 54-55 (left top) http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2011/02/egypt-a-new-turning-point-for-the-revolution/100007/ (left bottom) http://israelmatzav.blogspot.com/2012/11/looks-like-mohammed-morsy-has-few.html 56-57 (left top) http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/social-media-hong-kong-protests (left middle) http://www.straitstimes.com/news/asia/east-asia/story/hong-kong-protests-democracy-street-battles-rage-despite-imminent-talks-20 (left bottom left) http://mashable.com/2014/07/01/hong-kong-democracy-rally/) (left bottom right) http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29427735 58-59 (left top) http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/nov/15/occupy-wall-street-you-cant-evict (Left bottom) http://www.citylab.com/design/2014/06/who-really-owns-public-spaces/373612/ 60-61 (left top) http://stldotage.blogspot.com/2008/03/st-louis-needs-more-neutral-grounds.html (Left bottom) Kostof, A City Assembled 62-63 (Left top) Kostof, A City Assembled (Left bottom) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Delhi 64-65 (left top) Photo by Stein, Michelle (left bottom) http://firstbiz.firstpost.com/real-estate/the-big-shift-in-mumbai-realty-when-cuffe-parade-fell-off-the-rich-list-91438.html 72-73 (Left) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia_%28book%29 74-75 (right - top three images) http://www.archdaily.com/295301/films-architecture-the-truman-show/, (right bottom) http://www.tboake.com/443_truman_f07.html 76-77(left and right) http://socks-studio.com/2011/03/19/exodus-or-the-voluntary-prisoners-of-architecture/ 78-79 http://artofmapping.blogspot.com/2010/09/le-corbusier-contemporary-city-1922.html 80-81 http://www.ryanraffa.com/parsons/blog/urban-drifts/ 82-83 (left) http://archigram.westminster.ac.uk/project.php?id=56 (right) http://archigram.westminster.ac.uk/project.php?id=60 84-85 http://www-03.ibm.com/innovation/us/thesmartercity/
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88-89 http://www.amazon.com/Collage-City-Colin-Rowe/dp/0262680424 90-91 http://hilariousbookbinder.blogspot.com/2014/01/on-fold-deleuze-nietzsche-and-seduction.html 92-93 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_interaction 104-105 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street 106-107 maps.bing.com 108-109 Diagram adapted from Jonathan Masseyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s maps of Liberty Park: https://placesjournal.org/article/mapping-liberty-plaza/ 110-111 http://gothamist.com/2013/08/18/see_manhattans_wealth_inequality_vi.php 116-117 Google Earth Map 118-119 (left) http://www.gc.cuny.edu/Page-Elements/Academics-Research-Centers-Initiatives/Centers-and-Institutes/Center-for-Urban-Research/CURresearch-initiatives/Communities-of-Interest-in-New-York-City (right) http://www.prattcenter.net/research/toward-informed-rebuilding-documenting-sandys-impacts 120-121 Google Earth Map 122-123 Google Earth Map 124-125 Google Earth Map 144-145 http://www.genxisocialbuzz.com/index.php/ansal-api-green-escape-sonepat-is-spread-over-30-acres-with-only-37-high-rise-apartments/ 146-147 Photo by Stein, Michelle 148-149 Photo by Stein, Michelle 150-151 Google Earth Map 152-153 Google Earth Map 154-155 Kostof, A City Assembled 158-159 (from left) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramlila_Maidan 164-165 (left) http://www.spamula.net/blog/2006/06/civitas_veri_1.html, (right - clockwise from top left) http://www.torontosun.com/2014/10/19/hong-kong-street-clashes-erupt-despite-imminent-talks, http://www.straitstimes. com/news/asia/east-asia/story/hong-kong-protests-democracy-street-battles-rage-despite-imminent-talks-20, http://socks-studio.com/2011/03/19/exodusor-the-voluntary-prisoners-of-architecture/, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/photo/2013-05/25/c_132407685.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Old_Delhi, http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/11/the_berlin_wall_20_years_gone.html 166-167 (right - clockwise from top left) Kostof, A City Assembled, https://architokyo.wordpress.com/exposition/, http://www.panoramio.com/ photo/1353321, http://tropmag.com/2012/highways-and-rivers/, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-29427735, http://www.usacbi.org/2012/02/ educators-cant-stay-silent-about-israeli-apartheid/ 168-169 (right - all three) Kostof, A City Assembled 170-171 (right - top to bottom) http://israelmatzav.blogspot.com/2012/11/looks-like-mohammed-morsy-has-few.html, http://mashable.com/2014/07/01/ hong-kong-democracy-rally/, http://www.citylab.com/design/2014/06/who-really-owns-public-spaces/373612/ 172-173 (right - clockwise from top right) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tower_of_London,_Traitors_Gate.jpg, https://mrkscoldwarc.wikispaces. com/Berlin+Wall, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panopticon, http://firstbiz.firstpost.com/real-estate/the-big-shift-in-mumbai-realty-when-cuffe-parade-felloff-the-rich-list-91438.html 174-175 (right - from left) http://www.theneworder.org/news/2014/04/sweden-model-national-sliding-toward-third-world-status/, http://www.dw.de/frenchriots-anniversary-passes-with-minor-skirmishes/a-2217658
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