Education guide by mobiusspokane

EDUCATION GUIDE Complementing the Exhibits at Mobius Science Center This document contains standards-based curriculum in the form of pre-visit and post-visit activities for each section of the exhibit floor at Mobius Science Center. It is broken up into grade bands for 4-5 and 6-8. We hope that you can use these hands-on activities to integrate your field trip experience into your classroom learning.

Sparking Curiosity, Igniting Imagination 811 W MAIN AVE SPOKANE, WA 99201 509.321.7133 MOBIUSSPOKANE.ORG

Bio Lab Pre-Visit Activity: Darwin's Fighting Finches...................................................................................3 Post-Visit Activity: Food Webs ................................................................................................................6 Pre-Visit Activity: Population Explosion...........................................................................................15 Engineering & Flight Pre-Visit Activity: Sports Physics ..........................................................................................................19 Fluid Dynamics Pre-Visit Activity: Exploring Soil Composition..............................................................................24 Post-Visit Activity: Shake 'N Break ......................................................................................................27 Pre-Visit Activity: Fluid Mechanics And Erosion .........................................................................30 Post-Visit Activity: Jello Earthquake Simultron 6000 ...............................................................33 Human Body Pre-Visit Activity: Food Party..................................................................................................................43 Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (4-5) ......................................................................................................48 Pre-Visit Activity: Diaphragm Model Activity ...............................................................................48 Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (6-8) ......................................................................................................54 Space Pre-Visit Activity: Daily Sun Motion ...................................................................................................60 Post-Visit Activity: Celestial Storyteller ...........................................................................................63 Pre-Lesson Activity: Moon Cookies ....................................................................................................65 Post-Visit Activity: Human Solar System .........................................................................................68 Physics & Phenomena Pre-Visit Activity: Heat Pinwheel .........................................................................................................73 Post-Visit Activity: Hot Water Bottles ...............................................................................................76 Pre-Visit Activity: Molecules In Motion: Heated Molecules................................................80 Post-Lesson Activity: Molecules In Motion: Insulation Station .........................................85

Pre-Visit Activity: Darwin's Fighting Finches Grade Range: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 LS1B, 4-5 LS1C, 4-5 LS3A, 4.5.J, 5.6.J Objectives This lesson is designed to help students identify animal adaptations that help those animals survive in their environment. Students work in teams to understand how some adaptations allow certain animals to out compete others. Students will also understand how sudden changes in the environment can impact the survivability of multiple species. Background Information An Ecological Niche refers to an animal’s way of life, or the way that that animal stays alive and interacts with its surroundings. Each species has a separate, unique niche that cannot be duplicated or shared with other species. The ecological niche describes how an animal or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (for instance, having population growth when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (for instance acting as a food source for predators or a consumer of prey). Because different species cannot occupy the same niche, species are often in competition with each other. Species can share a 'mode of life' where two species compete for the same source of food, but acquire that food through different methods, or where two species are both prey animals to the same predator, but have different methods of deterring that predator. When animals are introduced into a new environment, they have the potential to occupy or invade the niche or niches of native organisms, often outcompeting the indigenous species. Introduction of non-indigenous species to non-native habitats by humans often results in biological pollution by the exotic or invasive species Characteristics or adaptations refer to the physical traits of an animal that help it survive in its environment. They can include literally anything about the animal that aids in its survival, including fur coloration or patterns, behavior and social conditions (living in a herd, flock, or pack), teeth structure, the animal's size, and general body changes. Bird bills have been adapted for multiple uses, including defense, eating and foraging, feeding young, gathering nest supplies and building nests, preening, courtship, and attacking. The size and shape of the beak correlates to the specific type of food the bird eats. For instance, cardinals have heavy, thick bills for cracking open seeds, humming birds have long, slender, and curved bills to reach plant nectar, and finch species on the Galapagos Islands have adapted different sized beaks in order to exploit different types of seeds during draughts. Materials  Stopwatch, timer, or clock  Per Group: Plastic cup (one per student), graph paper (per student), colored pencils, various “mouths,” or “bills” (spoon, clothespin, tweezers, chopsticks)*, ~ 100 beans, and a plate on which to keep the beans. * If one of these is not obtainable, feel free to switch it out with another objects (EX., forks, ) * As noted below, some students will need to switch utensils after each time trial, so be sure to have excess numbers of each mouth type. Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to explain the background material and how the game works, and ten minutes to complete the game. It is suggested that you complete several rounds of the game, so that students can more easily associate the lesson with the game and answer the questions. 3

Activity Overview Introduction  Discuss the importance of ecological niches and adaptations with the students. Explain how every species has to find its own way to exploit resources, and that some species have evolved adaptations that make them much more successful than other species. Explain how any characteristic that helps a species survive is called an adaptation. Use the example of Darwin's Finches.  For this activity, each student will act as a different species of finch. Divide the students into groups of four and distribute the group supplies to each. The cup acts as the “stomach” for the food. Each student in the group should initially receive a different style of “bill” for the first round. Activity Elements  The students will run four trials with different time lengths. One will last 60 seconds, one 45 seconds, one 30 seconds, and one 15 seconds.  During the timing, each student must try to collect 20 beans using their “mouth” (tweezers, chopsticks, spoons, etc.). If a student cannot collect 20 beans during the time trial, then their finch has died, and cannot advance to the next round.  If a student does successfully collect 20 beans, then their finch will go on to reproduce ONE offspring each (I.E., a surviving spoon finch will reproduce one other spoon finch) that will replace another student's dead finch.  After each timed round, the teacher should ask each group how many finches of each “species” (mouth type) have survived. The teacher should record this information on the board in a table, and have each student also record the information in their own table. Activity Summary  After the four time trials are completed, have the students graph the results from the table, with the time duration as the x-axis, and the population numbers as the y-axis. Each finch “mouth” should be graphed as a separate color, or on a separate graph.  Have the students complete the follow-up questions below.  Follow up by asking students to explain what an ecological niche is, and to explain the relationships between resources and adaptations. Questions  What happens to finches that cannot compete with other animals for resources?  The spoon mouthed finch should have out-competed most of the other species. The spoon-mouthed finch was not a natural inhabitant of the environment, but was introduced by humans. These “exotic” species often out-perform native species, and can drive native species to endangerment and extinction. Why do you think this happens?  Why do some birds have very long, pointy beaks, while other birds have short, flat beaks? How do you think the species populations would have fared if smaller or larger beans had been used?  Critical Thinking: How do you think diseases can affect natural selection? Teacher Answer Guide  What happens to finches that cannot compete with other animals for resources? Because these finches cannot compete with other animals for resources, they are unable to reproduce, so their beaks disappear from the gene pool.  The spoon mouthed finch should have out-competed most of the other species. The spoon-mouthed finch was not a natural inhabitant of the environment, but was introduced by humans. These “exotic” species often out-perform native species, and can drive native species to endangerment and extinction. Why do you think this happens? Native species do not have any defense mechanisms to help them compete against invasive species, which often leads to the invasive species have an advantage in many areas of competition. 4

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If the exotic species is a predator, it can decimate local populations. An example is the brown tree snake, which is a very invasive species that has shown remarkable ability to adapt to new environments and wipe out native bird populations; this is because the bird populations have not had a chance to evolve proper defensive mechanisms against the snake, and the snake is able to destroy the bird population before the birds can develop them. Another example is the cane toad in Australia; the cane toad avoids its enemies by being slightly toxic, but the native predators of Australia have no defenses against the toxin, which results in the frog killing the predator. Because of this, the cane toads are able to out-reproduce other animals that compete for the same resources. Why do some birds have very long, pointy beaks, while other birds have short, flat beaks? How do you think the species populations would have fared if smaller or larger beans had been used? Birds have differently shaped beaks because they target different food resources. Had this game used different types of beans, each differently beaked finch would have had a better chance to survive if it had targeted a specific type of bean that its mouth was made to target. Critical Thinking: How do you think diseases can affect natural selection? Disease acts as a selective pressure against animals that are not as healthy as others, which in turn ensures that the next generation will be more “fit” than the previous. For instance, let's say that a prey animal has lost its primary predator, and this has allowed the prey population to explode; disease acts as a way to “control” a population by removing less fit animals from the gene pool and from taking up finite food resources. The animals that can survive the disease are able to pass on the genetic material that gave them that advantage to the next generation. As a result, the next generation is less likely to be affected by the disease.

Post-Visit Activity: Food Webs Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 LS2B, 4-5 LS2C, 4-5 LS2E, 4-5 SYSA, 4-5 SYSB, 4-5 SYSC, 4-5 SYSD, 4-5 INQC, 4-5 INQE, 4-5 INQF Objectives Students explore the complex nature of food webs in their interactive game. Students act out various levels of food webs, using themselves as models, and understand how ecosystems work as subsystems and systems, and how they can be disrupted if one portion of the subsystem stops functioning. Background Information Food webs depict feeding connections between different species inside an ecosystem, and demonstrate the transfer of energy between organisms. The transfer of energy from one source to another is fundamental in food webs. This transfer of energy occurs when one individual eats another. Species can be broken into two very broad categories, autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are basal species, which can take non-living materials, such as sunlight and minerals, and turn them into energy sources (via photosynthesis). All plants are autotrophs, including carnivorous plants like Venus Fly Traps. Heterotrophic species are species that must rely on organic compounds of carbon and nitrogen for food. Unlike autotrophs, heterotrophs cannot “fix” carbon from a non-organic to an organic state. Instead, they must procure it as an organic compound. In the simplest configuration of a food web, autotrophs, or plants, are at the lowest level; herbivores, or primary consumers, which rely primarily on plants for sustenance, are just above plants. Herbivores are followed by secondary consumers, which are predators. Predators can be broken into two categories – mesopredators, which are predators to some animals but prey to others, and apex predators, which have no natural predators themselves. Existing above secondary predators are detrivores. Detrivores are heterotrophs that aid in decomposing all other levels (autotrophs, herbivores, and primary and secondary predators) upon death. This decomposition then acts as a food base for autotrophs and some heterotrophs. Examples of detrivores include worms, fungi, and bacteria. Diet refers to the entire sum of food consumed by an individual organism or species. Diets differ dramatically between species, with some species having incredibly varied diets (such as the hawk, fox, or snake below), and others having very limited diets (such as the frog below). Because of the limits created by diets, sudden changes in the ecosystem that effect one species can create a massive ripple effect among several other species. A population is the number of species within an ecosystem that can survive without depleting that system's resources to where the system cannot recover. Populations are impacted by the populations of other species around them when their food webs are interconnected through competition for similar resources. Materials Needed  2 12” strings of yarn per student (OPTIONAL)  At least two of each type of card (see below). If you have more students than cards, then make multiples of the plants, plant-eaters, or lower meat-eaters, but NOT the top meat-eaters  Enough space for students to move around and create chains (your classroom should be fine for this) Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to explain the background information and the introduction, five to ten minutes for each round of the game, and ten minutes to explain the ending of each game. It is highly suggested that you play the variations offered as well, in order to increase the student's understanding of the lesson.

Introduction  Ask students to name animals and what they eat. Keep a list on the board, separated into two columns, predator and prey. Continue until either the students run out of ideas, or until the board is full.  Randomly pass out the animal cards and string to the students. Cards should be worn or held so they are clearly visible.  Explain that food webs are complex and interconnected. While we “imagine” them as linear chains or strings, they are often much more complex. Explain the rules of the game that limit what animal can eat what (see below). You could also put the rules on the board so that students can easily remember them. NOTE: If you want to play a simpler version of this game, remove the frog card and replace it with a plant or plant-eater card, and make the squirrel and bird cards plant-eater cards. Activity Elements  Move about the classroom searching for something that your card eats, or for something that eats your card. When you find that card, either hold hands or, if given string, hold onto the other person's string.  Together, continue to look for something to eat, or something to eat them. Students should try to make the chain as long as possible.  At the end of the game, some students will be un-paired, and some chains will be smaller than others. The “ultimate” chain is as follows: plant – plant eater – lower meat eater – top meat eater. Because food webs are complex, probably very few students have completed this ultimate web. Other web chain combinations will be: plant – plant eater – lower meat eater; plant – plant eater – top meat eater; or plant – planter eater. If any plant eating or meat eating student isn't paired with what it eats, this is an example of how populations outgrew the number of resources in the area. If the student were really living in this area, he/she would either have to move away to search for new resources. If a chain ends with a plant-eater or a lower-meat-eater, then that animal “survived” the game.  Change the game with one of these variations to demonstrate how environmental impacts affect food webs: o A cold winter killed off many of the snakes and mice. Remove the snake and mice cards, and replace them with plant cards. Replay the game again. o A road was built through the middle of the ecosystem. Traffic on the road killed many foxes and snakes. Remove these cards, and make them a rabbit and mouse. Replay the game again. o Winter was longer than usual, and killed off a lot of the plant growth. Remove the nut and seed cards, and make them a fox and hawk. Replay the game again. Activity Summary  Introduce the idea of how decomposition occurs, and how the lower food groups – plants and insects – depend on decomposition in order to survive, creating the “web” effect. Regardless of their placement on the food web, when an animal dies, plants and some insects break down the body in different nutrients and elements, which the plant or insect then uses in order to grow. This provides food resources for planteaters, etc.  Ask students to talk about their feelings of the game, and what they learned about how different species are interconnected.  Ask students the questions below, or have them answer the questions as homework. Questions  Why do plants and animals need each other?  What happened when you removed the snake and the mouse from the game? Did any animals benefit more than others?  What happened when you removed the nut and seeds from the game?  Name a food that you eat and trace it back to an animal or plant.  How do humans sometimes change plant and animal environments?  How does nature sometimes change plant and animal environments? 7

Game Rules  These are plants: o plants; seeds; nuts  These are plant-eaters: o mouse; rabbit; grasshopper; caterpillar  These are mesopredators / “lower” meat eaters (they are both prey and predators): o frog; squirrels; bird  These are apex predators / “top” meat eaters (they are only predators): o fox; hawk; snake  These animals eat only plants: o mouse; rabbit; grasshopper; caterpillar  These animals eat both plants and insects (grasshopper, caterpillar): o squirrels; birds  These animals eat only insects (grasshopper, caterpillar): o frogs  These animals eat all plant-eaters and lower meat-eaters: o fox; hawk; snake

Teacher Answer Guide  Why do plants and animals need each other? Animals need plants because plants act as a food resource for many herbivores and prey animals. These prey animals then become food resources for predators. Plants need animals because, when animals die, their bodies decompose and nutrients from their bodies return to the soil. Plants need these nutrients in order to grow properly. The nutrients are then returned to animals when the herbivores then eat the plants.  What happened when you removed the snake and the mouse from the game? Did any animals benefit more than others? Answers may vary depending on how the game played out. However, in general, there may have been more plant winners, because the mouse was removed as competition. There may also have been more prey winners, because the removal of the snake removed an entire predator from the system, meaning that there were more prey than predators.  What happened when you removed the nut and seeds from the game? Competition among the plant eaters became very fierce and it was difficult to create a “perfect” chain. At least a few plant eaters were unable to find food, and because those plant eaters couldn't find food, the predators that preyed on them also couldn't find food (the plant eaters would have died without food resources, and the predators would have been affected in turn because there were more predators than prey available).  Name a food that you eat and trace it back to an animal or plant. Answers will vary between students.  How do humans sometimes change plant and animal environments? Humans change the environment in many ways. We cut down trees to make farmland, we build dams to create lakes and generate power, we build roads through their habitats. All of these actions have collateral effects on animal populations, and they are often negative.  How does nature sometimes change plant and animal environments? Changes in weather affect animal and plant populations. For instance, a mild winter means that certain animals will breed more, which will stress the available resources. Likewise, hard winters will kill off plants and animals. Floods and fires can change or destroy whole ecosystems.

Grasshopper

Plant

Seeds

Nuts

Mouse

Rabbit

Caterpillar

Frog

Squirrel

Bird

Fox

Snake

Hawk

Pre-Visit Activity: Population Explosion Grade Range: 6-8 Washington State Standards: 6-8 LS2A, 6-8 LS2B, 6-8 LS2D, 6-8 INQC, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 SYSA, 6-8 SYSB, 6-8SYSE, 6.6.H Objectives: Students will work together to complete a game that explores how predator and prey populations interact and depend on each other. Upon completing the game and exploring the follow-up questions, students will understand the basis of food webs between predators and prey, and understand how sudden changes in the ecosystem can negatively and positively affect both populations. Background Information This activity demonstrates how the environment and species populations are interconnected. An environment or ecosystem is the biotic (alive) and abiotic (non-alive, like minerals, water) surroundings of an organism, or population. An environment includes the factors that the organism needs in order to survive, develop, and evolve – such as, but not limited to, yearly temperature ranges, ground density, food resources (plants and animals), water access and water temperature, bi-products produced by other organisms, and local deposits of nutrients and minerals. Environments can be marine, atmospheric, or terrestrial. Altering an organism's environment can have both positive and negative effects, but usually result in negatively impacting that organism's population levels. Environments and ecosystems can be very large (like the entirety of Yellowstone National Park), or very small (one-cell organisms living in a small pond.) Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of individuals within a given species that an environment's resources can sustain without significantly depleting those resources. Each species has its own carrying capacity, but one species' carrying capacity can impact another's. For instance, in the activity below, the carrying capacity for foxes is greatly dependent on the population of rabbits within the area. Because foxes rely on rabbits for food, the rabbit population must be significantly larger than the fox population. A food web refers to all of the food chains within a single ecosystem. A food chain refers to the relationship between a predator, a prey animal or animals, and the environment's plants and decomposing elements. Sudden changes in an ecosystem can affect all participants within a food web. For instance, in the activity below, the sudden introduction of another predator would greatly disrupt the food web. This predator would be competing with the fox for the same food resources – rabbits – and the rabbits would lack the proper natural defenses to evade the new predator. Both the rabbit population and the fox population would suffer as a result. Likewise, if a new prey species, such as voles (which eat the same food groups as rabbits), were to move into the environment, the rabbits would have to compete with them for food sources and would be negatively impacted. If the fox only relied on the rabbits as a food source, the fox population would also suffer as the rabbit population fell. However, the fox may use the voles as a secondary food source, meaning that the fox population could potentially grow. Rabbits would also benefit by the fox population growing, because it would lessen their competition with the voles as foxes reduced vole populations. Materials:  Each group will need one baggie of approximately 150 small brown squares (~1/2” squares or smaller), and one baggie of approximately 50 large orange squares (~2” squares)  A clear school desk for each group (this acts as the “field,” or environment)  Each group will need at least one copy of the attached table to fill out (or they can make their own table on loose leaf), a piece of graph paper, and two differently colored pens/pencils 15

Time Duration: Plan for ten to twenty minutes for the lesson plan, and at least one hour to complete the activity. Students may need a break with this activity, so consider starting the activity half an hour before lunch, and using the lunch break as a natural break in the game. Activity Overview Introduction  Explain how the carrying capacity of an environment and species populations are related.  Break the students into groups of 2 to 4. Each group should receive one baggie of brown squares, and one of orange squares. The students will work together to complete the assignment, and should take turns completing the actions and recording the results.  Explain that the brown squares are rabbits, the orange squares are foxes, and the desk acts as the meadow, or field. Activity Elements  The game starts with three rabbits spread out on the field. One student should toss a fox onto the field, trying to touch as many rabbits as possible. In order to survive the turn, the fox must touch (capture/eat) at least three rabbits. Since the students should have had the three rabbits spread out across the desk, this should be impossible.  If the fox did not touch three rabbits, remove it from the field; explain that there was not enough prey in the field to support the fox, and the fox had to move to a different field.  Remove any rabbits that were captured by the fox, and record the results in the table. The turn (generation) is now over.  The prey population doubles each turn (generation). So, if the fox did not capture any rabbits, there should be six rabbits at the start of the second turn. If the fox caught one rabbit, there should be four, etc. Spread the rabbits out across the field.  Students should repeat the fox-tossing procedure. Unless the fox catches three rabbits, it must leave the field at the end of the turn (generation). The total number of surviving rabbits should double at the end of each turn (generation).  When the fox does touch three rabbit cards, it has caught enough prey to survive to the next turn (generation). When this happens, another fox moves into the field, which increases competition for the rabbits. Don't forget to remove the three rabbit cards!  Students should continue the game as before, only this time they toss two fox cards each turn. Like before, if each fox does not catch three rabbits, it has to move out of the field. Activity Summary  Students should continue to collect and record data on their tables for twenty turns (generations).  After students have completed collecting data, have them graph the results. The X-axis should be the generations (20 total); the Y-axis should be the population numbers. Use different colors to represent the rabbit and fox populations. Have the students answer the questions below.  Ask students what they've learned about the relationship between predators and prey. How many prey animals had to be in the field in order to support one predator? What does that suggest about each species' ability to survive?  Remind students that the success of one species often has an inverse relationship with the success of a different species (the success of one species causes other species to not succeed).

Questions:  Which population has better success at surviving? What factors impact that success?  Describe the relationship between the variables (generation vs. sizes of populations). What happens over time?  What inferences about populations can you make from this graph & the activity? o How would the fox population be affected if another predator (such as an eagle, coyote, or wolf) moved into the field and decimated the prey population? o What if another prey animal, such as a squirrel or muskrat, moved into the field and competed with the rabbits for the same food? How would that affect the predator population? The prey population? Teacher Answer Sheet Questions:  Which population has better success at surviving? What factors impact that success? The rabbit population has better success at surviving. This is impacted by their ability to reproduce quickly, the low rate of predation that occurs, and the existence of a constant food source that is readily available.  Describe the relationship between the variables (generation vs. sizes of populations). What happens over time? Answers will vary between students, but generally one will see a high rise in the rabbit population over a few generations, and a very slow rise in fox population over many generations. Near the end of the game, both populations should reach a relatively stable rate that signifies the field's carrying capacity.  What inferences about populations can you make from this graph & the activity? Prey populations will always be higher than predator populations, and the prey population needs a stable predator population in order to maintain its own population level.  How would the fox population be affected if another predator (such as an eagle, coyote, or wolf) moved into the field and decimated the prey population? The fox population would likely decline, as it would encounter new competition for the same food source. The new competition would lower the number of available prey animals, making it more difficult for the fox to catch enough rabbits to survive.  What if another prey animal, such as a squirrel or muskrat, moved into the field and competed with the rabbits for the same food? How would that affect the predator population? The prey population? The predator population would likely experience a slow growth in response to the new prey population, as its available food sources would have grown; however, the new prey animal may have better defenses against the fox's predation methods. The rabbit population would likely fall if the new prey population had the same food resources, as these two populations would now be in competition with one another. If the fox population is unable to successfully prey on the new prey population, then the fox population numbers would fall alongside the rabbit population.

Engineering and Flight Pre-Visit Activity: Sports Physics ..........................................................................................................19

Pre-Visit Activity: Sports Physics Grade Range: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 PS1B, 6-8 PS1C, 6-8 PS1D, 6-8 INQD, 6-8 INQD, Math 6-8 7.2.H Objectives After completing these activities, students will understand the connection between force, mass, and motion. Background Information: Isaac Newton discovered the three “Newton's Laws” that describe the relationship between an object, the forces acting upon it, and how the object responds to those forces. The first law states that objects will maintain their current velocity unless a force acts upon the object. That velocity may be a state of rest, or it may be a state of movement, but it needs a force to chance from that state. The second law states that the force required to move an object is equal to that object's mass, times the acceleration. This explains why some objects with more mass travel less far than objects with less mass when the same acceleration is applied to both objects. The third law states that, for every force exerted on an object, that object exerts an equal force in the opposite direction. A force is any type of influence that causes a change in the existing state of a body (any physical object). A force can also be thought of as a push or pull of various magnitudes that is exerted by an object onto another object. Two objects that interact with each other exchange an equal amount of force (Newton's third law). When one object exerts a force on a second object, that second object exerts an equal and opposite amount of force on the second object. For instance, what happens when a croquet mallet directly hits a croquet ball? The croquet ball is forced to move by the force of the croquet mallet hitting it. However, the croquet mallet's movement is also stopped upon contact with the croquet ball. The croquet ball executed an equal, but opposite, force on the mallet, which stopped the mallet's previous velocity. Mass refers to the quantity of matter within a body (any physical object). More specifically, it refers to the measure of inertia within a body. The more mass a body has, the more difficult it is to change that body's current state of being – such as being at rest, or not moving, or moving in a direction at a constant speed. Body's that have a higher mass will need a larger force acted upon them in order to change their state of being. For instance, it is much easier to kick a beach ball than it is to a kick a bowling ball. This is because the beach ball has a much lower mass than the bowling ball. Inertia refers to how a body (any physical object) will not change its existing state without an outside force's intervention. It's the inherent resistance a body has to a change in its current velocity. Newton's First Law states that any object that does not have an outside force working upon it moves at a constant velocity (which can be remaining completely still). Inertia is often disrupted on earth by the forces of gravity and friction; gravity and friction induce forces upon objects that impact their inertia. For instance, a ball will maintain the same velocity for a longer distance if rolled across a gym floor than if rolled across grass; this is because the grass introduced a higher friction than the gym floor. Velocity is an object's rate of positional change, and includes both speed and direction of motion. To have a constant velocity, an object must moves at a constant speed in the same direction – that is, an object must travel in a straight line. If an object's path becomes curved, then the object's velocity has been altered by an external force.

Moving objects of all types are also subject to drag, or wind resistance. Drag is a mechanical force that opposes movement through fluids (air constitutes a fluid); in order for an object to move through a liquid, it must exert a force great enough to overcome the drag that is acting upon it. The amount of drag an object experiences is related to the speed by which the object is traveling, and the general shape of the object. For instance, in the activity below, the softball experiences less drag than the wiffle ball due to the differences in the body shapes (wiffle balls experience more drag due to the open spherical shape, which changes the air flow around the object and causes it to experience more drag). In the activity below, the baseball and wiffle ball are not being dropped at large enough heights to introduce a measurable difference in drag, but drag is a very important concept when designing aerodynamic objects. Materials:  A selection of balls that are the same size, but have different masses - for instance, a wiffle ball and a softball, or a beach ball and a basketball or volleyball. Your students will be broken into pairs, or groups of three.  1 skateboard Time Duration: Factor an hour to complete both the introduction and activity elements. Activity Overview Introduction  Introduce Isaac Newton and his “three laws of motion” that apply to every physical object. Newton's three laws explain the relationship between an object and the forces acting upon that object, and how the object's motion changes in reaction to those forces.  Explain that force is required to make an object change from a resting state to a state of movement, or to change the direction that an object is moving. Use baseball as an example; when a batter hits the ball with the bat, the force from the bat is greater than the force exerted by the thrown ball. This causes the ball to change directions because of the unbalanced forces. Explain that this is the basic tenant of Newton's first law of motion – that an object will stay in its current state of rest or movement until a force acts upon it. Activity Elements  Break your students into pairs, or groups of three, and distribute the balls. Each student group should receive at least two balls of differing mass but similar size.  Ask the students to hypothesize and write down which ball will require more force (ex: a harder kick) to move. Ask them to hypothesize why that ball will need more force.  Have the students kick each ball to each other (one student should kick the ball, and the other should block the movement with their feet), and record their observations about how easily or difficult the ball was to kick. If the students have a wiffle ball and a softball, have them (gently!) drop each ball to each other at roughly 1 meter distance, and record how much force they used, or felt, in order to catch it.This is an example of Newton's second law, which states that objects with a larger mass will require a greater force to accelerate them (F=ma). Thus, the ball with a larger mass will require a greater force to start or stop its acceleration.  With other students watching, have one student sit on the skateboard, with his or her legs off the ground. Ask the students to record their hypothesis about what will happen if you throw a basketball to the student. Gently toss a basketball to the student – the student should catch the ball, but NOT by putting out his or her hands (the student should catch the ball close to his or her chest). This is an example of Newton's third law of motion. Newton's third law states that, for every action, there is a resulting equal but opposite action. When the student on the skateboard caught the ball, the ball stopped its motion, but the student moved backwards on the skateboard. Likewise, when the student exerted a force on the ball by throwing it back, the ball enacted a force on the student by moving them backward again. NOTE: Someone should stand behind the student to stop the student from rolling too far. Ask the students to hypothesize what will happen when 20

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the student throws the ball back. Have this student throw the basketball to another student. NOTE: You can complete this portion with a small group of students while other students are completing the earlier exercise. With the other students watching, gently toss a baseball across the activity space. Then toss a wiffle ball across the same space, using the same amount of force as you used on the baseball. Have students pay attention to how the balls behave in the air; the wiffle ball should behave much differently than the baseball did. This is an example of how drag affects differently shaped objects traveling at different speeds through a liquid (in this case, air). Drag is a force like inertia that works to stop the motion of objects. Because of its shape, the wiffle ball experienced more drag than the baseball, which caused the wiffle ball to slow down in mid-air, even though it weighs less than the baseball.

Activity Summary  Bring students back together and go through the exercises below with the students: o Throw a ball straight up and catch it as it falls. Ask your students what force made the ball go into the air (the force exerted by you throwing it), and what force made the ball fall (gravity). This demonstrates to students that some forces are obvious and physically close, such as yourself, and some forces are able to act from a distance, such as gravity (or magnetism). This is an example of Newton's first law; the ball changed from a resting state to a moving state when you introduced a force to it, and the ball changed its direction again when the force of gravity became greater than the force by which you threw the ball. o Ask the students to hypothesize what will happen if you roll a basketball along the ground, then do so. The students should be able to observe that the ball slows down the farther it rolls, due to friction it encounters with the ground. This is also an example of Newton's first law. First, the ball was at rest, and had its state changed by your rolling the ball; then, the ball encountered friction as it was rolling, which introduced a second force that caused the ball to slow down and eventually stop (or the ball encountered another object, which caused the ball to stop its motion). Ask the students what they think will happen if you were to roll the ball softer or harder. o Ask your students why they think the softball needed more force than the wiffle ball to stop its motion. The ball with a greater mass will generate a greater force as it moves, because force is equal to mass times acceleration (F=ma). In this example, the acceleration is the force of gravity acting upon the softball and wiffle ball. Since the force of gravity is a constant value, experienced equally by both objects, the object with the higher mass will require more force to cancel its motion. This is an example of Newton's second law of motion, which states that acceleration is produced when force acts upon a mass, and the greater the mass of an object, the greater the force that is required (e.g., F=ma). Explain that we can calculate this force in measurements of “newtons.” o Ask your students why they think the basketball/volleyball had to be kicked harder, and was harder to stop, than the beach ball. Explain that this is because the basketball/volleyball has a greater mass, which means other objects must exert a greater force on it in order to change its inertia (Newton's second law).  Explain to students that all objects are subject to force, mass, and inertia, including objects that have a mass that changes. For instance, rockets lose mass as they operate, but they still follow the above “rules.” Rockets lose fuel as they travel, which results in a changing mass. The burning fuel is ejected from the posterior of the rocket, which produces a force on the rest of the rocket, and propels it forward. The movement of the rocket forward is equal to the force created by the burning fuel. This propulsion helps rockets “defy” the force of gravity and leave the atmosphere.  Have students answer the questions below.

Questions  Fill in the blank: An object at rest will ____________________ if no outside forces act upon it. o If a skate boarder accidentally runs into a large rock, what happens to the skateboard? What about the skater? What does this tell us about why we should wear seat belts when in a car? 21

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Which law states that F=ma (force is equal to mass times acceleration)? o Mike's car has run out of gas, and he has to push it to the nearest gas station to refuel it. Knowing that F=ma, we can calculate the force exerted on the car by Mike. If the car's mass equals 1,000 pounds, and Mike can push the car at 0.05 miles per hour, how much force is Mike exerting on the car? o Mike has decided that instead of taking his car to the station, he will take his bicycle. If the bike's mass equals 10 pounds, and Mike can push the bike at 2 miles per hour, how much force is Mike exerting on the bike? o Did Mike exert more force on the car, or the bike? How do we know this? Multiple choice: For every action, there is (an equal but opposite reaction; a larger reaction; no reaction; a weaker opposite reaction). o Pick up and hold a heavy text book in your hands. Talk about what's happening in relation to Newton's third law. Consider what forces are acting on each other, and what is keeping the book from falling to the floor.

Teacher Answer Guide  Fill in the blank: An object at rest will stay at rest if no outside forces act upon it. o If a skate boarder accidentally runs into a large rock, what happens to the skateboard? What about the skater? What does this tell us about why we should wear seat belts when in a car? When the skateboard encounters a rock, the rock will force the skateboard to stop (provided that it is large enough) or veer off from its initial trajectory. However, the skater will continue to travel along his trajectory at the same speed. This is because the skater is not actually attached to the skateboard, even though he was using the skateboard to travel. The skater and the skateboard were traveling at the same velocity, but the rock only acted a force on the board; because no force was acted on the skater, the skater continued to move forward. This is why we wear seat belts in the car – the seat belt acts as a force on our body if the car has to suddenly stop, and keeps us from going through the windshield.  Which law states that F=ma (force is equal to mass times acceleration)? The second law. o Mike's car has run out of gas, and he has to push it to the nearest gas station to refuel it. Knowing that F=ma, we can calculate the force exerted on the car by Mike. If the car's mass equals 1,000 pounds, and Mike can push the car at 0.05 miles per hour, how much force is Mike exerting on the car? 50 newtons (“newton” being the unit most commonly used to measure force). o Mike has decided that instead of taking his car to the station, he will take his bicycle. If the bike's mass equals 10 pounds, and Mike can push the bike at 2 miles per hour, how much force is Mike exerting on the bike? 20 newtons. o Did Mike exert more force on the car, or the bike? How do we know this? What made Mike more able to exert that force? Mike exerted more force on the bike. We know this because the calculation demonstrated that Mike could exert a larger force on the bike. Mike was able to exert more force on the bike because its mass was significantly less than that of the car.  Multiple choice: For every action, there is (an equal but opposite reaction; a larger reaction; no reaction; a weaker opposite reaction). o Pick up and hold a heavy text book in your hands. Talk about what's happening in relation to Newton's third law. Consider what forces are acting on each other, and what is keeping the book from falling to the floor. In order to hold the book, you are exerting a force on the book – you can feel this force in your muscles. But the book is also pushing back against your force. That force is gravity, or the force of attraction between the book and the earth. So the forces acting on each other is the force of gravity on the book, and the force exerted by you to keep the book in your hands.These two forces are canceling each other out. If the book had a larger mass, then you would need to exert a larger force to hold it up – if the book's mass were too great, you wouldn't be able to balance the force of gravity, and you would drop the book. 22

Fluid Dynamics Pre-Visit Activity: Exploring Soil Composition..............................................................................24 Post-Visit Activity: Shake 'N Break ......................................................................................................27 Pre-Visit Activity: Fluid Mechanics And Erosion .........................................................................30 Post-Visit Activity: Jello Earthquake Simultron 6000 ...............................................................33

Pre-Visit Activity: Exploring Soil Composition Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 ES2A, 4-5 ES2D, 4-5 ES2E, 4-5 INQA, 4-5 INQB, 4-5 INQG Objectives Students discover that not all soils are the same, and that each soil has its own mineral composition that changes its physical characteristics and allows it to be classified. Students examine three different soil compositions (sandy soil, silty soil, and clay) and note their characteristics. Students then take a random soil sampling and compare it to their observations for classification. Background Material Soils are composed of mineral and organic materials, but are classified according to the size and composition of their mineral particles. The three main texture groups are sandy, silty, and clay. Sandy soil contains particles that can be seen with the naked eye and feels gritty when rubbed between your fingers. These sandy particles are actually very fine pieces of rock that have been broken and worn down by the processes of erosion. The composition of sand is very geographically variable, but in the United States it is primarily made of quartz and calcium carbonate. Sand is moved by both wind and water. Sandy soils will generally not maintain a cohesive shape when wet. Silty soil contains particles which are smaller than sand particles but larger than clay particles. Silty soil is primarily composed of shattered quartz crystals. When dry, silt takes on a powdery texture and feels velvety. Silty soil sticks together when wet, but will not hold its shape after it is dry. Due to their small particle size, silty soils are easily disrupted and moved by wind and water. The color of silt can vary geographically, but is generally a chocolate or dark brown color. Clay soil contains the smallest sized particle. Clay is formed over extremely long periods of time, as rocks are slowly eroded by acids and other solvents. The more clay that is present, the harder the soil will be to break apart when the soil is dry. It will feel very smooth when rubbed between your fingers. Clay particles form a sticky soil when wet and will generally hold a shape after drying. Clay is one of the oldest used building materials on earth, due to its ability to be shaped and maintain that shape after drying. Clay in the United States is generally tinted red, but can also be a dull grey. Soils are rarely composed of just sand, silt or clay. They are usually a mixture of the three with a larger percentage of one size of particles. Because of this, students may see small particles of one of the soil types mixed into the others. They should note this occurrence in their observations. These three soil types are created through processes called weathering and erosion. Weathering is the mechanical breakdown of larger rocks into increasingly smaller particles. Erosion is a type of mechanical breakdown that involves the moving of soil and rock particles from one location to another through such processes as wind flow, water flow, glacial movement, or acid rain.

Materials  Examples of sandy, silty, and clay soils – enough for the entire class to use at once, but each two-student team only needs a handful/small shovel scoop  Three shovels (optional – to help with collecting the soil samples)  Plastic cups (four per every two students)  Magnifying glass per student group  Water Time Duration: Fifteen to twenty minutes for gathering and testing the in-class samples, then up to half an hour for finding and testing outside samples. Teachers will need to set limits on students during the second half of the experiment in order to ensure that the students are not using this study period as a secondary activity time. Activity Overview Introduction  Explain to your students that soil can be categorized by its mineral properties, and that each soil type has gone through a different breakdown process to become what it is. These breakdown processes include rain, wind, and acid erosion. Erosion is the process by which rocks are broken down into tiny fragments, which are then transported and deposited to other locations.  Break your students into groups of two for the remainder of the activity. Activity Elements  Students will obtain samples of the three soil types, placing one soil type in each plastic cup (the fourth cup will be used later).  Students will investigate the properties of each soil type. By rubbing a small amount of each soil type between their fingers, students can note the soil's color and texture (how each soil feels). Students should write down their observations about each soil.  Using the magnifying glass, students should compare and describe how each sample looks, again writing down their observations.  Students will then add JUST ENOUGH water to each sample until it sticks together, and can form a ball (note: not a lot of water is necessary for this step!). Students should then try to roll the ball into a cylindrical shape. Not all the soils will be able to do this – students should note their observations about this test.  If the sample does roll into a cylindrical shape, students should set it aside and let it dry overnight. They will then check their samples in the morning, and see if they have held their shape.  The three samples above act as a “control group.” Students already know what each soil type is called, and they were able to make observations about each soil.  Students will now go outside and collect a soil sample from the school grounds, using the fourth plastic cup. (For ease of control, you can assign students to go to certain areas of the school). Using their notes and observations from earlier, students will classify their soil samples and defend their rational behind the classification. Activity Summary  Explain to students that many soils are actually mixes of the three types they examined today – ex, silty soil can have bits of clay or sand mixed into them – but that soils are generally classified first by their second ingredient, and then by their primary ingredient. For example, if a soil sample is primarily clay, but has evidence of sand in it, researchers would refer to it as “sandy clay.” Sand with some silt in it would be called “silty sand,” etc.  Have your students answer the supplementary questions below.  Extension: Plant a bean in each of the soil types, water them, and place the cups in the sun. In a few days, students will be able to see which soil type helps plants grow the best. 25

Questions  Describe the process of erosion.  Which type of soil has experienced the most weathering? How do you know this?  Can this process be used as a test to classify soil types? Why or why not?  Which soil type was best able to hold its spherical or cylindrical shapes? Critical Thinking: Can you think of a reason why it might be able to hold its shape?  Which soil would you want to use as a building material? Why? List two examples of this soil being used as a building material.  Which soil type do you think is best suited for plant growth? Why? Why might the other types not be as successful with growing plants? Teacher Answer Guide  Describe the process of erosion. Erosion happens when various forces, such as wind, water, or other rocks, wear away at the surface of rocks and remove small pieces from the rocks surface. These small pieces are then carried away by the forces and deposited elsewhere. Over time this creates large soil deposits.  Which type of soil has experienced the most weathering? How do you know this? Clay has experienced the most weathering. We know this because clay has the smallest, finest particles, meaning that it has undergone more erosion than the sand and silty soils.  You tried to roll each of the soils into a ball, and then a cylinder. Some soils could not, some soils could, and some soils help their shape much better than others. o Can this process be used as a test to classify soil types? Why or why not? Yes, because only two types of soil (silty soil and clay soil) were able to be rolled into a ball, and only one (clay soil) was able to roll into a proper cylinder. This means that the soil types can slowly be eliminated using this test. o Which soil type was best able to hold its spherical or cylindrical shapes? Critical Thinking: Can you think of a reason why it might be able to hold its shape? The clay was best able to hold its molded shape. Answers will vary to the second question, and students most likely do not have the scientific knowledge to completely understand why clay is such a good moulding material. Clay is a very plastic material when mixed with water in the right ratio; this allows it to be moulded into various shapes and uses. In nature, clay deposits have a variable amount of water trapped between the particles; the slow water drying process is part of what allows the clay to retain its shape, although other variables are also at work. o Which soil would you want to use as a building material? Why? List two examples of this soil being used as a building material. You would want to use clay as a building material. Since clay was able to retain its shape even after drying, this suggests that clay is a strong enough material to build permanent structures. Two examples of clay being used as a building material include bricks, for use in building walls, for creating roof tiles, or for building a clay floor. Other examples include clay pottery and paint/sealants.  Critical Thinking: Which soil type do you think is best suited for plant growth? Why? Why might the other types not be as successful with growing plants? Silty soil is best suited for plant growth. It is firm enough to provide the plant stability and structure as it grows, but not so dense that it prevents the plant from getting necessary nutrients and water. Clay might be too firm for the plant's roots to properly grow, and water may not be able to reach the roots. Sand does not provide enough structure to allow the plant to grow successfully for a long duration, and the large spaces between the soil molecules allow most of the water to drain away from the plant before the plant can actually take advantage of it.

Post-Visit Activity: Shake 'n Break Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 ES2B, 4-5 ES2C, 4-5 ES2D, 4-5 INQC, 4-5 INQF, 4-5 INQG, 4-5 INQH Objectives Students will understand the processes of mechanical weathering on rocks, which results in the creation of fine particles that help form soils. Students conduct an experiment that mimics the effects of erosion over time on rocks. This experiment also demonstrates how water supports and carries fine sediment for deposition elsewhere, and acts as a good follow-up to how the force of water can transform the landscape over time. Background Information Mechanical weathering refers to various forces of nature that work to break rocks into fine particles and sediments. It can include wind erosion, rain and acid rain, permafrost, water seeping into rocks and then freezing, plants forcing roots into rock cracks, water running over rocks, etc. Erosion occurs when rocks and/or soil are transported from one location to another by wind, water, ice, or animals. There are multiple types of erosion, such as rainfall, natural or impeded flow of rivers and streams, coastal erosion (caused by waves impacting the coast line), floods, glaciers, wind erosion, and continual freezing and thawing. While all of these processes also qualify as modes of mechanical weathering, erosion processes differ from mechanical weathering because they also involve the transport of the particles from their original location to another. Abrasion occurs when rocks grate against each other. The force of abrasion leads to small particles of the rocks sloughing off, and results in a smoothing of the rock. The degree of abrasion that occurs is based on how soft or hard the rocks in question are. For instance, gypsum, sandstone, and shale are very soft rocks, while marble, limestone, and granite are very hard. If gypsum were to encounter marble, the marble would have a significantly greater abrasion force on the gypsum than the gypsum would have on the marble. Abrasion can occur in a fast moving stream or river, or in a slow moving glacier. This experiment explores both mechanical weathering and the effects of abrasion on rocks. Materials  Weight scales – enough to be appropriately shared by the class  1 plastic bottle per group (bottles with broader necks, work best)  Water  A variety of rocks that can fit through the plastic bottle's neck, enough for each group to have four or five  Strainer/Colander Time Duration: Plan for twenty minutes to introduce the topic and demonstrate the activity, and forty minutes to complete the activity portion. Activity Overview NOTE: THE DAY BEFORE THIS LESSON you will want to soak the rocks in water overnight. If the rocks are not saturated prior to the experiment, they will appear to have gained mass during the experiment. The exterior of the rock can be quickly patted dry in order to observe coloration and texture prior to the experiment occurring. 27

Introduction  Introduce the topic and ask your students the following questions: o What is mechanical weathering? o What is erosion? o How do rocks change as they are weathered and eroded? o What might happen to material that is eroded? Your students will be making observations about their rocks, including weighing them before and after the experiment, but for the purpose of discovery, you should simply demonstrate the shaking process:  Place the rocks rocks inside a plastic jar or bottle. Cover the rocks with water and screw the lid tightly onto the jar. While securely holding the lid, shake the bottle vigorously for approximately five minutes.  Remove the rocks from the plastic jar, and dry them with a towel. Explain to your students that you only want to record the weight of the rocks, and not the weight of the water, so you want to pat as much water off of the rocks as possible.  Break your students into pairs or groups of three. NOTE: If conducting this experiment inside, there is a high probability that water will end up on the floor. Remind students to watch the floor and mop up any spillage. Activity Elements Students will collect the necessary supplies for the experiment - one plastic bottle, the water, and four to five rocks. 1. Students will make initial observations about the rocks and water – ex, the color and texture of the rocks, whether there are any jagged edges, or their general shape, and the clarity of the water – and write these down prior to conducting the experiment. 2. Students should also weigh the rocks (altogether or separate, depending on your preferences) prior to the experiment, and record the mass. 3. Students will place the rocks into the container, fill it with water, and tightly screw on the lid. Students will then take turns shaking the bottle for five minutes. 4. Students should then make multiple observations about the rocks and the water INSIDE the jar. For instance, what does the water now look like? (students should be able to see small rock particles in the water. The more clouded the water is, the more particles have been removed) Is there any observable difference in the rocks at this stage? 5. Only AFTER making these observations should students empty the container, remove the rocks, and wash them clean using the strainer/colander. 6. Students should repeat steps 2-6 at least three times. They need to make observations of the rock status in between each process. 7. After repeating the process at least three times, students make final observations of the rocks, rinse them one last time, then pat the rocks dry before re-weighing them. 8. Students should also note observations about the rocks once they were dry. For instance, are they smaller or rounder? If there were jagged edges, are those edges now smooth? Are the rocks more smooth in general, or grittier? Activity Summary  Have students answer the questions below.  Discuss the students' observations as a class. Ask questions about what they observed, and what changed with the rocks between the two time periods (the rocks should be smaller or rounder and weigh less, and may be smoother, grittier, etc., depending on the type of rock the student had).  If any students had a gain in mass with their rocks, it is because of excess water left in or on the rock (many rocks are porous, so it is possible for water to seep inside). Discuss this as a class. 28

Questions  This experiment is a model of how erosion occurs in streams and rivers. Do you think the model is accurately displaying what is happening in the environment? Why or why not?  How is the model similar to and different from a real stream or river?  Did you manage to keep the variables in this experiment the same? (Hint: You should have taken turn shaking the bottle. That is a changed variable!) Do you think this changed variable impacted the results of your experiment?  Did any of your rocks gain mass after the experiment? What do you think might have caused that?  Describe the changes that your rocks went through during the experiment. What were they like before the experiment? What were they like at the end of the experiment?  Which rocks are more likely to break apart in mechanical weathering or erosions, hard rocks or soft rocks?  Do you think the speed of the water flow might impact the rate of erosion? Explain why or why not.  What conclusions can you draw from this experiment?  Define the following: mechanical weathering; erosion; abrasion. Teacher Answer Guide  This experiment is a model of how erosion occurs in streams and rivers. Do you think the model is accurately displaying what is happening in the environment? Why or why not? Answers will vary between students; there is no real wrong answer, so long as they justify their explanation. The model accurately depicts erosion, but may not accurately depict erosion happening in a stream or river. The flow rate of streams and rivers may not be comparable to the shaking motion of this experiment. The fact that we have to stop and “clean out” the water may also not be an accurate depiction of stream/river erosion.  How is the model similar to and different from a real stream or river? Examples of acceptable answers include: a stream or river involves flowing water that is “clean,” whereas this experiment involves enclosed water that has to be changed; the model takes place in a plastic jug, whereas streams and rivers originate from snow melts; the type and size of rocks may differ, especially depending on geographical location.  Did you manage to keep the variables in this experiment the same? (Hint: You should have taken turn shaking the bottle. That is a changed variable!) Do you think this changed variable impacted the results of your experiment? If the students followed instructions, all of the variables should have been kept the same except for how hard or long each student shook the bottle. The changed variable probably did not impact the final result, but it is important for students to understand that not accounting for every variable may cause the experiment to be “unfair,” and that they need to note such occurrences.  Did any of your rocks gain mass after the experiment? What caused some rocks to gain mass? If the rocks gained mass, instead of losing mass, it is because the rocks picked up excess water between the experiment.  Describe the changes that your rocks went through during the experiment. What were they like before the experiment? What were they like at the end of the experiment? Rocks should have gone from having “roughed” or jagged exteriors to having smooth spots and rounded edges.  Which rocks are more likely to break apart in mechanical weathering or erosions, hard rocks or soft rocks? Soft rocks are more likely to break apart during mechanical weathering, due to their chemical composition.  Do you think the speed of the water flow might impact the rate of erosion? Explain why or why not. Yes, water speed does affect the rate of erosion by speeding it up. As water travels faster, such as in a fast-moving stream, the force of the water is able to wear away at the rock at a faster rate. This increase in force results in the rock being worn down faster.  What conclusions can you draw from this experiment? The flow of water causes rocks to abrade against each other, and this abrading force causes erosion of the rocks to occur. Tiny particles break off of the rocks and are carried away by the water.  Definitions: Mechanical weathering is the set of various processes of weathering that break apart rocks into particles. Erosion occurs when rocks and/or soil are transported from one location to another by wind, water, ice, or animals. Abrasion occurs when two or more rocks grate against each other, causing friction that wears away at the rock surface.) 29

Pre-Visit Activity: Fluid Mechanics & Erosion Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards: 6-8 SYSB, 6-8 SYSC, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 INQF, 6-8 ES2D, 6-8 ES2G Objectives Students study how the energy output of a water flow become the energy input of an eroding bank. They create an in-door stream that demonstrates the effects of water flow on soil erosion. Students understand that the water cycle (evaporation, condensing, and falling as rain or snow) impacts the speed of soil erosion, and that water can carry soil particles and nutrients long distances. Students learn that the surface of the earth changes over time (weathering and erosion), and that soil consists of weathered rocks and decomposed plants. Background Information Mechanical weathering refers to various forces of nature that work to break rocks into fine particles and sediments. It can include wind erosion, rain and acid rain, permafrost, water seeping into rocks and then freezing, plants forcing roots into rock cracks, water running over rocks, etc. Erosion occurs when rocks and/or soil are transported from one location to another by wind, water, ice, or animals. There are multiple types of erosion, such as rainfall, natural or impeded flow of rivers and steams, coastal erosion (caused by waves impacting the coast line), floods, glaciers, wind erosion, and continual freezing and thawing. While all of these processes also qualify as modes of mechanical weathering, erosion processes differ from mechanical weathering because they also involve the transport of the particles from their original location to another. When water flows over a surface, it removes particles from the portions upstream, and deposits them downstream. The rate of erosion depends on three factors: the slope, or angle of the water flow; the composition of the soil; and the surrounding ground cover. Steeper slopes cause erosion to occur more quickly, because the steeper slope causes an increase in the kinetic energy that allows the water to use more energy to remove particles. Water will more easily remove smaller and finer particles than larger, more coarse particles. This means that soil in a farmer's field, which has been tilled and broken up, with more easily wash away than soil with rocks or larger clumps of sediment mixed into it. Finally, the surrounding ground cover refers to plants and trees. The roots of plants cling to the soil, and give the soil an anchor to resist the water flow. Again, using the example of a farmer's field, if the plants have not had time to grow, there is nothing to stop the flow of water from removing sediments. Materials (Per student group):  Two large disposable lasagna pans (available at any grocery store)  Natural dirt from a garden or the ground – NOT potting soil from a shop or bag  A watering can  A magnifying glass  Two or three books or wooden boards, each about ½ inch thick  A pair of pointy scissors Time Duration: Plan for ten minutes to introduce the topic, and half an hour to complete the lab.

Activity Overview Pre-lab Setup Suggestions: You may want to pre-punch the holes in the lasagna pans in order to speed up the lab setup for the students. Introduction  Students should be able to recall the basics of erosion from their fourth or fifth science grade studies. Ask students review questions related to weathering and erosion. Correct any misconceptions the students might have about erosion.  Explain the activity to the students, and ask them to write down predictions of what will happen. Break students into groups of three to four. Activity Elements  Have the student groups create slopes of different heights by changing how high their lasagna pans are tilted. Stagger the height of the lasagna pans by ½”, but be careful to not go higher than 5” or else the pan may become unstable.  Use the scissors to punch six small holes in one end of one of the lasagna pans.  Place the second pan underneath the hole punches of the lasagna pan. This pan will catch the water as it leaves the top pan.  In the pan with the holes, spread a soil layer two to three inches deep along the entire bottom. Smooth the soil out to be as even as possible.  Examine the soil with the magnifying glass and run the soil through your fingers. Take notes about its texture and color. What is the soil made of? Does it all have the same texture? How do you think the different soils will react when water is poured on them? Write down your observations.  Slip two to three books under the other end of the dirt-filled pan so that it is propped up. (This is the part where students can stagger their heights so that each pan reacts differently.)  Pour water from the watering can into the raised end of the dirt-filled pan.  Observe what happens to the surface of the dirt when the water first hits it. Observe what happens to the water when it collects in the second pan.  After you have emptied the entire watering can, measure and record the impact of the water on the soil at the path's widest and deepest points.  Empty the contents of a second watering can over the soil. Again, record your observations. Measure the impact of the water on the soil at the path's widest and deepest points. Activity Summary  Using the chalk board, create a graph that compares the rate of erosion among the student's soil fields. Since the students have staggered the heights of their pans, there should be a difference in the amount of erosion that occurred.  Ask students to share their observations about the experiment. Were certain soil types more susceptible than others to the water? Did the water form any pattern as it filtered through the soil?  Have the students answer the questions below.

Questions  Do you think it matters if the soil starts out wet or dry?  Do all the soil particles get pushed equally by the water?  Compare the clean “rain” with the water that has collected in the second pan. What is different about the water in the second pan? Think about if this water were to form in a farmer's field. How might that impact the soil in the field? Where is the soil being carried by the water eventually going to end up?  Think about what else might be picked up by water. If a farmer uses pesticides on his field, and the water carries soil with those pesticides in them, where will those pesticides end up? Why might this be a detrimental thing for the environment?  Water and erosion can be considered as a system. How is the output of one part of this system an input for another part? If rain water leads to erosion and removal of soil from an area, is this an open or closed system? Teacher Answer Guide  Do you think it matters if the soil starts out wet or dry? Yes, it would matter. Soil that is already water-heavy is more compact than dry soil. If soil is compacted, there is less room for water particles to move in and lift out soil particles.  Do all the soil particles get pushed equally by the water? No. Finer particles are pushed much harder than larger particles. Silt is more susceptible to erosion than clay.  Compare the clean “rain” with the water that has collected in the second pan. What is different about the water in the second pan? Think about if this water were to form in a farmer's field. How might that impact the soil in the field? Where is the soil being carried by the water eventually going to end up? The water in the pan is full of soil particles, which causes it to look dirty, or opaque. This would cause adverse impacts on a farmer's field, because the water stream “steals” the top layer of soil from the field. This can remove nutrients that plants need, and can expose immature plants to the atmosphere before they are ready. The soil being carried by the water will eventually end up in the ocean.  Think about what else might be picked up by water. If a farmer uses pesticides on his field, and the water carries soil with those pesticides in them, where will those pesticides end up? Why might this be a detrimental thing for the environment? The pesticides will end up in the ocean, but only after traveling through and damaging multiple ecosystems. Pesticides can cause major damage to insect populations, amphibian populations, mammal populations, bird populations, and fish populations.They can also harm humans if humans eat the animals that have ingested large amounts of pesticides.  Water and erosion can be considered as a system. How is the output of one part of this system an input for another part? If rain water leads to erosion and removal of soil from an area, is this an open or closed system? The output in this system is the erosion that occurs. The soil is leaving the field and being carried away. It becomes an input for another system when the soil particles are finally deposited elsewhere. Additionally, the output could be considered the rainwater and stream flowing to the ocean, where it would become input. This is an open system, because both the rate of energy and matter are changing.

Post-Visit Activity: Jello Earthquake Simultron 6000 Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 ES2E, 6-8 ES2F, 6-8 ES3C, 6-8 ES3D, 6-8 APPD, 6-8 APPF, 6-8 APPG, 6-8 INQC, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 INQF, 6-8 SYSC, 68 SYSD, 6-8 SYSE, Math 6.6.D, Math 6.6.E, Math 6.6.H Objectives Students will study the relationship between plate tectonics, earthquakes, and building stability. Working in teams, students build a series of structures out of toothpicks and marshmallows. The stability of these structures will then be tested by placing them on top of a large container holding jello; by shaking the container, the energy waves created by an earthquake can be simulated. By completing the activity, students will understand how earthquake waves behave and affect the surface of the earth, and will be able to explain how the earthquakes relate to plate tectonics. NOTE: Students will need to have been previously introduced to plate tectonics in order for the experiment to have the largest impact. Students will also need to be able to read a copy of the Mercalli scale in order to answer some of the questions provided. Background Information The earth is divided into three main layers: a core, mantle, and crust. The core is made of dense metal, while the mantle is a thick layer of semi-solid molten rock that surrounds the core. The crust is the thin, hard layer overlaying the mantle, and is broken into different slabs, or plates. The semi-solid mantle moves in a cyclical motion, which drags the plates with it. The mantle's cyclical motion comes from convection currents. First, heat from within the earth warms the mantle material, causing it to rise toward the crust. Near the crust, the mantle material cools and sinks down toward the core. The second force impacts the mantle at deep sea trenches. The heavy crustal plate is pulled by gravity down into the mantle, dragging mantle material with it (this is called "slab pull"). Due to this convection motion in the mantle, the large plates covering the earth's surface are constantly moving. The boundaries between these moving plates are very active areas, as the plates move against each other. It is this friction that causes earthquakes. Seismic waves are energy waves caused by an explosion, or by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth. There are two main types of seismic waves â&#x20AC;&#x201C; body waves, and surface waves. Body waves travel through the earth's interior, while surface waves only impact the surface of the earth. Surface waves can be compared to ripples on the surface of a body of water. Body waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves, and so they are much stronger. There are two types of body waves: P waves (primary waves or pressure waves), and S waves (secondary waves or shear waves). P waves are the fastest kind of waves, and can move through solid rock and liquids (such as bodies of water, or the liquid layers of the earth). P wave energy pushes and pulls matter like sound waves do. For instance, if a sound wave is moving from left to right through the air, the air particles will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the sound wave travels through it. P waves affect matter in the same way â&#x20AC;&#x201C; matter particles will move in the same direction as the energy wave is traveling. S waves move much differently than P waves. S waves are slower, and can only move through solid rock. S waves move particles up and down as the wave travels through the matter. That is, the particles move perpendicularly to the direction that the energy wave is traveling. 33

Again, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves, and they can only move along the surface of the earth's crust. These waves arrive after body waves, but they are the waves that are responsible for the majority of the damage caused by earth quakes. There are also two types of surface waves: Love waves and Raleigh waves. Love waves produce horizontal motions. Raleigh waves actually create a rolling motion, much like an ocean wave. These waves move both up and down and side to side (in the direction that the energy is moving). Liquefaction is a significant secondary effect caused by earthquakes. Liquefaction affects the strength and stiffness of the soil, causing it to destabilize and increase the damage to buildings or structures sitting atop the affected soil. It occurs when the space between individual soil particles is completely filled with water; the water exerts an abnormal pressure or force on the soil particles that affects how the tightly the particles are packed together, and how the particles move. In particular, a sudden rise in water pressure allows the particles to move much more freely against one other than what would normally be possible. If the water pressure is high enough, the water can essentially force the soil particles apart. With the particles suddenly able to move more freely, the overall strength of the soil is compromised, and the soil is no longer able to support buildings or bridges. Liquefaction occurs primarily with silty and sandy soils that are already semi-saturated, such as soils located along a riverbank or near a sandy ocean front. To make this material relevant to the student's daily lives, you can relate this lesson to the most recent earthquake in Spokane (2004, 2.7 magnitude). You can also discuss the recent earthquake disasters in Japan, Haiti, China, Christchurch New Zealand, and Pakistan, which were much higher on the Richter scale, and caused significant casualties and economic loss. Other Resources  ASPIRE Lab on Seismic Waves: http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/labs/seismic/index.htm  Michigan Technology University: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html  MSP2- Plate Tectonics: http://msp.ehe.osu.edu/wiki/index.php/MSP:MiddleSchoolPortal/Plate_Tectonics:_Moving_Middle_Sc hool_Science  Christchurch Liquefaction Report: http://www.personal.psu.edu/hkn5009/Assignment%206.html Materials  Stopwatch or clock  1 Jello earthquake Simultron 6000 (jello set into a 9x9 or 13x9 pan, or a large bowl at least 9” in diameter; jello needs to fill the pan at least three to four inches) PER GROUP  1 bag of mini marshmallows (this can be split among groups so long as students reuse marshmallows between designs)  1 box of toothpicks  1 paper plate  pencils and paper for drawing, explanations/rational, conclusion, etc. Time Duration: Plan for fifteen to twenty minutes to explain the background information and the lesson. Students will need to complete at least three rounds of planning and building new structures; in order to keep the activity more structured, impose a thirty minute time limit on each round.

Activity Overview Introduction  Explain that earthquakes are caused by the energy that is released when the crust's plates move against each other. There are six different types of energy waves that are released in an earthquake. Each of these waves moves in a particular way, and some of these waves (surface waves) cause more damage than others. Earthquakes can also vary in the amount of energy that is released – some are very small, while others can impact a significant amount of damage.  As you are explaining the differences between the various energy waves, have the students fill out the chart below.  Some cities and countries are in more danger from earthquakes than others. This is because they are closer to where the crust's plates meet. In order to make living in these areas less dangerous, engineers and architects have focused on designing more stable structures that can hold up to the energy waves released by earthquakes.  Break the students into groups of three to four and hand out their instruction papers (see below). Each student in the group will have a different job to complete: one architect, one foreman, and one-to-two engineers. The architect is responsible for drawing the building design and recording the number of toothpicks and marshmallows used. The engineers are responsible for building the structure designed by the architect. The foreman will write down the rationale behind the design, any observations made during the testing, and plan improvements for the next building design based on those observations. Students should switch jobs after every design. They should make a minimum of three designs.  Tell students that they will be sharing access to the Jello-Earthquake Simultron 6000, and will have to line up and take turns testing their designs. NOTE: You should stress to students that they are not permitted to EAT the marshmallows, as this sets up good precedence for future lab behavior. Food should never be allowed in labs unless it is for experiments; if it is for experiments, it should not be eaten, as it may be contaminated! (Exceptions made if the experiment involves changing the taste and texture of the food in order to answer a scientific question) Activity Elements  Working in their groups, students will complete the requirements of their jobs (see above).  After the building is complete, the group will transport their structure (on the plate!) and line up to use the Jello-Earthquake Simultron 6000. The architect needs to be in charge of the stopwatch and will time how long the tower stands during the earthquake. The foreman needs to pay attention to which type of wave knocked the building down, and where the building design seems to be weakest – what part of the building failed first.  Students get half an hour to design and build their structure – after half an hour, whatever is built is what gets tested!  Have the group set their building in the middle of the Jello-Earthquake Simultron 6000. When the architect starts timing, shake the container holding the jello to stimulate seismic waves.  After the test, students will remove the “rubble” and return to their desks. The foreman will record how long the building lasted, where the structure was weakest, and which type of wave knocked the building down. The foreman will also need to think about and write down what changes can be made to the design.  Students should then rotate jobs, and the new architect will design a new building based on the results and suggestions of the previous foreman. Each group should complete either three or four test simulations.

Activity Summary  Ask the students what they should do in case an earthquake strikes. Go over earthquake safety plans; for instance, if an earthquake were to strike, students would want to stay away from exterior walls, because windows and architectural details are usually the first parts of buildings to fall. They would want to take cover under a sturdy desk or table, and hold on firmly until the shaking stops. If they are outside when an earthquake hits, they should stay outside; if they are inside, they should stay inside.  Introduce the topic of liquefaction as one consequence of earthquakes. Show video footage of the liquefaction occurring in Christchurch, New Zealand, from the 2011 earthquake.  Remind students about the “Drop, Cover, and Hold On!” motto.  Have them answer the supplementary questions (see below). Questions  Which of your buildings held up the best? Explain why you think it was your most successful design.  Was there a certain type of wave that destroyed your buildings the most? Why do you think that wave was the most destructive? Do you think that other groups had the same experience as you?  If one toothpick cost $500 and one marshmallow cost $1000, calculate the cost to build each of your buildings. REMEMBER TO SHOW YOUR WORK. Do you see any association between the cost of your buildings and how well they survived the earthquake? Do you think a real contractor would see a relationship between building costs and building strength against an earthquake?  The 2004 earthquake in Spokane, Washington, was a 2.7 magnitude earthquake, and a II on the Mercalli scale. o Using the Mercalli chart, what does a II on the Mercalli scale specify about the quake? o If the earthquake had been a 5.7 magnitude, how much stronger would it have been? A 6.9? o The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a magnitude 7.0 and killed an estimated 316,000 people and destroyed an estimated 280,000 buildings. The 2008 earthquake in the Sichuan Province of China was a magnitude 6.1 and killed approximately 40 people and destroyed approximately 10,000 buildings. Both quakes were close in magnitude. Why do you think each of these quakes had drastically different death tolls and destroyed infrastructure (building) counts?  Using your notes or your text book, define and illustrate the following: normal fault; reverse fault; thrust fault; strike-slip fault; epicenter; focus; s-wave shadow zone.  CRITICAL THINKING: Research the effects of liquefaction in the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch, New Zealand, earthquakes. What conditions cause liquefaction to occur? How did liquefaction add to the damage to the city? What are some of the long-term effects of liquefaction, in terms of structural safety and human health? What can be done to help prevent liquefaction, or mitigate its effects, in areas that are prone to earthquakes?

Name: Wave Type Surface or Body Wave Speed of Wave Can travel through.... Direction of Movement (parallel, perpendicular, etc.) Alternative Name (if applicable)

Date: P Wave

S Wave

Love Wave

Raleigh Wave

Name:

Date:

Building #: __________ Architect: _______________________________ Engineers:_______________________________ Foreman:________________________________ # Toothpicks: ____________ # Marshmallows: _________

Foreman's Remarks/ Rational:

Time Building Survived: _________ Foreman's Observations and Suggestions:

Student Version of Rules and Procedures Goal(s)  To create a building that can withstand a simulated earthquake in the Jello-Earthquake-Simutron-4000  Understand how earthquake waves behave and affect us on the surface  Explain how the earthquakes related to plate tectonics Procedure  Assign the following jobs in your group: 2 engineers (builders), 1 architect (draws design & records # of tooth picks and marshmallows used per design) and 1 foreman (writes down rational for design, results and plan to improve for next design). Everyone will (eventually) take a turn at each job.  You will have HALF AN HOUR to design AND build your building! Make sure you budget your time well!  Plan the design of your first building. The architect needs to make a sketch of the building and record the # of toothpicks and mini marshmallows needed.  Engineers will build the building and the foreman needs to write down the rational (or explanation) for why your team has chosen this design.  After your building is complete your team will need to line up to use the Jello-Earthquake-Simutron 4000. The architect needs to be in charge of the stopwatch and timing how long the tower stands during the earthquake. The foreman needs to pay attention to which type of wave knocked your building down.  After the earthquake pick up your building rubble and return to your desk. Have the foreman record how long the building lasted and which type of wave knocked the building down. Also the foremen needs to record why you think it fell down, what needs to change, etc…  After Round 1 rotate jobs so you have a new foreman, engineers and architect and begin the process again. You need to do a minimum of 3 designs. Building Rules  each building should contain at least one triangle shape, and one square  buildings must be at least 5 stories high  building bases can be no more than 3x3 toothpicks wide  you can break toothpicks in half to make smaller structures

Teacher Answer Sheet  Which of your buildings held up the best? Explain why you think it was your most successful design. Answers will vary between each student  Was there a certain type of wave that destroyed your buildings the most? Why do you think that wave was the most destructive? Do you think that other groups had the same experience as you? Answers will vary between each student  If one toothpick cost $500 and one marshmallow cost $1000, calculate the cost to build each of your buildings. REMEMBER TO SHOW YOUR WORK. Do you see any association between the cost of your buildings and how well they survived the earthquake? Do you think a real contractor would see a relationship between building costs and building strength against an earthquake? Answers will vary between each student  The 2004 earthquake in Spokane, Washington, was a 2.7 magnitude earthquake, and a II on the Mercalli scale. o Using the Mercalli chart, what does a II on the Mercalli scale specify about the quake? The earthquake was very minor, and probably felt by only a few people who happened to be in multistorey buildings o If the earthquake had been a 5.7 magnitude, how much stronger would it have been? What about an 8.0? A 5.7 earthquake would have registered as a VI to a VIII on the Mercalli scale. These earthquakes would have been felt by everyone in the area, and would have caused moderate to severe damages to structures and objects, depending on how well the building had been build. For instance, furniture and wall decorations would have been broken, and poorly designed buildings would have severe structural damage. An 8.0 earthquake would have registered as a ix on the Mercalli scale, which would have caused severe damage to all buildings, regardless of their structural integrity, and would also have caused moderate to severe loss of life. o The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a magnitude 7.0 and killed an estimated 316,000 people and destroyed an estimated 280,000 buildings. The 2008 earthquake in the Sichuan Province of China was a magnitude 6.1 and killed approximately 40 people and destroyed approximately 10,000 buildings. Both quakes were close in magnitude. Why do you think each of these quakes had drastically different death tolls and destroyed infrastructure (building) counts? The difference in damage reports was most likely caused by a significant difference in earthquake awareness and preparedness. China is situated along the Ring of Fire, which is a chronically unstable zone that has frequent earthquakes; because of this, buildings are built to a high earthquake code, and residents perform regular earthquake safety zones. Additionally, China is a far richer country than Haiti, and is more able to build earthquake resistant buildings. Haiti, while it is on a seismically active area, still experiences fewer major earthquakes than the Sichuan Province. Additionally, much of the infrastructure in Haiti was aged, due to the country's poor economic standing, and did not stand up to modern earthquake codes.  Using your notes or your text book, define and illustrate the following: normal fault; reverse fault; thrust fault; strike-slip fault; epicenter; focus; s-wave shadow zone. Normal fault: an inclined fault in which the hanging wall appears to have slipped downward relative to the footwall. Reverse fault: a geological fault where the upper side appears to have been pushed upward by compression. Thrust fault: a fault in which rocks of a previously lower stratigraphic position have been pushed up and over higher strata.Strike-slip fault: The fault surface and the footwall are moving horizontally to each other, and there is very little vertical movement. Epicenter: The point on the earth's surface that is directly above the focus, which is where the earthquake has originated. Focus: Where the earthquake has originated underground, where the strain energy stored in the rock is first released, and where the fault begins to rupture. S-Wave shadow zone: An area that is approximately 100° and 140° away from the epicenter of an earthquake, where it is very difficult to impossible to detect the earthquake's tremors, because the area in question does not experience s-waves or p-waves. 40

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CRITICAL THINKING: Research the effects of liquefaction in the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch, New Zealand, earthquakes. What conditions cause liquefaction to occur? How did liquefaction add to the damage to the city? What are some of the long-term effects of liquefaction, in terms of structural safety and human health? What can be done to help prevent liquefaction, or mitigate its effects, in areas that are prone to earthquakes? Liquefaction occurs in sandy and silty soils that already experience a high level of water pressure prior to the earthquake; the earthquake forces that water pressure to rise even higher and disrupts the bonds between soil molecules. Liquefaction in the city caused extensive damage to roadways and to residential building zones that were minimally damaged by the actual earthquake. Long-term effects of liquefaction include increased and sometimes permanent ground instability that inhibits the rebuilding process, as well as increased health risks to residents living in the area (for instance, mold and fungal infections are common in houses affected by liquefaction, and residents living in such houses experience an increase in asthma, coughs, and migraines. Liquefacted soil can be physically removed, and measures can be taken to help stabilize liquefaction zones for rebuilding efforts â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for instance, steel pillars can be drilled into the stable rock bed beneath the soil, and the building then rebuilt on top, and a large concrete bed can be poured to help provide additional building support.

Human Body Pre-Visit Activity: Food Party .................................................................................................................43 Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (4-5) ......................................................................................................48 Pre-Visit Activity: Diaphragm Model Activity ...............................................................................48 Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (6-8) ......................................................................................................54

Pre-Visit Activity: Food Party Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 LS1E, 4-5 SYSC, 4-5 INQA, 4-5 INQH Objectives Students learn about healthy and unhealthy food choices, explore which foods belong in which food groups, and explore their own diets. Students then break into groups, and create a Healthy Buffet party. Finally, students research a food, its benefits to the human body, and how much of it they should eat, and present their findings to the class in an essay. Background Information Diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or organism on a regular, daily basis. This phrase is often misused by the media to refer to a temporary change in eating habits aimed at achieving some goal, usually weight loss. In actuality, being “on a diet” refers to permanent changes to a person's eating habits – not temporary changes. Dietary habits play a significant role in an individual's quality of life, health, and longevity. Having a wellbalanced diet has been scientifically noted to lower a person's risk of many health conditions and diseases. Diets are also often substantial markers of ethnicity and cultural backgrounds. Part of maintaining a healthy diet also involves leading an active lifestyle (defined by the USDA as maintaining 60 minutes of physical activity each day for children, and two to three hours of physical activity each week for adults). A poor diet may lead to multiple deficiency-caused diseases, such as scurvy, obesity, diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, or anemia. If a person is not getting enough vitamins and minerals from his diet, he suffers from malnutrition. Malnutrition can happy from not having a balanced diet with equal portions of all the food groups, having a diet that ignores one or more food groups, or having a diet that has too many empty calories. Empty calories refers to food items that add to your daily caloric count, but do not provide any nutritional benefits. Examples of empty calories include sweets, such as candy, cakes, brownies, etc., processed snack foods, such as chips, crackers, or processed cakes, and foods with a high saturated fat content. These foods by themselves are not necessarily harmful or bad for a person's diet if they are consumed in moderation and with using portion control. Portion control refers to the amount of a food a person should consume in ONE DAY while still maintaining a healthy diet. For instance, eating one portioned sugary desert a day does not create a poor diet, but ignoring portion suggestions might. It is important to remember that some common food portions are equal to or more than the suggested daily intake for that food group. Some bagels can weigh up to 5 ounces – equal to the amount of daily grain intake. Many meat servings from restaurants can be more than the suggested daily 6 ounces – just think of the size of the steaks they offer! In order to help citizens maintain a healthy diet, the USDA has created guidelines for children and adults that inform them on advised caloric intake and daily food group servings. The current (as of 2010) model for these guidelines is the MyPlate campaign, which took the place of the 1990s Food Pyramid. MyPlate demonstrates food portions in the shape of a plate, and suggests that citizens make half of their plate (or half of their daily food intake) vegetables and fruit servings, a quarter of their plate grains (half of which should be whole grains), and a quarter of which should be meat or other protein sources. Milk is considered a fifth food group in the form of a cup or bowl.

Other Resources http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/downloads/results/MyDailyFoodPlan_2000_6to8yr.pdf http://www.choosemyplate.gov/ Materials  One large copy of the food servings list (see below) that can be displayed or projected so all students can see it, or one copy for each student or student group.  Paper and pencils for each student  Paper and crayons for each student Time Duration: Plan for half an hour for the first activity, and half an hour for the second. Activity Overview Introduction  Introduce the topic of nutrition and eating plans to the students. Ask them what foods they most like eating, and what foods they most dislike eating.  Explain that some foods are better for us than others, and that other foods needs to be eaten in portions, or they become unhealthy for us to eat. Ask students if they can think of examples of what some of these less healthy foods might be.  Explain that we need certain foods in order to live healthily, because we get necessary nutrients and vitamins from the food. For instance, we get iron from meat and protein-rich foods, we get potassium from bananas, and we get fiber from whole grains.  Ask the students where our food comes from. Remind students that all of our food comes from a plant or animal that was raised on a farm or grown in an orchard.  Hand out materials and explain the activity rules to the students. Activity Elements Healthy Choices  List all of the foods that you have eaten the day before by meal (including snacks!). If you have one more or one less meal than other students, it's ok – each family has their own eating habits!  Compare the foods you ate to the food groups shown on the food plate chart. Keep in mind that some foods (like pizza) may combine items from more than one group, so think about what each food involves, and count it in both groups.  On another piece of paper, make a chart with each of the food groups shown on the food plate chart. List the foods you ate under the appropriate food group. If you don't see a particular food on the list (like a fruit that is not listed), this is ok – go ahead and add it to the column in which it should go. If you have food that you ate that does not fit in any category (like soda, candy, cookies), list it to the side.  Compare the number of servings in each category you ate with the number of servings that is recommended. How did you do? How many foods did you eat that do not fit in any food plate group? Healthy Buffet  Divide the class into the five following groups: Fruit, Vegetable, Meat & Beans, Grain, and Dairy.  Draw and color your favorite food from your food group.  When everyone is finished drawing and coloring, present your favorite food from the food group to the entire class.  Display the drawings in an appropriate way so that everyone can see your healthy buffet! Extension: Plan a healthy buffet to celebrate the end of the week, success on a big test, or just to have a good time! Divide the class into groups, and have them pick one item from their food group that they will each bring in (apples, carrots, yogurt, etc.) and share as a snack with the class. 44

Activity Summary  Talk with students about the items they may have in that “other” category – the food items that don't seem to fit in one of the five food groups. These items are – or should be – items like cookies, brownies, cake, chips, and various other processed, sugary snack foods. Explain that these foods don't provide any healthy nutrients to our bodies, and count as “empty calories” - foods that fill us up, but don't provide us with any nutrients. It is best to limit the number of these calories in our diets in order to feel and be healthy.  Remind students that, before they eat, they should think about what goes on their plate and into their cup or bowl.  Review with students the importance of having a diet that contains enough food from all of the food groups. A poor diet can lead to dangerous health conditions later on in life, such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, etc.  Give students access to the information on the Choose My Plate . gov website (http://www.choosemyplate.gov/sitemap.html) to answer the questions below. ALL of the questions can be answered using the Choose My Plate website except for the essay, which will require simple research. NOTE: The essay requires students to choose a food and report on it. You may want to provide students with a list of foods they can choose from in order to simplify your grading process, if you are unfamiliar with food nutrition. 

Have students give short oral reports on their essay.

Questions  What portion of your plate should be fruits and vegetables?  What counts as a cup of fruit?  Name two health benefits and one nutrient that you can get from dairy-based foods  What are some benefits to eating seeds and nuts?  Why is it important to eat seafood every week?  Why are beans and peas so unique?  What counts as a cup of vegetables?  What is a refined grain? Why is it better to have whole grains?  How much of all grains eaten should be whole grains?  What are oils, and how are they different from solid fats?  Based on your age group, how much oil should you have in your diet?  Essay: Your body is a system. The food you eat can be called “input,” and the nutrients and vitamins you get from that food can be called “output.” Pick one food, describe its input, its output, how it helps the body, why the body needs it, and how the body uses it. What does the food provide the body with? How much of this food should you have every day or week? Teacher Answer Guide – on next page

Teacher Answer Guide  What portion of your plate should be fruits and vegetables? You should make half of your plate fruits and vegetables.  What counts as a cup of fruit? 1 cup of fresh fruit, ½ cup of dried fruit, or 1 cup of 100% fruit juice can be considered as 1 cup from the fruit group.  Name one health benefit and two nutrients that you can get from dairy-based foods. Any of the following answers are acceptable: intake of dairy is linked to improved bone health, and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis; the intake of dairy is shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes, and with lower blood pressure in adults; dairy gives you calcium, vitamin D, and potassium.  What are some benefits to eating seeds and nuts? Peanuts and tree nuts may reduce your risk of heart disease.  Why is it important to eat seafood every week? Seafood contained omega-3 acids, which are important for your brain and heart functions. Eating seafood contributes to the prevention of heart disease.  Why are beans and peas so unique? Bean and pea nutrient counts are very similar to both meat nutrient counts and vegetable nutrient counts, so they are considered both a protein and a vegetable.  What counts as a cup of vegetables? 1 cup of raw or cooked vegetables, or two cups of raw leafy greens, equals one serving cup of vegetables.  What is a refined grain? Why is it better to have whole grains? Whole grains contain the entire kernel – including the bran, germ, and endosperm. Refined grains have been milled to remove the bran and germ. The process of milling also removes dietary fiber, iron, and most of the B vitamins found in whole grains.  How much of all grains eaten should be whole grains? At least half of your grain servings should be whole grain.  What are oils, and how are they different from solid fats? Why are oils important to your diet? Oils are fats that take a liquid form at room temperature. Solid fats are fats that are solid at room temperature. Some oils can provide nutrients to your diet, but most oils are hydrogenated oils, which do not contain many nutrients.  Based on your age group, how much oil should you have in your diet? Depending on the student's age, their daily allotment of oil is four to five teaspoons.  Essay: Answers will vary depending on what food each student chooses. You may want to provide a list of acceptable foods they can choose from. Foods can mean one unit objects, such as bananas or fish, or they can be multi-unit objects, such as pizza or hamburgers. Students should be able to write a short essay and be able to present their essay to the class.

My Food Plate Chart Grains

Vegetables

Fruits

Dairy

Protein

6 ounces per day

2 ½ cups per day

2 cups per day

2 ½ cups per day

5 ½ cups per day

Wheat Bread White Bread Rice Potatoes Cereals Tortillas Pasta Oatmeal Popcorn (plain)

Broccoli Corn Lettuce Spinach Green peas Beans Artichokes Avocado Cauliflower Cucumbers Celery Eggplant Carrots Peppers Onion Green beans Zucchini Tomatoes

Apples Apricots Bananas Cherries Melon Grapes Oranges Nectarines Pineapple Raisins Plums Pears Peaches Strawberries Blueberries Raspberries

Milk Yogurt Cheese Cottage cheese Pudding

Red meat Fish Shellfish Beans Nuts Seeds Peanuts Peanut Butter Eggs Peas

Pre-Visit Activity: Diaphragm Model Activity Grade Range: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 SYSA, 6-8 SYSB, 6-8 SYSC, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 LS1C, 6-8 LS1F Objectives This model of a human's diaphragm and lung(s) illustrates to students how the diaphragm, lungs and chest cavity subsystems work together as a larger system to provide the body with oxygen. Students will understand the functions of each subsystem allow the larger system to operate. By answering the critical thinking questions, students will also understand how an organism's environment and an organism's life choices can impact the health of these systems. Students can build diaphragm models in groups, or the teacher can build one as an demonstration for the entire class. Background Information Breathing is the process of moving air in and out of lungs in order to supply the body with oxygen. The diaphragm, lungs, and chest cavity are subsystems in the human body (and in all mammals) that work together as a larger system to complete this process. The diaphragm is considered one of the strongest muscles in the body (but not THE strongest!). It also divides the human “core” into the thorax, or chest cavity, and the abdomen. The diaphragm is a “domed,” or convex, muscle that works with the ribcage muscles to control breathing. When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens itself out from its domed shape. At the same time, the ribcage expands. These actions create a vacuum in the chest cavity that lowers the pressure within the cavity. In order to neutralize this sudden decrease in pressure, air is drawn into the lungs through the trachea. Oxygen exchange can then occur within the lungs and the body's blood supply; oxygen leaves the lungs and enters the blood stream, and carbon dioxide leaves the blood stream and enters the lungs, via the tightly packed alveoli, or air sacs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the size of the chest cavity decreases, which, combined with the natural elasticity of lungs, pushes the now “stale,” or oxygen-deprived, air out of the chest cavity. Materials Per Model Lung:  1 straw  1 piece of plastic tubing, at least 6 inches long  2-3 unused balloons  1 plastic bottle, such as a 2-liter soda bottle  Scissors  2-3 Rubber bands  Electrical Tape  OPTIONAL: A Y-shaped hose connector Time Duration: Building the model: fifteen minutes. Explaining the lesson: Half an hour. Activity Overview Introduction  Build the diaphragm model (see below for instructions). You may decide that using just one as an example for the whole class is sufficient, or you may decide to have the students work alone or in pairs to build the models. 48

Activity Elements  Holding your completed diaphragm model, ask students how they THINK the body gets oxygen. When possible, use the model to demonstrate their responses. For instance, if a student suggests that lungs draw in air, breathe into the tubing to simulate this.  Using the model, explain how the body's subsystems of the diaphragm, lungs, and chest cavity work together to supply the body with oxygen. Demonstrate how the diaphragm creates a vacuum that automatically draws air into the lungs through the model. Then describe how the lungs house thousands of alveoli that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange to occur. Demonstrate the release of air by letting go of the balloon diaphragm.  Explain to the students how the diaphragm is responsible for drawing air into the lungs, and how the lungs are responsible for exchanging oxygen. This is an example of subsystems working to create a system. Activity Summary  Have the students answer the questions below.  Ask the students what would happen if the lungs were unable to exchange oxygen efficiently (The body would have to work harder to get the same amount of oxygen as before, or the body may not get enough oxygen to work as efficiently as before). Use this as an opportunity to talk about how air pollution, smog, or smoking can decrease the efficiency of the lungs (these particles get trapped in the alveoli when the body inhales, and cannot leave when the body exhales). Using a computer and a projector, show the students examples of a smoker's lungs versus a non-smoker's lungs (easily available on Google images, Youtube, or WebMD). Questions  What muscle is directly responsible for your breathing?  Where does the gas exchange take place? Be VERY specific.  Using the knowledge you learned from this experiment, explain the entire breathing process in your own words.  Relate the breathing process to subsystems and systems. What are the subsystems that act together to supply the body with oxygen? Teacher Answer Guide  What muscle is directly responsible for your breathing? The diaphragm.  Where does the gas exchange take place? Be VERY specific. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs.  Using the knowledge you learned from this experiment, explain the entire breathing process in your own words. Answers will vary between students, but they should explain that the diaphragm contraction causes a vacuum in the chest cavity that forces air into the lungs, that air exchange then occurs in the alveoli, and a combination of the lungs elasticity and the relaxation of the diaphragm forces the now stale air out.  Relate the breathing process to subsystems and systems. What are the subsystems that act together to supply the body with oxygen? The diaphragm and lungs, and the heart and circular system,a re the two body subsystems that must act together in order to supply the body with oxygen.

Building a model diaphragm (Directions) 1. If using the Y-shaped hose connector: Fit the plastic tubing into one of the openings of the hose connector. Use the tape to make an airtight seal where the two join together. If the seal is not airtight, then the model lung will not work. a. The reason for using a Y-shaped hose connector is to more accurately mimic the two lungs found in mammals. However, the diaphragm model can easily be completed without it, and will still demonstrate the creation of the vacuum. 2. If using the Y-shaped hose connector: Place one balloon around the openings of the connector. Tightly wrap the rubber bands around the balloons to secure them to the connector. Again, the seal must be airtight. a. If not using the Y-shaped hose connector: Attach one balloon to the end of the plastic tubing, and secure with a rubber band. The seal must be airtight. 3. Measure two inches from the bottom of the 2-liter bottle, and cut the bottom off. Make the cut as even and smooth as possible. 4. Place the balloons and hose connector inside the bottle, and thread the plastic tubing through the neck opening. 5. Use the tape to seal the plastic tubing around the neck opening. The seal MUST be airtight. 6. Stretch the balloon opening over the open bottom end of the bottle to create a seal. This is the bottle's â&#x20AC;&#x153;diaphragm.â&#x20AC;? The balloon's knot should be near the center of the bottle. Secure the balloon around the opening using a rubber band or tape. 7. Gently pull down on the balloon knot. This should cause the balloon(s) inside the bottle to inflate. If the balloon fails to inflate, then the bottle seals are not airtight. 8. Release the balloon knot. The balloon(s) inside the model should deflate.

Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (4-5) Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 LS1E, 4-5 AAPG, 4-5 SYSA, 4-5 SYSB, 4-5 SYSC, 4-5 SYSD, Math 4.5.J, Math 5.6.J Objectives Students study healthy living habits in this interactive game that explains how the immune system attacks invading viruses and other pathogens and protects the body's subsystems from harm. Students examine the body as a conglomeration of subsystems that work together for a single larger system, and understand what happens if one portion of the subsystem breaks down. Background Information The human body can be considered as one large system that needs multiple subsystems in order to function properly. For instance, the skeleton and muscles can be considered as separate subsystems, but they rely on each other, as well as the nervous system, to function for the larger system and complete their jobs. The circulatory and respiratory subsystems are also separate entities, but neither can deliver oxygen to the rest of the body without the other. The immune system, or lymphatic system, works as one of those subsystems; its primary job is to defend the rest of the body from pathogens (a bacteria, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease). The immune system relies on other systems in order to do its job – it relies on the cardiovascular system to bring blood cells to the lymph capillaries, and it relies on the digestive system to bring it energy and nutrients to make new white blood cells. If the immune system is compromised, its ability to work as a subsystem is weakened. Leukocytes are the actual pathogen-fighting cells of the immune system system. Leukocytes travel between the lymphatic system and the blood system, tracking down and destroying pathogens, and helping to filter the blood from toxins. There are two types of leukocyte cells: phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes are the cells that chew up invading pathogens. Lymphocytes “remember” various illnesses and pathogens, and produce antibodies, which the body needs in order to fend off certain infections (each antibody is unique to fighting off a single pathogen) based on that memory. Keeping a well-balanced diet and getting plenty of exercise are good ways to keep your immune system healthy, because they also keep the rest of your body's subsystems healthy. People who live below the poverty line and are malnourished are more vulnerable to getting sick than people who have diets rich in vegetables and whole grains. Eating multiple different types of fruit a day is a good way to help “boost” your immune system because these foods also have several benefits to other subsystems in your body. When all of the subsystems in your body are working well, then there is less stress on your immune system. Washing your hands often, getting enough sleep, exercising regularly, and living in a clean environment are also critical to keeping your immune system healthy. Avoiding smoking, drinking in excess, and not having too many processed foods or saturated fats in your diet are also good ways to keep your body healthy. Materials Needed  Up to twenty (20) green flags/sashes/colored paper strips  Up to sixteen (16) red flags/sashes/colored paper strips  Up to sixteen (16) blue flags/sashes/colored paper strips  A large space for the entire class to run around 51

Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to go through the background information and the introduction; roughly fifteen minutes for each round of the game. It is highly suggested that you try the variations offered, as these will help students understand the materials better. Activity Overview Introduction  Ask your students what happens when they get sick. How do they feel when they're sick? What do their parents give them to make them feel better, and what do they have to do to get better? Have they ever had to go to the doctor for an illness?  Ask your students how many illnesses they can think of that are caused by germs.  Introduce the topic of the body as multiple subsystems that rely on each other in order to function properly. Define the terms mentioned in the background information for the students.  Explain that everyone's immune system is constantly fighting off germs that are trying to invade their bodies. When the immune system is unable to fight off the germs, you get sick. Leukocytes are specially designed body cells that track and fight off germs inside your body. When your immune system is “low,” you don't have enough leukocytes to fend off possible germs.  Explain the rules to the students (see Activity Elements below) and hand out supplies: o Up to twenty (20) students will be green cells, and will receive two green flags/sashes/color strips per student. o Up to eight (8) students will be germs, and will receive two red flags/sashes/color strips per student. o Up to eight (8) students will be leukocytes, and will receive two blue flags/sashes/color strips per student. Activity Elements  The germs will attempt to get the green cells by removing one of their flags. The leukocytes will try to protect the cells by removing a flag from the germs.  The green cells try to run away from the germs. They CANNOT remove the germ flags – only the lymphocyte cells can do that.  When a germ cell or a green cell loses a flag, they are out. They must leave the field of play until the round is over. IF YOU LOSE A FLAG YOU MUST STOP PLAYING!!!  The teacher decides what areas of the classroom or field are in-bounds. The boundaries represent the human body in which the germs, green cells, and leukocytes live. Since green cells and leukocytes cannot live outside the body, any player who moves out of bounds is out for that round.  The round ends when either all of the germs are out, or when all the green cells are out.  On the second round, play the game with twice as many leukocytes than germs. This is what happens when your immune system is healthy, and when you wash your hands often.  Try playing the third round with twice as many germs as leukocytes. This is what happens when your immune system is not healthy, or you forget too many times to wash your hands. Activity Summary  Have your students answer the questions below.  Explain to students that the body functions as a set of subsystems that rely on one another. When one of those subsystems breaks down, it affects the operation of the whole body. Ask students to relate subsystems/systems to the immune system.  Ask students to come up with other examples of the body consisting of several subsystems, and how the subsystems might “break” and need to be repaired (ex: a broken bone needs a cast, a sprain needs stretching therapy, a cut might need stitches and a bandage).  Ask students to remind you of what a lymphocyte is, and how it defends the body. 52

Questions 2. What did you learn about how the body defends itself against infections? 3. What happened when there were more germs than leukocytes? How did this affect the leukocytes' ability to protect the green cells? 4. Where do germs come from, and how do we encounter them? Name three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs. 5. When was the last time you were sick from an infection? Do you know how it happened? What sort of germ caused it? 6. Some foods help boost your immune system to fend off germs and infections. Name some of these foods. Why is it important to keep these foods as a part of your diet? What is the likely outcome if you take them out of your diet? 7. Do you think some foods might be harmful to your body? If yes, name three examples. 8. Define the following: leukocyte; immune system; phagocyte; lymphocyte; pathogen. Teacher Answer Guide 9. What did you learn about how the body defends itself against infections? Answers may vary between students. However, most students should mention that the body uses the immune system to track down and destroy invading germs. Without the immune system, the body is unable to defend itself against germs, which results in the body getting sick and needing outside medicine. 10. What happened when there were more germs than leukocytes? How did this affect the leukocytes' ability to protect the green cells? Answers may vary depending on how the game played, but in general, the germs were probably able to tag out more of the green cells before the leukocytes were able to tag out all the germ cells. In some cases, the germ cells may have even tagged out all of the green cells. The leukocyte's ability to defend the green cells was greatly impacted, and they weren't able to do as good as job as when there were more leukocytes than germs, or when the leukocytes and germs were equal. 11. Where do germs come from, and how do we encounter them? Name three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs. Germs are everywhere in the environment, but some germs are much worse to encounter than others. We encounter germs by interacting with people who may already be carrying them, or by touching various surfaces on which the germs are living. Three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs include: washing your hands often; avoiding using public spaces, such as railings, walls, elevator buttons, or public bathrooms; and keeping your hands away from your face. 12. When was the last time you were sick from an infection? Do you know how it happened? What sort of germ caused it? Answers will vary between students. 13. Some foods help your immune system fend off germs and infections. Name some of these foods. Why is it important to keep these foods as a part of your diet? What is the likely outcome if you take them out of your diet? Any fruit or vegetable will help your immune system fight off germs and infections, but foods that include vitamin C (such as oranges and broccoli) are especially important. All of these foods help your immune system because they are healthy for your body; when your body is healthier, it is less likely to get sick in the first place! If you remove these foods from your diet, you suffer from malnutrition, your body has to work harder to do simple tasks, and you are more likely to get sick from simple germs. 14. Do you think some foods might be harmful to your body? If yes, name one example. Possible answers include: eating poisonous foods, such as certain types of mushrooms; eating lots of particular food types that are high in saturated fats or sugar; eating foods that have been processed too much; and having a diet that lacks adequate nutrition. 15. Define the following: immune system; pathogen; leukocyte; phagocyte; lymphocyte. Immune system: a body system that helps protect the body from dangerous invading pathogens. Pathogen: a bacteria, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. Leukocyte: body cells that help fight pathogens and keep the body system working. Phagocyte: leukocyte cells that chew up pathogens. Lymphocyte: leukocytes that â&#x20AC;&#x153;rememberâ&#x20AC;? pathogens and produce antibodies to help fight them. 53

Post-Visit Activity: Germ Tag (6-8) Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 LS1A, 6-8 LS1C, 6-8 LS1F, 6-8 INQD, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 SYSA, 6-8 SYSB, 6-8 SYSF Objectives Students study healthy living habits in this interactive game that explains how the immune system attacks invading viruses and other pathogens and protects the body's subsystems from harm. Students examine the body as a conglomeration of subsystems that work together for a single larger system, and understand what happens if one portion of the subsystem breaks down or starts to malfunction. This version of Germ Tag introduces several variants that explain how individual variation can impact how well the human body functions. Background Information The human body can be considered as one large system that needs multiple subsystems in order to function properly. For instance, the skeleton and muscles can be considered as separate subsystems, but they rely on each other, as well as the nervous system, to function for the larger system. The circulatory and respiratory system are also separate systems, but neither can deliver oxygen to the rest of the body without the other. The immune system, or lymphatic system, works as one of those subsystems; its primary job is to defend the rest of the body from pathogens (a bacteria, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease). The immune system relies on other systems in order to do its job – it relies on the cardiovascular system to bring blood cells to the lymph capillaries, and it relies on the digestive system to bring it energy and nutrients to make new white blood cells. If the immune system is compromised, its ability to work as a subsystem is weakened. Leukocytes are the actual pathogen-fighting cells of the immune system system. Leukocytes travel between the lymphatic system and the blood system, tracking down and destroying pathogens, and helping to filter the blood from toxins. There are two types of leukocyte cells: phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes are the cells that chew up invading pathogens. Lymphocytes “remember” various illnesses and pathogens, and produce antibodies, which the body needs in order to fend off certain infections (each antibody is unique to fighting off a single pathogen) based on that memory. Keeping a well-balanced diet and getting plenty of exercise are good ways to keep your immune system healthy, because they also keep the rest of your body's subsystems healthy. People who live below the poverty line and are malnourished are more vulnerable to getting sick than people who have diets rich in vegetables and whole grains. Eating multiple different types of fruit a day is a good way to help “boost” your immune system because these foods also have several benefits to other subsystems in your body, and when all of the subsystems in your body are working well, then there is less stress on your immune system. Washing your hands often, getting enough sleep, exercising regularly, and living in a clean environment are also critical to keeping your immune system healthy. Avoiding smoking, drinking in excess, and not having too many processed foods or saturated fats in your diet are also good ways to keep your body healthy. Most people suffer at least mildly from allergies. Allergies can be seasonal, such as reactions to plant pollens, or situational, such as reactions to cat saliva, bee stings, or food. Allergy reactions can range from mild irritation, like itchy eyes or sneezing, to life-threatening, such as death by asphyxiation (suffocation). An allergy is an immune response by the immune system to substances found in the body that are usually not dangerous; 54

allergies could be considered an overreaction by an oversensitive immune system. The immune system releases histamines, which is a chemical that causes the allergic symptoms. When the immune system is overly sensitive, sometimes it cannot recognize its own host body, and instead treats the host body like an invader. When the immune system begins to attack its own host body, it is called an autoimmune disorder. Autoimmune diseases can affect only particular organs, such as the lungs, thyroid, liver, or kidney, or it can attack the entire body, such as with lupus. Treatment for autoimmune disorders depend on the type of disorder, but include steroids, anti-inflammatories, and regulation of diet. Life choices can also impact your immune system by negatively or positively influencing your body's health. For instance, people who smoke, or are subjected to second-hand smoke on a regular basis, have impaired lung function; with the lungs not functioning at optimal levels, pathogens have a greater opportunity to invade the space and cause illnesses that the immune system has difficulty in fighting off. People may also be born with disorders that impede the body's ability to function at optimal levels, which in turn impact the immune system's ability to help regulate the body. Sickle-cell anemia, for instance, can lead to osteomyelitis, a serious infection of the bone. Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a disease caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is a lentivirus, or slowly developing retrovirus, that infects the immune system cells of its human host. HIV uses the immune system cells to make copies of itself, a process that kills the immune system cell. Eventually, this process leads to the body experiencing a catastrophic lack of immune system cells, or AIDS. This acquired condition puts the human body at severe risk for opportunistic infections that can lead to death, since the body now lacks a healthy immune system to fight off the infection. HIV is spread by coming into contact with specific body fluids, which include blood, mucous, breast milk, semen and vaginal fluids. Nasal fluid, saliva, sweat, tears, urine or vomit do not carry enough of the HIV to spread the infection. Using antivirals, HIV can be managed, but is currently considered a major pandemic virus, meaning that it is present over a large percentage of the human population worldwide, and is actively spreading. For more information: http://aids.gov/ Materials Needed  Up to twenty (20) green flags/sashes/colored paper strips  Up to sixteen (16) red flags/sashes/colored paper strips  Up to sixteen (16) blue flags/sashes/colored paper strips  A large space for the entire class to run around Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to go through the background information and the introduction; roughly fifteen minutes for each round of the game. The 6-8 grade version of this grade involves multiple variations of the 4-5 grade game that allow the 6-8 graders to develop a further understanding of how the immune system works with the body. As such, it is highly recommended that you allow the students to play all of the provided 6-8 grade variations.

Activity Overview Introduction  Ask your students what happens when they get sick. How do they feel when they're sick? What do their parents give them to make them feel better, and what do they have to do to get better? Have they ever had to go to the doctor for an illness?  Ask your students how many illnesses they can think of that are caused by germs. 55

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Introduce the topic of the body as multiple subsystems that rely on each other in order to function properly. Define the terms mentioned in the background information for the students. Explain that everyone's immune system is constantly fighting off germs that are trying to invade their bodies. When the immune system is unable to fight off the germs, you get sick. Leukocytes are specially designed body cells that track and fight off germs inside your body. When your immune system is “low,” you don't have enough leukocytes to fend off possible germs. Explain the rules to the students (see Activity Elements below) and hand out supplies: o Up to twenty (20) students will be green cells, and will receive two green flags/sashes/color strips per student. o Up to eight (8) students will be germs, and will receive two red flags/sashes/color strips per student. o Up to eight (8) students will be leukocytes, and will receive two blue flags/sashes/color strips per student.

Activity Elements  The germs will attempt to get the green cells by removing one of their flags. The leukocytes will try to protect the cells by removing a flag from the germs.  The green cells try to run away from the germs. They CANNOT remove the germ flags – only the lymphocyte cells can do that.  When a germ cell or a green cell loses a flag, they are out. They must leave the field of play until the round is over. IF YOU LOSE A FLAG YOU MUST STOP PLAYING!!!  The teacher decides what areas of the classroom or field are in-bounds. The boundaries represent the human body in which the germs, green cells, and leukocytes live. Since green cells and leukocytes cannot live outside the body, any player who moves out of bounds is out for that round.  The round ends when either all of the germs are out, or when all the green cells are out.  On the second round, play the game with twice as many leukocytes than germs. This is what happens when your immune system is healthy, and when you wash your hands often.  Try playing the third round with twice as many germs as leukocytes. This is what happens when your immune system is not healthy, or you forget too many times to wash your hands.  Alternatives for 6-8 grades: o Allergies: To model the immune responses attack on allergies, the germ cells do not attack the body cells at all, but the leukocytes attack both the germ cells and the body cells. This mimics the immune system's overreaction to harmless pathogens in the body, which can often lead to serious allergic reactions that impact the body's survival. o Impaired Body Function (ex: smoker's lung): Body cells must run with a partner. Have the body cells hold hands with another body cell while avoiding germ cells. If one body cell gets tagged out, his or her partner is also out. Leukocytes focus on tagging out germ cells. This mimics the body's impaired ability to function properly, which can lead to non-fatal viruses or diseases developing into fatal conditions. o Autoimmune Disorders: Both the germ cells and the leukocytes attack the body cells. This mimics the immune system's inability to recognize the body cells as being of the same body system, and instead recognizing them as foreign invaders. o HIV: Two flagless students try to tag the leukocytes. If the leukocytes lose a flag, they must leave the game. Leukocytes cannot tag out the two flagless students, but they can still tag out the ordinary germ cells. This variation mimics how HIV causes the body to develop acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS, by removing leukocytes from the equation. As more leukocytes are removed, the body has a more difficult time fending off infections.

Activity Summary  Have your students answer the questions below.  Explain to students that the body functions as a set of subsystems that rely on one another. When one of those subsystems breaks down, it affects the operation of the whole body. Ask students to relate subsystems/systems to the immune system.  Ask students to come up with other examples of the body consisting of several subsystems, and how the subsystems might “break” and need to be repaired (ex: a broken bone needs a cast, a sprain needs stretching therapy, a cut might need stitches and a bandage).  Ask students to remind you of what a lymphocyte is, and how it defends the body Questions  What did you learn about how the body defends itself against infections?  What happened when there were more germs than leukocytes? How did this affect the leukocytes' ability to protect the green cells?  Where do germs come from, and how do we encounter them? Name three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs.  When was the last time you were sick from an infection? Do you know how it happened? What sort of germ caused it?  Some foods help boost your immune system to fend off germs and infections. Name some of these foods. Why is it important to keep these foods as a part of your diet? What is the likely outcome if you take them out of your diet?  Do you think some foods might be harmful to your body? If yes, name three examples.  Define the following: leukocyte; immune system; phagocyte; lymphocyte; pathogen.  How is the immune system reacting to the presence of allergens? How are reactions to allergies similar to and different from an autoimmune disease?  How does HIV affect the body's immune system from protecting itself?  What happens if part of your body becomes impaired and cannot function properly? How does this affect your immune system?

Teacher Answer Guide  What did you learn about how the body defends itself against infections? Answers may vary between students. However, most students should mention that the body uses the immune system to track down and destroy invading germs. Without the immune system, the body is unable to defend itself against germs, which results in the body getting sick and needing outside medicine.  What happened when there were more germs than leukocytes? How did this affect the leukocytes' ability to protect the green cells? Answers may vary depending on how the game played, but in general, the germs were probably able to tag out more of the green cells before the leykocytes were able to tag out all the germ cells. In some cases, the germ cells may have even tagged out all of the green cells. The leukocyte's ability to defend the green cells was greatly impacted, and they weren't able to do as good as job as when there were more leukocytes than germs, or when the leukocytes and germs were equal.  Where do germs come from, and how do we encounter them? Name three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs. Germs are everywhere in the environment, but some germs are much worse to encounter than others. We encounter germs by interacting with people who may already be carrying them, or by touching various surfaces on which the germs are living. Three practical ways to avoid getting sick from germs include: washing your hands often; avoiding using public spaces, such as railings, walls, elevator buttons, or public bathrooms; and keeping your hands away from your face.  When was the last time you were sick from an infection? Do you know how it happened? What sort of germ caused it? Answers will vary between students. 57

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Some foods help your immune system fend off germs and infections. Name some of these foods. Why is it important to keep these foods as a part of your diet? What is the likely outcome if you take them out of your diet? Any fruit or vegetable will help your immune system fight off germs and infections, but foods that include vitamin C (such as oranges and broccoli) are especially important. All of these foods help your immune system because they are healthy for your body; when your body is healthier, it is less like to get sick in the first place! If you remove these foods from your diet, you suffer from malnutrition, your body has to work harder to do simple tasks, and you are more likely to get sick from simple germs. Do you think some foods might be harmful to your body? If yes, name one example. Possible answers include: eating poisonous foods, such as certain types of mushrooms; eating too much of particular food types that are high in saturated fats, or eating too many sugared things, or that have been processed too much; or having a diet that lacks adequate nutrition. Define the following: immune system; pathogen; leukocyte; phagocyte; lymphocyte. Immune system: a body system that helps protect the body from dangerous invading pathogens. Pathogen: a bacteria, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. Leukocyte: body cells that help fight pathogens and keep the body system working. Phagocyte: leukocyte cells that chew up pathogens. Lymphocyte: leukocytes that “remember” pathogens and produce antibodies to help fight them. How is the immune system reacting to the presence of allergens? How are reactions to allergies similar to and different from an autoimmune disease? Allergies occur when the immune response recognizes nonharmful alien agents in the body as harmful and reacts by producing histamines, which create the symptoms we associate with allergies. This is similar to what happens with an autoimmune disease. However, in an autoimmune disease, the immune system does not just react against harmless alien agents – it fails to recognize cells from its own body, and attacks them like invaders. In both instances, the immune system is being too sensitive, but the object of its attacks is different. How does HIV affect the body's immune system from protecting itself? HIV is a virus that infects the body's immune cells, and uses them to create copies of itself. Over time, this results in the body's immune system and immune responses being unable to ward off more simple viruses, like the flu or the cold. What happens if part of your body becomes impaired and cannot function properly? How does this affect your immune system? If a part of your body becomes impaired, such as when you inhale smoke of ANY type, it is unable to function at its full capacity. This adversely impacts all of your other body systems, including your immune system, which must work harder to keep the impacted area healthy. This causes your immune system to be under more stress, and thus more susceptible to illness.

Space Pre-Visit Activity: Daily Sun Motion ...................................................................................................60 Post-Visit Activity: Celestial Storyteller ...........................................................................................63 Pre-Lesson Activity: Moon Cookies ....................................................................................................65 Post-Visit Activity: Human Solar System .........................................................................................68

Pre-Visit Activity: Daily Sun Motion Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 ES1A, 4-5 ES1B, 4-5 SYSA, 4-5 SYSB Objectives Students observe how the sun creates night and day on Earth through an interactive demonstration that involves the whole class. Students comprehend that the earth rotates on an axis and revolves around the sun. Students also study photos and observe a simple experiment that proves that the earth is round and that gravity acts as a force on the earth. Background Information An axis is an invisible line that an object balances and rotates around. Earth rotates on an axis because of the way it was formed 4.6 billion years ago. A huge cloud of gas and dust started to collapse under its own gravity. As the mass collapsed, some of the material within this cloud gathered into swirling eddies and eventually formed into the planet, which started to spin due to the pressure of its own weight. This spinning motion continued after the planet formed. This is similar to what you see when skaters pull in their arms and spin faster; as material gathered in more closely to form a planet, like Earth, the material spun faster due to the distribution of mass. Today, the earth keeps spinning because there are no forces acting to stop it (which is an example of Newton's second law). While the earth is rotating, it is changing the angle at which the sun is hitting particular portions of its surface. This causes not only the effect of night and day, but also creates portions of the day when the earth is colder and hotter. For example, within a standard daylight time zone, the earth is warmest between 3:30 and 4:00 PM. At 12:00 PM, the sun is directly overheard a particular spot, causing a time of more intense solar radiation, but it is not the hottest part of the day. The earth will continue to absorbed heat from solar radiation so long as the earth is receiving more heat than it is able to reflect back to space. After 3:30-4:00 PM, the angle of the solar radiation is less, which allows the earth to give off more heat than it is receiving. This angle also creates the illusion of dawn and dusk. The earth takes approximately 24 hours to complete a single rotation around its axis. The earth revolves around the sun in 365 days, or the timespan of a year. A time zone is an arbitrary region on earth that has a unified standard of time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Time zones often follow country or state/province boundaries, due to their purpose in maintaining commercial and social relations. Time zones are based on the Greenwich Mean Time, which is at longitude 0Â°. The continental United States has four time zones (Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific), and six time zones including Alaska and Hawaii. Materials ď&#x201A;ˇ Flashlight ď&#x201A;ˇ Roughly 7-10 feet diameter of free space to allow students to move in a circle Time Duration: Plan for half an hour to explain and complete the activity.

Activity Overview Introduction  Remind students that the earth is round, and is constantly spinning. We know the earth is round because of a variety of scientific tests. For instance, during lunar eclipses, the earth's shadow is round; the star constellations seen at night change as you travel to various countries in different longitudes and latitudes; and two sticks placed in the ground at different locations (longitude/latitude) will cast different sized shadows as the day progresses.  Ask students what observations they have made about day time and night time, such as when it happens, and what seems to happen when it occurs.  Explain that, when it is day time in Spokane, WA, it is night time in Melbourne, Australia. Ask students where Australia is – you can also point out the locational difference on a map – in relation to Spokane.  Explain that this occurs because the earth rotates on an axis, and also revolves around the sun. An axis is an imaginary line that a body rotates around. You can demonstrate an example of an axis by very carefully spinning around on one foot, or by showing a video of an ice skater rotating; in this example, the axis follows the leg and spine of the rotating figure. The earth takes almost exactly 24 hours to rotate once around its axis. This rotation changes where sunlight is hitting the earth, creating the effect of night and day. Activity Elements  Pick one student to be the “sun.” That student holds the flashlight.  Two or three other students should stand back-to-back in a circle, and link arms. They will act as the eastern and western hemispheres of the earth. To help orient the classroom about which portion of the earth is which, they should wear “badges” or pieces of paper listing countries and continents found in that hemisphere (alternatively, they can wear a picture of the countries as well).  These students will need to walk in a circle around the “sun.” Meanwhile, the “sun” should keep the flashlight locked onto the “earth” as the “earth” walks around the “sun”.  Ask the rest of the students what is happening – where the sun is shining, what portions of the earth are in darkness, and why this does not seem to change (since the students are only revolving around the sun, and not on their axis, part of the earth is constantly lit, and part is constantly in darkness). Ask them if that is how day time and night time seem to work on earth (the answer is “no.”)  Once the “earth” is used to walking in an even circle around the “sun,” the “earth” will also need to start spinning in a circle, like a top, to demonstrate the earth rotating on its axis (remind students to go slowly so they don't get too dizzy!). The “sun” should keep the flashlight trained on the earth.  Ask the students to note what portion of the earth is in day, and what portion is in night, the corresponding countries in each portion, and to observe how this changes as the “earth” rotates. Activity Summary  Have the students answer the questions below.  Ask the students why, if the earth is spinning, we don't fly off of it. Accept any reasonable answer. Explain that gravity, which is a measurable force, is keeping us grounded. Demonstrate gravity by dropping something soft, like a pillow, ball, or paperback book, to the ground or on a desk. Explain that gravity is the force that made the object drop to the ground; wihtout gravity, the object would have floated in the air.

Questions  When two towns are on opposite sides of the earth, can it ever be morning in both towns at the same time?  Do you have relatives that live in a different time zone? Have you ever called them and found out it was another time of day where they lives? Why do you think that happens?  What makes night fall in your town? (the sun moves away from the earth, the earth stops spinning, the sun disappears, the sun moves to the other side of the earth, the part of the earth where your town is located is turned away from the sun)  The earth takes one full ___________ to rotate on its axis (second, hour, day, week, year)  The earth takes one full ___________ to rotate around the sun (second, hour, day, week, year)  Why are there different time zones on earth? (the sun shines on different parts of the earth at different times, the sun shine less in the west than it does in the east, different countries measure time in different ways, the earth changes speed as it rotates around the sun)

Teacher Answer Sheet  When two towns are on opposite sides of the earth, can it ever be morning in both towns at the same time? No, it can never be morning in both towns at the same time, because the angle of the earth, and the rotational spin of the earth, will cause one town to be night while the other town will be day. So one town will have morning while the other is experiencing dusk.  Do you have relatives that live in a different time zone? Have you ever called them and found out it was another time of day where they lives? Why do you think that happens? Answers will vary between each student.  What makes night fall in your town? (Multiple Choice: The sun moves away from the earth, The earth stops spinning, The sun disappears, The sun moves to the other side of the earth, The part of the earth where your town is located is turned away from the sun)  The earth takes one full ___________ to rotate on its axis (Multiple Choice: second, hour, day, week, year)  The earth takes one full ___________ to rotate around the sun (Multiple Choice: second, hour, day, week, year)  Why are there different time zones on earth? (Multiple Choice: The sun shines on different parts of the earth at different times, The sun shine less in the west than it does in the east, Different countries measure time in different ways, The earth changes speed as it rotates around the sun)

Post-Visit Activity: Celestial Storyteller Grade Level: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4: ES1C, W4.3a, W4.3b, W4.3c, W4.3d, W4.4e, Social Studies 4.1, 4.3 5: ES1C, W5.3a, W5.3b, W5.3c, W5.3d, W5.4e, Social Studies 4.1 Objective Children will learn about their choice of a few constellations and craft their own stories connecting those constellations together. Background Information Constellations rarely exist without mythology, culled from dozens of world cultures, explaining what they are and why they are in the sky. This activity will allow children to get creative in crafting their own mythology connecting their favorite constellations. Spring/Summer/Fall constellation story: The three stars Vega, Deneb, and Altair form the Summer Triangle pattern in the sky, and each star is in a different constellation. Vega is in Lyra the Harp, Deneb is in Cygnus the Swan, and Altair is in Aquila the Eagle. All three constellations are connected in ancient Greek mythology by the story of Orpheus, who played a lyre, a small wooden harp. His music was so beautiful it was magical. After his wife Eurydice died, Orpheus journeyed into the underworld where his music made Hades, god of the dead, weep and Hades agreed to let Eurydice return to life under one condition: he had to lead her out of the underworld with the music of his lyre and not look behind him to see if she was there until they were both safely back on Earth. Just as they were about to leave the underworld, Orpheus looked behind him and saw Eurydice for a split second before she disappeared back into the underworld. When he died the gods of Mount Olympus put his lyre in the sky as Lyra, they placed him in the sky as the Cygnus the swan, and Aquila the Eagle guides them as they move through the night. Winter constellation story: According to ancient Greek mythology, the constellation Orion represents a hunter who is hunting seven sisters (the Pleiades star cluster) across the night sky. Facing him is the constellation of Taurus the bull who is protecting the sisters. Orion himself is backed up by his two hunting dogs Canis Major (the “Big Dog”) and Canis Minor (the “Little Dog”). To the ancient Egyptians, the same star pattern represented Osiris, the god of the dead; after his evil brother Set killed him, his wife Isis brought him back to life as the world’s first mummy and he lived immortal among the stars. Materials  Full, current sky maps (monthly sky maps are available for free from skymaps.com)  Paper  Pencils Activity Overview Introduction  Explain that behind each constellation is a story, and different cultures across the world have told different stories about the sky.  Give each student a sky map, paper, and pencils.

Activity Elements  If it is spring, summer, or fall, point out Lyra, Cygnus, and Aquila and tell the story of Orpheus. If it is winter, point out Orion, Taurus, Canis Major, Canis Minor, and the Pleiades cluster and tell the stories of Orion and Osiris.  Have each student choose 2 or 3 constellations on their sky map and come up with a story that connects them.  When they have finished, ask volunteers to tell their new myths to the class. Activity Summary  Encourage the children read more about the mythology behind different constellations. Humanity is a storytelling species and the Greeks, Chinese, Japanese, Egyptians, Native Americans, and many other ancient cultures used the sky as inspiration for stories. Perhaps by stargazing on their own the students can continue to create their own tales. Questions  Did people in different cultures tell the same stories about the stars?  What is the difference between a myth and a true story?  Have you ever looked at the sky and made up your own constellations?

Teacher Answer Sheet  Did people in different cultures tell the same stories about the stars? No. Though they often saw the same patterns they interpreted those patterns differently. For example, the same shape that the Greeks called Orion represented the god Osiris to the ancient Egyptians. The Lakota Indians incorporated some extra stars and thought of Orion as the spine and ribcage of a dead buffalo. Different cultures’ stories about the stars reflected what they saw and how they thought about the world.  What is the difference between a myth and a true story? Myths are stories told by different cultures to help them understand the world. They often include fantastic elements like magic and heroes with amazing powers.  Have you ever looked at the sky and made up your own constellations? Answers will vary among students.

Pre-Lesson Activity: Moon Cookies Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 ES1A, 6-8 INQE, 6-8 SYSA, 6-8 SYSB Objectives Students actively study the phases of the moon by creating an edible model that explains the moon's orbit around the earth, distinguishes between how the moon looks from space and how it looks from earth. Background Information The moon is visible because light energy from the sun hits the moon, and then reflects off its surface back to the earth; this is what makes the moon appear to “glow.” The moon is less visible during the daylight because light energy from the sun is also hitting the earth, which “washes out” the light from the moon. The moon stays in orbit because of two forces. The first force is gravity; there is a gravitational force between the moon and the earth that tries to pull the moon towards the earth. This constant tug results in a “centripetal” force. This force is equally balanced by the second - a “centrifugal” force that pulls on the earth, and keeps the moon in motion (and not crashing into the earth!). During the lunar month, the moon appears to go through eight different phases (see below). These phases create the appearance that differing amounts of light from the sun are hitting the moon and reflecting back to earth as the moon completes its orbit. In actuality, half of the moon is always reflecting the sun's light, while the other half is always in darkness regardless of the moon's position around the earth (note – the moon continues to rotate on its own axis, and has its own night/day cycle, so that the SAME moon half is not ALWAYS lit/in darkness.). If half of the moon is consistently lit, and half of the moon is consistently dark, why do we see the moon's surface in a series of phases? This is caused by the moon's relative position around the earth as it cycles through its lunar month, which impacts the amount of the lit side of the moon the earth sees. Use a clock face as an example. The Earth is at the very center, where the clock's hands meet. The sun is positioned somewhere above 12:00, and the moon's position correlates to the hours of the day. From the perspective of the sun, half of the moon is always being struck by light, so someone standing on the sun would always see a full moon. But, from the perspective of the earth, the percentages of the moon that is visible is constantly changing and the position of the moon changes. If the moon is at 12:00, or directly between the earth and the sun (the “new moon” phase), the moon's half dark side is completely facing the earth. If the moon is 9:00, or a 45° angle to the sun and at 0° with the earth, half of the moon's dark side, and half of its lit side (the “first quarter” phase), are facing the earth. And, if the moon is at 6:00, or the earth is directly between the sun and the moon, the moon's entire lit side is facing the earth (the “full moon” phase). The illusion of phases is caused because the earth can only see the portion of the moon that is a) reflecting light and b) facing towards the earth. These different perspectives of viewing the moon could be considered as separate systems, or subsystems. When the amount of the lit side of the moon seen by the earth is increasing, the positions are said to be “waxing.” Waxing refers to an increase in size, strength, prosperity, or intensity. When the amount of light seen by the earth is decreasing, the positions are said to be “waning.” Waning refers to a decrease in strength, intensity, or power. 65

As seen from the earth, a solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and Earth, and the moon blocks (“occults”) the sun. This can happen only during the new moon phase of the moon's orbit. A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes directly into the path of Earth's shadow (or “umbra”). This can happen only during the moon's full moon phase. The order of the phases is as follows: New Moon; Waxing Crescent; First Quarter; Waxing Gibbous; Full; Waning Gibbous; Third Quarter; Waning Crescent; New Moon. The moon travels counter-clockwise around the earth. Other Resources NASA Moon Orbiting Animation: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/2013-moon-phases.html What are the Phases of the Moon?: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question3.html ASPIRE Lunar Phases: http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/labs/moon/lunar_phases_main.html Materials  2 Blank paper sheets and a pencil  Lined paper  16 small cookies  Frosting  Plastic bag  NOTE: Oreo cookies could also be used in place of the small cookies and frosting. Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to explain the background information and introduce the topic. Up to half an hour for every student to complete the assignment. Activity Overview Introduction  Ask students what they have observed about the moon (is it always the same size and shape, is it ever visible during the day?). Explain how the moon can be viewed in different perspectives – one from the sun, and one from the earth. Talk about how the phases of the moon that we see are actually dependent on how much of the “lit” side of the moon is facing the earth. Name and describe the eight phases of the moon.  Hand out the supplies, and start the activity. Activity Elements  In the center of one blank paper sheet, draw a circle; this is the earth. At the very top of the paper, draw another circle; this is the sun. Draw eight smaller circles around the earth, spaced evenly apart. Label the paper, “Moon Phases – Seen from Space.”  Using 8 cookies and half of the frosting, model the moon phases as seen from space. Frosting on the cookie represents light hitting the moon. Lay the cookies out in the order of the moon phases as they would be seen from space.  On the “Moon Phases – Seen from Space” sheet, shade in the 8 circles surrounding the earth to match the phases of the moon IN ORDER as seen from space. Label each circle.  Have the sheet of paper and the cookies checked by the teacher (teacher – sign the paper so that you know you checked it)  On the second sheet of blank paper, re-draw the earth, sun, and 8 moon phases, like you did on the first sheet. Label this sheet “Moon Phases – Seen from Earth”  Using the eight remaining cookies and remaining icing, model the phases of the moon as seen from the 66

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earth. Frosting on the cookie represents light hitting the moon. Lay them out in the appropriate order as they would be seen from earth. On the “Moon Phases – Seen from Earth” sheet, shade in the 8 circles surrounding the earth to match the phases of the moon IN ORDER as seen from earth. Label each circle with the appropriate name. Have the phases checked by the teacher (teacher – sign the paper again)

Activity Summary  Students should answer the questions below, and turn in the answers with the two moon phases worksheets.  Students may eat their cookie models, or they may take their cookies home to share. Questions  Name the 8 different moon phases in order starting and ending with the New Moon phase.  Explain why the moon shines.  What causes the moon phases?  Compare and contrast the position of the sun, Earth, and moon during a new moon phase and a full moon phase.  Do the moon phases occur in a pattern? If so, what is the pattern? Explain.  What force keeps the moon revolving around the Earth? What force keeps the Earth revolving around the Sun?  What event occurs when the moon moves between the Earth and the Sun? When the Earth moves between the Moon and the Sun? Which moon phases would these events occur at? Teacher Answer Sheet  Name the 8 different moon phases in order starting and ending with the New Moon. New Moon; Waxing Crescent; First Quarter; Waxing Gibbous; Full; Waning Gibbous; Third Quarter; Waning Crescent; New Moon.  Explain why the moon shines. The moon shines because it is catching and reflecting light from the sun back to the earth.  What causes the moon phases? The angle of the moon relative to the earth and the sun causes the moon phases, because that angle is constantly changing as the moon completes its rotation around the earth.  Compare and contrast the position of the Sun, Earth and Moon during a new moon phase and a full moon phase. In a new moon phase, the moon is in between the sun and the earth, so that the lit side of the moon is entirely facing away from the earth. Because of this, during the new moon phase the earth cannot see the moon. In a full moon phase, the earth is between the sun and the moon, so that the lit side of the moon is entirely facing the earth. Because of this, during the full moon phase the earth sees the entire moon face.  Do the moon phases occur in a pattern? If so, why does it happen? Yes, the moon phases occur in a pattern because the moon rotates around the earth in the same direction.  What force keeps the moon revolving around the Earth? What force keeps the Earth revolving around the Sun? The forces of gravity and centrifuge keep the moon revolving around the earth, and the earth around the sun.  What event occurs when the moon moves between the Earth and the Sun? When the Earth moves between the Moon and the Sun? Which moon phases would these events occur at? A solar eclipse occurs when the moon moves between the earth and the sun so that the moon's shadow is made directly visible to the earth; the new moon phase would be occurring. A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth moves between the moon and the sun, and the moon passes directly into the earth's shadow; this can only happen during the full moon phase.

Post-Visit Activity: Human Solar System Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8: Science – SYSA, SYSB, SYSF, INQC, ES1B, ES1C Math – 6.1E, 6.3A, 7.1C, 7.1F, 7.2E Objective Students will recall and present information about the planets and their places in the solar system and learn about their relative distances from the sun. Background Information Students will learn a lot of information about the 8 planets, the asteroid belt, and the Kuiper Belt during “Meet the Neighbors.” This activity will ask them to put that information into practice and into perspective. Distances in our solar system are measured in Astronomical Units (AU). One AU is equal to the Earth’s average distance from the sun, roughly 93 million miles. The Earth, of course, can be treated as perpetually one AU from the sun. The other planets and objects in the solar system are arranged thusly: Object Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Asteroid Belt Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Kuiper Belt Oort Cloud

Distance (AU) 0.0 AU 0.4 AU 0.7 AU 1.0 AU 1.5 AU 2.8 AU 5.2 AU 9.6 AU 19.2 AU 30.0 AU Ends at 50.0 AU 50,000 AU

Scale (indoors) 0 cm 4 cm 7 cm 10 cm 15 cm 28 cm 52 cm 96 cm 1.92 m 3m 5m 5 km

Scale (outdoors) 0.0 yd. 0.4 yd. 0.7 yd. 1.0 yd. 1.5 yd. 2.8 yd. 5.2 yd. 9.6 yd. 19.2 yd. 30.0 yd. Ends at 50.0 yd. ~311 mi.

The Kuiper Belt begins at the orbit of Neptune and extends through to 50 AU past it. It contains the dwarf planet Pluto, other dwarf planets like Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, and many smaller rocky and icy objects. Many of the objects in the Kuiper belt are large enough to be spherical but not large enough to have cleared their orbits, which are highly elliptical and eccentric; they therefore do not quality as planets. The Oort Cloud contains the solar system’s comets and reaches out to the very edge of the solar system. The two right columns of the above table will be used for two variations of the relative distance activity described below. Materials  Paper  Pencils  colored pencils  yardsticks (optional; see below) 68

Activity Overview Introduction  Ask the students to think back to what they learned in the planetarium. Remind them of the classification of solar system objects (inner/terrestrial planets, outer planets/gas giants, Kuiper Belt objects).  Break the students into groups of 2 or 3. Give each group some paper, pencils, and colored pencils and assign each of them a planet or object. Activity Elements  Give each group the task of creating a drawing of their object with as many important features labeled as possible. They also have to use one of the scales above to determine how far their planet is from the sun in a human model. If you are doing the activity in the classroom, use the “indoors” scale. If you have access to a football field, use the “outdoors” scale. Both are reproduced as worksheets below.  Once each group has finished, have them arrange themselves in the proper order and distance from the sun based on their calculated scales. Have each group teach the rest of the class a bit about their object. If outdoors, have the furthest objects shout; it’ll be fun.  The groups with the Oort Cloud can simply stand as far away as is possible and safe while reminding the rest of the class how far away they’d really be. Activity Summary  Remind the students that the distances they’ve used are only the average distances of each object from the sun. The orbits of the planets are almost perfectly circular…almost. Let them know that as massive as the distance between the sun and the Oort Cloud may seem, it’s really only about one light year. The whole Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light years across, or 5 billion AU. The nearest major galaxy, Andromeda, is 2.5 million light years away: 125 billion AU. The scale of space is truly staggering. Questions  Name the eight planets in order from the sun.  What is inside the Kuiper Belt? Why aren’t its objects considered planets?  What does the Oort Cloud contain?  What amount of distance does an Astronomical Unit represent? Teacher Answer Sheet  Name the eight planets in order from the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune  What is inside the Kuiper Belt? Why aren’t its objects considered planets? The Kuiper Belt contains small rocky and icy objects as well as dwarf planets like Pluto and Eris. They are not planets because most are not spherical. Those that are have eccentric, elliptical orbits and have not cleared those orbits of debris.  What does the Oort Cloud contain? Comets, most of which rarely, if ever, enter the inner solar system.  What amount of distance does an Astronomical Unit represent? The average distance from the Earth to the sun.

Solar System Distance Worksheet (indoors) Object

Distance (AU)

Scale

Sun

0.0 AU

0 cm

Mercury

0.4 AU

____cm

Venus

0.7 AU

____cm

Earth

1.0 AU

10 cm

Mars

1.5 AU

____cm

Asteroid Belt

2.8 AU

____cm

Jupiter

5.2 AU

____cm

Saturn

9.6 AU

____cm

Uranus

19.2 AU

____m

Neptune

30.0 AU

____m

Kuiper Belt

Ends at 50.0 AU

Ends at ____m

Oort Cloud

50,000 AU

_____km

Solar System Distance Worksheet (outdoors) Object

Distance (AU)

Scale

Sun

0.0 AU

0 yd.

Mercury

0.4 AU

____ yd.

Venus

0.7 AU

____ yd.

Earth

1.0 AU

1 yd.

Mars

1.5 AU

____ yd.

Asteroid Belt

2.8 AU

____ yd.

Jupiter

5.2 AU

____ yd.

Saturn

9.6 AU

____ yd.

Uranus

19.2 AU

____ yd.

Neptune

30.0 AU

____ yd.

Kuiper Belt

Ends at 50.0 AU

Ends at ____ yd.

Oort Cloud

50,000 AU

_____miles

Physics and Phenomena Pre-Visit Activity: Heat Pinwheel .........................................................................................................73 Post-Visit Activity: Hot Water Bottles ...............................................................................................76 Pre-Visit Activity: Molecules In Motion: Heated Molecules ...............................................80 Post-Lesson Activity: Molecules In Motion: Insulation Station .........................................85

Pre-Visit Activity: Heat Pinwheel Grade Levels: 4-5 Washington State Standards 4-5 PS3A, 4-5 PS3B, 4-5 PS3C, 4-5 SYSC, 4-5 SYSD, 4-5 INQA, 4-5 INQB, 4-5 INQC, 4-5 INQD Objectives Students conduct simple experiments to explore the properties of energy transfer and one type of heat. Students will understand that energy is transferrable between objects, and can be generated in multiple ways. Background Information Energy can be simply defined as “available power within a substance.” Some forms of energy include: sound; heat and light; chemical; kinetic (motion); magnetic; and electric. Each form of energy can be transformed into any of the other forms of energy. Energy is never “destroyed” or “created” – rather, energy “lost” can always be accounted for in transformations into other types of energy. Heat is energy that is transferred from one body (object) to another by thermal interactions. It is not an inherent property of any body, but results from a process or reaction from other types of energy. Heat will always flow from hot systems to cool systems, such as heat from a stove transferring to a cold pot. At the molecular level, molecules vibrate faster and spread out more as a reaction to the presence of heat. There are three primary methods of thermal energy transfer: conduction, radiation, and convection. Conduction occurs between solid objects or substances that are in direct contact with each other. Radiation occurs when electromagnetic waves travel through space, or a vacuum, and transfer heat energy to objects they encounter. Convection refers to the transfer of heat between liquids or gases, which is the type of heat transfer that occurs here. As a gas or liquid is heated, it also expands and rises, because it becomes less dense. When the gas or liquid cools, it contracts, and becomes more dense. This movement creates a convection current, which can be seen in this experiment. When you rub your hands together, you're creating a type of heat energy – specifically, conduction, as the heat transfer occurs between two solid objects that are in direct contact. When you then cup your hands underneath the square of paper, the heat rises in a convection current, and comes into contact with the paper. The paper is creased, which causes an uneven surface that allows the heat to spin the paper. Materials (Per student or student group)  4 inch squares of paper, any type  1 square inch of play dough, moulding clay, or silly putty  6” long sewing needle Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to introduce the topic, fifteen minutes to complete the activity.

Activity Overview Introduction  Ask students if they can name different types of energy. Examples might include: light, or radiation; heat; electricity; or movement. If need be, explain the differences between energy and electricity (all electricity is energy, but not all energy is electricity).  Introduce the idea of heat convection to the students. Explain that heat rises upwards because heated molecules vibrate more than cold molecules, causing them to spread out from each other, which in turn lowers their density and causes them to rise above cold molecules (which have a higher density).  Have the students rub their hands together quickly, as a demonstration. Ask them what happened (their hands should feel warmer). Explain that the students just created a source of thermal energy (heat) from this movement, as their hands were “fighting” the friction caused by the other hand.  Ask students if they think that energy can be transferred from one body (object) to another. If they say yes, ask for examples. Examples could include: using a remote to turn on an electrical object; using an oven or microwave to cook or warm up food; driving a car; eating food; or using any electrical device.  Break students into groups, and hand out the supplies. Activity Elements  Take the square of paper, and fold it into a triangle by making two diagonal ends meet. Crease the paper, unfold it, and then fold it into a triangle again using the other two diagonal corners. Crease the paper and unfold it. The paper should now “tent,” or have a high spot, in the middle where the creases meet.  Take the sewing needle and silly putty. Make the sewing needle stand vertically straight in the silly putty.  Balance the creased paper on the needle by placing the high spot directly on the top of the sewing needle. If the paper will not balance, then the needle needs to be straightened. Try looking at the needle from a different angle id you cannot get the paper to balance, to make sure that it is straight.  Once the paper is balanced, cup your hands around either side of the needle underneath the paper – be careful to not knock the paper off!  Write down your observations about what happened. If nothing happened in the experiment, that is still a result that needs to be written down!  Now rub your hands together quickly for thirty seconds. After thirty seconds, immediately cup your hands around either side of the needle underneath the paper – be careful to not knock the paper off!  Write down your observations about what happened. Activity Summary  Ask students what they observed with this experiment. What changed in the experiment to allow the paper to spin? What happened when they cupped their hands under the paper WITHOUT rubbing their hands together? What happened when they did? How can they explain this difference?  Students should be able to connect that the heat generated from their hands caused the pinwheel to spin. Remind students that heat rises, so that when they positioned their hands under the pinwheel, heat was transferred from their hands, to the air, to the pinwheel. Since heat is a form of energy, the heat caused the pinwheel to turn.  Ask students if they can think of any real-world applications about this knowledge. Examples might include using: convection currents to warm a cool room; powering a fan in a large industrial complex of power plant; boiling water for cooking or making hot chocolate; or the creation of rainstorms.  Have students answer the questions below.

Questions  Write down a summary of what you did in this experiment. Make sure you mention all of the steps!  What force made the pinwheel move? From where did this force come?  What type of heat transfer is taking place? How do we know this?  Hot air is a type of thermal heat, and heat always wants to move “up.” If hot air rises, then cold air wants to stay closer to the ground. Knowing this, what would be an efficient way to warm your house in the winter? Teacher Answer Guide  Write down a summary of what you did in this experiment. Make sure you mention all of the steps! Answers will vary between students, but should generally follow the activity elements guidelines.  What force made the pinwheel move? From where did this force come? The force that made the pinwheel move was the heat generated by rubbing your hands together. The heat was transferred from your hands to the pinwheel when you cupped your hands under the pinwheel.  What type of heat transfer is taking place? How do we know this? Convection heat transfer is taking place. We know this because convection deals with heat transfer among fluids (air can be considered a fluid).  Hot air is a type of thermal heat, and heat always wants to move “up.” If hot air rises, then cold air wants to stay closer to the ground. Knowing this, what would be an efficient way to warm your house in the winter? Answers will vary between students, but in general: since hot air will naturally rise, it is more efficient to concentrate on warming the cold air that would be sitting at the bottom of the room. As that cold air heats, it will rise, allowing less warm air to take its place. Before long, all the air in the room is warmed.

Post-Visit Activity: Hot Water Bottles Washington State Standards 4-5 PS2A, 4-5 PS3A, 4-5 PS3B, 4-5 PS3C, 4-5 INQA, 4-5 INQC, 4-5 INQD, 4-5 INQE Objectives Students conduct a simple experiment to explore the properties of energy transfer and different ways to create heat energy. Students will understand that energy takes multiple forms, is transferrable, and can be generated in multiple ways. Background Information Energy can be simply defined as “available power within a substance.” Some forms of energy include: sound; heat and light; chemical; kinetic (motion); magnetic; and electric. Each form of energy can be transformed into any of the other forms of energy. Energy is never “destroyed” or “created” – rather, energy “lost” can always be accounted for in transformations into other types of energy. Heat is energy that is transferred from one body (object) to another by thermal interactions. It is not an inherent property of any body, but results from a process or reaction from other types of energy. Heat will always flow from hot systems to cool systems, such as heat from a stove transferring to a cold pot. At the molecular level, molecules vibrate faster and spread out more than cold molecules as a reaction to the presence of heat. As the hot, vibrating molecules interacts with the cold molecule, the hot molecule's vibrations share energy with the cold molecule, causing it to vibrate more in response. There are three primary methods of thermal energy transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction occurs between solid objects or substances that are in direct contact with each other. Convection refers to the transfer of heat between liquids or gases, which create a convection current. Radiation occurs when electromagnetic waves travel through space (or a vacuum) and transfer heat energy to objects they encounter. Light energy also functions as a form of heat energy known as radiation. Light energy is also known as electromagnetic energy, or radiation energy. Light energy, which can travel in a vacuum, travels from the sun to the earth, where it is either absorbed or reflected by various bodies (objects). The light that is absorbed by the bodies is transformed into heat energy. This allows the sun to “warm up” the earth. In this experiment, one glass of water is placed in the shade, and one is placed in direct sunlight. Using a thermometer, students are able to visibly see how radiation energy warms objects with which it has direct contact. Materials (Per student group of two to four)  Permanent marker  2 clear glass jars the same size, able to hold at least 8 fluid ounces  Access to water  Measuring cup or beaker (measuring at least to 8 fluid ounces, or roughly 1 cup)  Thermometer  Tape  A (hot) sunny day, and shade  graph paper and two colored pencils 76

Time Duration: 15 minutes to introduce the topic; ten minutes to set up the activity; two to three hours to complete the activity. Although this activity takes two-three hours, it is a passive activity that is broken into twenty-minute sections. You can use these twenty-minute sections to continue with other lessons, and then use the five minutes needed to check the experiment as a miniature break. Activity Overview Introduction  Remind students that energy comes in different forms, ex: heat, light, sound, electricity, kinetic (motion). Ask for examples of these different types of energy transfer, and how that energy can be transferred from area to another.  Remind students about the pre-visit activity they completed (the pinwheel). Ask them what type of energy was conducted in that experiment. Ask if they remember how heat energy moves from one source to another, and have them explain the process. Clear up any misconceptions or confusion they may have about the process.  Explain that light is another source of energy that can be used to heat objects. Light energy is also known as radiation energy, and the most common form of light energy is the sun.  Ask the students what they expect to happen in the experiment. Have them write down a hypothesis, based on what they've learned about energy and energy transfer. Activity Elements  Using the marker and tape, label one jar “A,” and one jar “B.”  Using the measuring cup or beaker, pour the same amount of liquid into each glass jar, being careful not to spill the water outside the jar. Record how much water you poured into the jars.  Using the thermometer, measure and record the temperature of the water in each of the jars.  Place jar A where it will be in direct sunlight for a couple hours (at least two, preferably three hours). Place jar B where it will be in direct shade for a couple hours (for the same duration as jar A).  Re-measure and record the temperature of the water in the jars at 20 minute intervals throughout the experiment. In order to create the gradient scale for the water temperatures, it is very important to record the temperature as close to twenty minutes as possible!  At the end of the two (or more) hour timespan, record the temperature one more time. Then re-measure the amount of water in each jar, being careful to not spill any. Record this information as well. Activity Summary  Have the students graph their results in a line graph, with the x-axis as the time duration, and the y-axis as the temperatures. Record both jar temperatures on the same graph, but using different colors.  Ask students if the volume of water in jar A fell during the experiment, and introduce the topic of water evaporation. Explain that water evaporates, or changes to a gaseous form, when heated to a certain temperature.  Have the students answer the supplementary questions below.  Ask the students to share their observations of the experiment. Did the experiment match with their hypothesis? How did the heat transfer take place?

Questions:  An experiment involves a comparison and asks a question. What did you compare in this experiment? What question did you try to answer in this experiment?  Why did we label the jars A and B?  What happened to the water in Jar A (the jar in the sunlight)? Why do you think this happened?  What happened to the water in Jar B? Why do you think it reacted differently than Jar A?  What type of energy transfer do you think occurred in this experiment? In which direction did the energy flow? How do you know that the energy flowed in this direction?  What do you think would happen if you were to do the same experiment again, without changing anything?  Did you notice any patterns emerge in how the temperature rose?  Did the water in either jar ever reach an equilibrium temperature? If so, which jar reached the equilibrium? How long do you think the other jar would have taken to reach an equilibrium, and why?  What would happen if you were to conduct the same experiment on a hotter day?  How would the temperature gradients be impacted if the experiment was conducted on a colder day?  Critical Thinking: Why was it important for the same amount of water to be poured into both jars?  Critical Thinking: You recorded the amount of water you poured into the jars, and the amount of water that was in the jars at the end of the experiment. Was there a notable difference in any of the measurements? Why do you think this is? Did it impact both jars, or just one? What do you think caused the difference between the jars? Teacher Answer Sheet – on following page

Teacher Answer Sheet:  An experiment involves a comparison and asks a question. What did you compare in this experiment? What question did you try to answer in this experiment? We compared how quickly two jars of water absorbed heat when left in different locations. The question we tried to answer was what conditions were needed to make the water in the jar heat faster.  Why did we label the jars A and B? We labeled the jars so we can clearly differentiate them when we discuss our results and graph our data.  What happened to the water in Jar A (the jar in the sunlight)? Why do you think this happened? The water in jar A should have had a much higher temperature at the end of the experiment than jar B. This is because it was placed in direct sunlight.  What happened to the water in Jar B? Why do you think it reacted differently than Jar A? The water in jar B should have had a lower temperature than the water in jar A. This is because it was placed in the shade, and direct sunlight was unable to reach it; the shade thus interrupted the transfer of energy from the sun to the water.  What type of energy transfer do you think occurred in this experiment? In which direction did the energy flow? How do you know that the energy flowed in this direction? The energy transfer in this experiment was radiation. The energy flowed from the sunlight to the water in the jar. We know this because we saw the temperature of the water rise over time.  What do you think would happen if you were to do the same experiment again, without changing anything? The exact same thing should happen if we repeat the experiment without changing any variable.  Did you notice any patterns emerge in how the temperature rose? Answers will vary between students and the temperature of the day when the experiment was conducted, but in general the water temperature in jar A should have risen sharply in the first portion of the experiment, then risen slowly and eventually reached an equilibrium.  What would happen if you were to conduct the same experiment on a hotter day? The water in jar A would have gotten hotter.  How would the temperature gradients be impacted if the experiment was conducted on a colder day? The temperature differences between the two jars would be much smaller.  Critical Thinking: Why was it important for the same amount of water to be poured into both jars? Putting the same amount of water in each jar was important because it allowed the jar to be a controlled variable. In an experiment, it is important for most of the variables to be controlled, and for only one variable to be changed in the experiment. If we change more than one variable at a time, we don't know which variable impacted the experiments results. In this case, if there was less water in jar A than B, then the temperature in jar A would probably have risen faster than in jar B, which would have changed the pattern observed. If there was more water in jar A than B, then the temperature would have risen more slowly, since there would be more water for the sunlight to heat.  Critical Thinking: You recorded the amount of water you poured into the jars, and the amount of water that was in the jars at the end of the experiment. Was there a notable difference in any of the measurements? Why do you think this is? Did it impact both jars, or just one? What do you think caused the difference between the jars? If there was a notable difference in any of the measurements, it should be with jar A. This is because the exposure to direct sunlight caused some of the water to evaporate and escape in a gaseous form. Meanwhile, the shade should have prevented major evaporation from jar B. The hotter the day, the more evaporation should have occurred. (If the day was extremely dry as well as hot, it is possible for some water evaporation to have occurred in jar B as well).

Pre-Visit Activity: Molecules in Motion: Heated Molecules Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 PS3A, 6-8 PS3B, 6-8 PS3C, 6-8 SYSC, 6-8 INQC Objectives Students learn how heat is one form of energy, explore the properties of heat energy, and study the transfer of heat energy through a series of experiments. Students conduct experiments that visibly show examples of convective, conductive, and radiative heat transfer, and learn how and why some materials are better conductors of heat than others. Although this activity guide is designed to take a look at all three methods of thermal energy transfer in one lab session, they do not have to be completed in one lab session. One activity can be done per day over a three day period, or one activity could be chosen to demonstrate a single means of thermal energy transfer. Background Information Energy can be transmitted in several forms, such as light, sound, chemical, magnetic, kinetic, or heat. Heat is a by-product that energy gives off when it changes forms, reacts to its surroundings, or travels. Heat travels in very particular ways that we can measure and study. It will always travel from hot to cold (“cold” is actually just “the absence of heat,” not its own entity) areas or objects. Heat also wants to rise upwards, meaning that it is easier to heat something from the bottom than it is to heat it from the top. There are three types of thermal energy transfer: convection, conduction, and radiation. Convection is the transfer of heat between fluids or liquids, such as water or air. Since water and air have the properties of fluids, meaning that they do not have rigid structure and can change their shape, the heated molecules actually move themselves from one place to another, and take the heat with them.This is because, at the molecular level, heat causes molecules to move more and spread out. Because the molecules are spread out, they have less density, and so they rise. In contrast, cold air molecules shrink together, become more dense, and fall towards the surface, taking the place where the hot air previously was. This motion creates “convection currents” that we see in the atmosphere and in the ocean. Since heat wants to rise, hot air is always found near ceilings and second levels of buildings. Conduction involves the transfer of heat between solid objects. At the molecular level, the molecules closest to the heat source vibrates at a higher rate than the molecules further away from the heat source. As the closer molecules vibrate more, they give energy (heat energy) to their closest neighbors, who in turn begin vibrating at a faster rate. This transfer of energy takes place along all of the molecules in the object until the entire object is at the same temperature and the heat is evenly distributed. This is why cooking on the stove is an effective way to cook. However, not all objects are good conductors of heat. Metals are very good conductors; wood, styrofoam, and water are bad conductors of heat. Bad conductors of heat are called insulators. Radiation is the final type of heat transfer. Radiation transfer involves the movement of electromagnetic waves through space (or the lack of space). All objects radiate energy and heat – but some objects radiate much more than others. The radiation coming from hotter objects is much more intense than the radiation coming from cooler objects. The electromagnetic waves travel outwards from the object creating them. These waves are then absorbed by the objects that they encounter as a form of heat. Examples of radiation transfer include the sun, campfires, lightbulbs, and microwaves. An example of radiation is when you huddle closer to a friend in a cold room; the body heat you are sharing is a form of radiation heat. 80

Time Duration: Plan for an entire hour to go over the pre-lab, complete each station, and go over the post-lab. Materials This activity set can be done on a rotating basis, in order to save time and materials. Students will be paired, and will then rotate between the two stations. In order to gauge how many supplies will be needed, divide your class by four (pairing your students, and then dividing them between two stations). Unless otherwise noted, the resulting number is the amount of supplies you will need for each station. If it is too difficult to procure enough materials students can also work in groups of four. Convection Station:  One large, clear plastic tub, at least 12” long and 8” tall  Access to water at room temperature  Access to cold water  Access to hot water (near boiling)  Red and blue food coloring  Two cups Conduction Station:  Bunsen burner o NOTE: If bunsen burners are unavailable, a similar effect can be reached using a candle  Insulated gloves or oven mitts  Insulated Tongs  Heavy gauge steel wire, roughly 15 cm long  Wax – two to three clumps per student pair Radiation Station:  NOTE: This works best outside, on a hot sunny day, but has been adjusted here for inside classroom use.  Four pieces of chocolate per student group  Two plastic baggies per student group  Two spoons per student group  Heat lamp  Two clothespins per student group  String  Permanent Marker Activity Overview Pre-lab setup suggestions: At the Radiation Station, run a string across a room so that a portions runs underneath a heat lamp, and a portion does not. At the Conduction Station, wax will be continuously melted, so this station should be conducted over a surface that is easily cleaned (alternatively, lay down wax paper or newspaper for easy cleanup). While the students at the Radiation Station are waiting for their experiment to cook, show them the Convection station demonstration.

Introduction  Describe how energy can be conducted through many forms, such as kinetic, or movement, chemical, light, sound, electrical and thermal (heat). Thermal energy transfer will continue to occur until between two objects until both objects are the same temperature. Explain that there are three types of thermal energy exchange: convection, conduction, and radiation, and that the type of heat exchange that occurs will depend on the substances involved. Briefly explain how heat energy is transferred through these three types. 81

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Break the students into pairs and distribute them among the two stations. Tell the students that you will be timing the stations, and that they will have roughly 15 to 20 minutes at each station o NOTE: The Radiation Station will require 20 minutes to complete. The Conduction station will require less time to complete. Advise your students to use the extra time at the Conduction station to get a head start on the questions section. Use the wait time at the Radiation Station to conduct the Convection Station demonstration for those students.

Activity Elements Conduction Station  Place two to three clumps of wax onto the thick steel wire (this can be done by “skewering” the wax, or by pressing the wax down onto the wire). The wax clumps should be spaced evenly apart at roughly 4 inches.  Using appropriate safety measures, turn on and light the bunsen burners  Using the insulated gloves and the tongs, pick up the wire and hold one end over the bunsen burner flame.  The wax will begin to melt, starting with the piece closest to the flame. Students should note the rate of melting, how long it takes each clump of wax to start melting, how long it takes each clump of wax to fully melt off the wire, and their general observations of the process, as well as answer the supplementary questions. Radiation Station  Using the permanent marker, label one bag “A” and the other “B.”  Place two pieces of chocolate in each bag.  Secure bag A to the string underneath the heat lamp, and bag B away from the heat lamp. The bag away from the heat lamp must be placed near the shade, in order to limit energy transfer via convection or conduction within the room.  Make initial observations about the consistency of the two pieces of chocolate. Every five minutes, make new observations about the consistency of the two pieces of chocolate.  After fifteen to twenty minutes, remove the bags from the string and inspect both pieces of chocolate. Write down your observations. How has the consistency of each chocolate piece changed over time?  Now for the completely scientific part: finding out how the texture and taste of each piece of chocolate has changed. SLOWLY eat one of the chocolate squares from bag B. Describe the texture and taste of the square in your notes. Was it crunchy or chewy? What other food types could it be compared to?  Now, using a spoon, taste the chocolate from bag A. How has exposure to radiation heat changed the texture? Write down your observations.  Answer the supplementary questions. Convection Station Note: This station is set up as a demonstration, but could be modified into a third station.  While the students at the Radiation Station are waiting for their experiment to finish cooking, conduct the Convection Station demonstration.  Fill the plastic tub halfway with room temperature water.  Fill one of the two cups with extremely cold water. Add 8-10 drops of blue food coloring, and mix it into the water.  Fill the other cup with near-boiling water. Add 8-10 drops of red food coloring, and mix it into the water  Inform students that the two cups of water are different temperatures  Ask students for hypotheses about what will happen when you add the two cups of water to the tub.  Instruct the students to watch carefully for how the water reacts when they're poured into the tub.  Place one cup at one end of the tub, and the other cup at the opposite end. Pour the two cups into the tub of water at these opposite ends, at the same time.  Have the students watch the reaction and record what happens. 82

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Time how long it takes for the cold blue water and the hot red water to mix together in the larger tub. You will know this has happened because the food coloring will turn purple. Explain that this is a visual example of heat moving via convection. Hot fluids (in this case, air) rise, while cold fluids sink; this is mirrored in how the heated and chilled water reacted in the larger tub (the chilled water sank to the bottom of the tub, while the heated water stayed near the surface of the tub). Heated fluids expand, which causes them to be less dense than chilled fluids. Because of the difference in density, heated fluids rise while cold fluids fall. This creates convection currents, which is the third way that fluids travel.

Activity Summary  Ask students to explain what they observed at each station. Ask them to compare and contrast the ways that the heat transfer took place.  Review each type of heat transfer, and what makes each type of heat transfer different. Ask for examples of conduction, convection, and radiation. Give your students an object, and ask them the best ways to heat that object. Give your students scenarios of different types of heating, and ask them what type of heating is occurring. NOTE: It is possible for more than one type of heat to occur at once! For instance, campfires exhibit all three types of heat transfer. Conduction occurs when the wood burns, radiation occurs when you absorb the heat coming from the fire, and convection occurs when the heated air above the fire rises, and colder air rushes in to replace it. Questions  What are the three methods of heat transfer called?  Conduction means that heat is transferred through __________.  Describe what happens at the molecular level in conduction.  Hot air __________, while cold air ________. Which station demonstrated this?  At one station, you placed a square of chocolate under a heat source, and one square of chocolate away from a heat source. o Describe what happened to the chocolate when it was left in the sun or under the lamp. o How is chocolate left in the sun an example of heat transfer? o How does this type of heat transference take place?  Draw pictures of the three different types of heat transfer that were demonstrated in this lab. In all three pictures, make sure you show and label the following: the source of heat energy; the direction in which the heat energy is traveling; the object(s) that experiences the heat; and where or how that energy dissolves.  Describe the major differences between all three methods of heat transference.  Which type of heat transference is best for cooking? What about heating your house? Teacher Answer Guide – on following page

Teacher Answer Guide  What are the three methods of heat transfer called? The three types of heat transfer are convection, conduction, and radiation.  Conduction means that heat is transferred through __________. Direct contact with other objects.  Describe what happens at the molecular level in conduction. Adding energy (heating) to atoms and molecules increases their motion, which results in a higher temperature. During conduction, faster moving molecules contact slower moving molecules and transfer energy to them. These slower moving molecules then speed up, and the faster moving molecules then slow down. If you keep adding energy (heat), all of the molecules will eventually be moving at the same rate (ex, a heated pot on the stove).  Hot air __________, while cold air ________. Which station demonstrated this? Hot air rises while cold air falls, or stays closer to the ground. The convection demonstration demonstrated this.  At one station, you placed a square of chocolate under a heat source, and one square of chocolate away from a heat source. o Describe what happened to the chocolate when it was left in the sun or under the lamp. The chocolate left in the sun or under the lamp would have melted. o How is chocolate left in the sun an example of heat transfer? o How does this type of heat transference take place?  Draw pictures of the three different types of heat transfer that were demonstrated in this lab. In all three pictures, make sure you show and label the following: the source of heat energy; the direction in which the heat energy is traveling; the object(s) that experiences the heat; and where or how that energy dissolves.  Conduction: Heat energy originated from the bunsen burner. It travelled from the bunsen burner to the wire, and from the wire to the tongs and the pieces of wax. The wax experiences the heat, and the heat “dissolves” by melting the wax.  Convection: Heat energy originated from the red-dyed water. The red-dyed water is poured into the plastic tub. The heat travelled along the surface of the water, slowly mixing into the lukewarm water. You can see this happening as the color dissipates throughout the water. The object that experiences the heat is the lukewarm water. The heat dissipates by spreading throughout the water.  Radiation: Radiation is heat transfer through electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves are traveling outward from a source. In this demonstration, that source is the sun or the lamp you used. These waves travel through space, and do not involve the movement or interaction of matter. The energy from these electromagnetic waves is then absorbed by the objects that the waves hit (the chocolate).  Which type of heat transference is best for cooking quickly? Why? What about heating your house? Why?  The type of heat transfer best for cooking is conduction. This is because the direct contact with the energy results in the energy being spread throughout the object evenly and as quickly as possible. The type of heat transfer best for heating your house is convection. This is because convection carries heat through fluids and air. The “circular” motion of hot air and cold air makes it easy to warm the house without using excess energy.

Post-Lesson Activity: Molecules in Motion: Insulation Station Grade Level: 6-8 Washington State Standards 6-8 PS3C, 6-8 INQC, 6-8 INQD, 6-8 INQG Objectives Students understand how insulation works to block the flow of thermal energy from a light bulb, and how conductive materials allow free flow of thermal energy to other substances. Students also understand how maintaining variables and writing down experiment results can positively impact the scientific process. Background Information Energy can be simply defined as “available power within a substance.” Some forms of energy include: sound; heat and light; chemical; kinetic (motion); magnetic; and electric. Each form of energy can be transformed into any of the other forms of energy. Energy is never “destroyed” or “created” – rather, energy “lost” can always be accounted for in transformations into other types of energy. Heat is energy that is transferred from one body (object) to another by thermal interactions. It is not an inherent property of any body, but results from a process or reaction from other types of energy. Heat will always flow from hot systems to cool systems, such as heat from a stove transferring to a cold pot. At the molecular level, molecules vibrate faster and spread out more as a reaction to the presence of heat. Heat will always move towards colder objects in an attempt to disperse the buildup of energy. There are three primary methods of thermal energy transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction occurs between solid objects or substances that are in direct contact with each other. Convection refers to the transfer of heat between liquids or gases, which create a convection current. Radiation occurs when electromagnetic waves travel through space, or a vacuum, and transfer heat energy to objects they encounter. A conductor is a material or object that permits the free flow of energy between atoms and molecules throughout that object. A conductive material allows the charge to flow throughout the material and be evenly distributed across the surface. At the molecular level, particles vibrate in reaction to being heated; as particles near the source of heat vibrate, these vibrations cause nearby particles to start vibrating as well. These vibrations will eventually pass through the material to the other side, where the heat can then pass on to other objects. Good conductors also allow the flow of energy from a charge to pass through them and onto a secondary object. For instance, if you are boiling a pot of water in a metal pot, and you try to remove its lid, the heat energy from the pot will travel through the lid and into your hand. Examples of conductors include: metals, especially silver, gold, and copper; graphite; aqueous salt solutions; and water (a good conductor of electricity, but NOT of thermal heat!). A thermal insulator (insulation from heat) is an object that prevents heat from moving from one place to another. Unlike conductors, insulators do not permit the flow of electrons from atom to atom or molecule to molecule. Because of this, the heat “charge” does not move from the surface of the contact point between the source of heat and the insulation material, and the charge does not move evenly across the surface of the material. For instance, if you pick up a hot metal lid with a rubber glove, the heat flow stops at the surface of the rubber glove, and the transfer of energy never reaches your hand. This is because rubber is an excellent insulator. Other examples of insulators include wood, plastic (especially of energy, less of heat), styrofoam, glass, and dry air. Insulation and conductive materials exist in a spectrum – that is, some are better than others at insulating or conducting various types of energy. Some are good at insulating or conducting multiple types of energy. Others are poor at insulating or conducting one type, but excellent at a different type. For instance, water is an excellent thermal insulator, and an 85

equally excellent electricity conductor. Water's atomic arrangement stops the flow of thermal heat energy, but is incredibly conductive to the flow of electrical energy. Metals are good at both thermal and electric energy conduction. Rubber is good at both thermal and electric insulation. This experiment demonstrates the insulation properties and conductive properties of certain objects. Using a light bulb and thermometer, students study how well insulation materials block the flow of energy across their surfaces, and how well conductive materials permit the flow of energy across their surfaces. Materials (Per student group)  60 watt light bulb, plugged in or hooked to a miniature generator  Thermometer  Pencil  Graph paper  Various insulation materials – rubber gloves, Styrofoam, piece of wood, piece of glass, piece of plastic, oven mitt, etc. - all of the relative same thickness  A handful of conductive materials, such as tinfoil and copper plating. Time Duration: Fifteen minutes to explain the background and introduce the topic, up to forty-five minutes to complete the experiment. Activity Overview Introduction  Ask students if they have ever had a hot drink served to them in a styrofoam cup (the answer will probably be yes, but if it's no, use the example of hot chocolate), or if they've ever had a cold drink in a styrofoam cup. Have them speculate about why this material (styrofoam) might be used to serve both hot and cold beverages.  Explain that styrofoam keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold for a longer time period than paper cups – this is why it's a commonly used material in restaurants. Styrofoam acts as an insulator – an object with an innate property to “block” the flow of heat from one object to another. This allows for a much slower “loss” or “gain” of heat from other sources.  Ask students for other examples of insulation in their daily lives. Possible examples include insulation in the house to help keep it warm/cold, rubber gloves or oven mitts that their parents might use during cooking, and wool/winter coats.  Explain how the process of insulation and conduction work on a molecular level (see background information).  Introduce the experiment and break students into groups of two to four. Activity Elements  Practicing all lab safety rules, plug in the light bulb and turn it on. Hold the thermometer so that you are not influencing its temperature, and touch the thermometer to the lightbulb. Watch for when the temperature reading reached an equilibrium point.  Write down the equilibrium temperature of the light bulb.  Choose one of the insulation materials, and hold it between the light bulb and the thermometer. All three should be actually touching each other at the same contact point. Watch the temperature on the thermometer fall over time, and note when it seems to have reached an equilibrium.  Write down the insulation material and its equilibrium temperature.  Repeat steps 3 and 4 for all of the materials. You should do your best to use the same lightbulb and thermometer contact points for each material.  Note which materials are better at blocking the heat than others. Write down your observations. How do the materials seem to react to the surface of the light bulb?  Turn off the light bulb, and put away all other supplies in their appropriate places. 86

Activity Summary  Have the students answer the questions below.  Explain to students that if an object is good at insulating heat, by extension that same object is a poor heat conductor. Examples of good heat conductions would be metals, such as the copper used in this experiment, silver, and gold.  Explain to students that there are different types of insulators for different types of energy. For instance, paper, glass, and plastic are semi-good heat energy insulators, but they are great electric energy insulators. Water is a great heat insulator, but a very bad electrical energy insulator (in fact, it's a very good electricity CONDUCTOR). Some insulators are good at blocking both heat and electrical energy, such as wood and rubber. Questions  Using the graph paper, create a bar graph that shows the insulation properties of each material.  Which insulation material was the best to use in this experiment? Which was the worst?  The tinfoil and copper plating probably reacted a lot differently than the styrofoam, wood, and rubber. Why do you think this is?  Explain in your own words how conductors allow the flow of energy across their surfaces.  Explain in your own words how insulators block the flow of energy across their surfaces.  Insulators and conductors are used around us every day. Name three examples where you would use insulators in your daily life, and three examples where you would use conductors in your daily life.  This experiment used controlled variables and uncontrolled variables. Identify the controlled and uncontrolled variables in this experiment, and explain why the controlled variables had to remain the same. Teacher Answer Guide  Using the graph paper, create a bar graph that shows the insulation properties of each material.  Which insulation material was the best to use in this experiment? Which was the worst?Answers may vary depending on each student's experiment, but in general the styrofoam or the rubber should have been the best insulation material. Depending on how the student reads the question, the worst insulator could be the tinfoil or copper plating.  The tinfoil and copper plating probably reacted a lot differently than the styrofoam, wood, and rubber. Why do you think this is? Tinfoil and copper plating are very poor insulators, and are very good conductors – the surface of these materials allows energy to be distributed quickly and evenly across their surfaces.  Explain in your own words how conductors allow the flow of energy across their surfaces. Answers will vary, but students should be able to explain that the presence of thermal energy causes particles to vibrate at faster speeds; these particles then encounter particles vibrating at lower speeds, and pass on their energy, until the thermal heat is evenly distributed across the object.  Explain in your own words how insulators block the flow of energy across their surfaces. Answers will vary, but students should be able to explain that insulators prohibit the flow of energy across the object's surface.  Insulators and conductors are used around us every day. Name two examples where you would use insulators in your daily life, and two examples where you would use conductors in your daily life. Answers will vary between students, but some examples include insulation in the house, a cooler, or clothing, and conductors in cooking or electrical equipment.  This experiment used controlled variables and uncontrolled variables. Identify the controlled and uncontrolled variables in this experiment, and explain why the controlled variables had to remain the same. Examples of the controlled variables include: using the same light bulb, using the same general spot on the light bulb as the temperature gauge, and using the same spot on the thermometer. Uncontrolled variables include all of the insulators and conductors used for this experiment. It is important for control variables to remain the same so that it is known that only one variable change is affecting the outcome. If more than one variable changes, it is unknown which variable influenced the outcome the most. In this scenario, while it is unlikely, the lightbulb may give off different temperature readings at different spots. For instance, the bulb may have a higher temperature above the bulb than to the side of the bulb. 87