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Part 2: Critical Issues and Paths Forward
Canada’s colonial past has formed the critical issues of the colonial present that face Indigenous young men and boys. While there is much diversity among this group, there are also
many recurring patterns in the challenges that they face. Indigenous boys and young men are unquestionably over-represented when it comes to a myriad of physical, emotional, and social issues (Biderman et al, 2021; Hacket et al, 2021). Despite how these trends would appear to demand urgent and immediate action, there are not a corresponding number of programs and
initiatives aimed at preventing these issues. This is starkly apparent in both the gray and academic literature pertaining to prevention of issues among Indigenous boys and young men.
The lack of literature on this subject also speaks to this blind spot. While few of the sources reviewed in the following section pertain specifically to boys and young men (due to the limited availability of such sources), we consider that literature on Indigenous men generally is also
very pertinent to the lives of young men. Below, some of the critical issues that this group faces are explored, and then some promising paths in research and interventions are considered.
Boys and Young Men
The quantity of research on young men Indigenous men specifically is considerably
smaller than that on Indigenous men more generally. However, what does exist shows that Indigenous male youth face enormous obstacles to good health and wellbeing. Colonialism and
racism have led to such critical mental health issues that suicide has become an epidemic among Indigenous youth across the country (Kumar & Tjepkema, 2019; Kral, 2013). In Nunavut, the suicide rate is one of the highest in the world. Rates of suicide among male youth in that province are up to ten times higher than the national Canadian average (Kral, 2013). Among First Nations male youth, it is four times higher than the national average, although ten times higher for those male youth who reside on reserves (Kumar & Tjepkema, 2019). Another area where Indigenous youth are over-represented is homelessness. In particular, LGBTQ2I youth are most at risk for experiencing homelessness (Kidd et al, 2018).
Mental Health, Substance Use, and Sexual Health
Many sources show that Indigenous men are overrepresented when it comes to various health issues (Biderman et al, 2021; George et al, 2019; Government of Canada, 2020; Ontario Federation of Indigenous Friendship Centres, 2016). The Ontario Federation of Indigenous Friendship Centres (2016) issued a position statement on urban Indigenous health which
showed that Indigenous peoples in Canada suffer more from a variety of illness and diseases (premature death, chronic conditions) compared to non-Indigenous peoples. Suicide rates and mental illness can be found more among Indigenous men (George et al, 2019), and the life expectancy for Indigenous men is 10 years below that of non-Indigenous men (Government of Canada, 2020). In terms of sexual health, there are higher rates of STI’s, sexual violence, and
teen parenthood among Indigenous men compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts (Biderman et al, 2021). The systemic barriers that Indigenous peoples face in the health care
system make these issue worse.
Health and Social Service Inadequacies
Systemic discrimination in health services across Canada is a critical issue and has
received more attention in mainstream conversations since the high-profile murder of Joyce Echaquan in September 2020 in Quebec (Wylie et al, 2021). Many studies that focus on
Indigenous men’s health confirm this, and report on them experiencing discrimination when seeking out health and social services (George et al, 2019; Ontario Federation of Indigenous Friendship Centres, 2016). Additional barriers, such as financial cost and a lack of culturally grounded and nearby available resources compound these issues and make it harder for Indigenous men to receive the help they need when experiencing mental and/or physical health issues (George et al, 2019; George et al, 2021). These challenges are all layered with the
additional harmful yet pervasive notion that asking for help is often considered to be weak and therefore not masculine (Hackett et al, 2021). Given the already high rates of health issues among Indigenous peoples the need to create health and social systems that meet the needs of
Indigenous peoples is especially urgent.
Incarceration and Crime: The Colonial Present
Canada’s prisons have been referred to as the ‘new residential schools’ (MacDonald, 2016) because of the ways in which colonial policies continue to impact and punish Indigenous
peoples, and shape the conditions of their lives, resulting in their major over-representation Canada’s correctional services. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015) has also
pointed to residential schools as being at the root of the current overincarceration of Indigenous peoples. In 2016/ 2017, Indigenous male youth made up 47% of those admitted into carceral institutions in Canada and Indigenous male adults made up 28% (Malakieh, 2018).
Considering Indigenous peoples account for only 4% of the population in Canada, they are disproportionately represented. The same can be said for Indigenous women. Substance abuse,
violence, and poverty, which are all issues that stem from harmful colonial policies and institutions, are part of the reason Indigenous men are over-represented, as is institutional and individual racism and profiling (Piché, 2015), and as such, any discussion of the incarceration of Indigenous men must account for Canada’s colonial past. It is important to note that Indigenous
men also make up a sizable percentage of the victims of violent crimes. For example, in 2018,
Indigenous peoples made up a staggering 22% of all homicide victims in Canada, 69% of which are male (Government of Canada, 2019).
Land-based Programming
Land-based programs are an example of culturally based programming that has shown a
lot of promise for improving the wellbeing of Indigenous men and boys. Hacket and colleagues (2021) write about how traditionally, land-based skills were central to Indigenous notions of
masculinities. Bidwewidam Indigenous Masculinities, a project that was carried out between 2011 and 2013 across Canada to encourage conversation between Indigenous men about
masculinities, and to create a network of researchers, program and policy makers and community members, echoed this praise for land-based programs (Innes and Anderson, 2015). Themes that emerged from the Bidwewidam Indigenous Masculinites project were around
roles and responsibilities, culture, relationships, community, and land. Three of the eight men and boys’ groups that participated in Bidwewidam Indigenous Masculinities mentioned
specifically how land-based programs to teach young people traditional value systems instill
positive notions of masculinity because of the sense of responsibility, respect, and relationship building that is so central to land-based activities. In Nunavut, the Young Hunters’ program,
which is a land-based program that teaches young boys about sustainable harvesting, has been effective in preventing suicide, according to community members (Movember, 2019). Land-
based healing interventions have also been recognized as being beneficial to the community as a whole, and thus these interventions do not always necessarily target one gender specifically but rather all community members (Redvers et al, 2021).
Participatory and Arts-based Research
Participatory and arts-based research is increasingly emerging to build culturally relevant knowledge for marginalized communities, including Indigenous young men (Doria et al, 2019; George et al, 2019; Henry and Tait, 2016). Graphic facilitation and photovoice are two
research methods that have been used in research among Indigenous young men. Given the lack of research that has historically been done ‘by and for’ Indigenous communities, these methodologies may have transformative knowledge-building potential (Doria et al, 2019) as they allow for a greater distribution of power among researchers and participants since
participants have greater voice. This can improve the experience of knowledge production for those involved and allow for knowledge creation that is more useful and relevant to
communities participating.
Photovoice for Building Knowledge About Gangs
Robert Henry, an Indigenous scholar who focuses on Indigenous street gangs, identity, and masculinity, used photovoice as a research method to better understand the lives of
Indigenous men in street gangs. Participants for the project were recruited from STR8 UP, an organization based in Saskatoon that aims to help people transition out of gangs. Henry
provided participants with digital cameras which they then used to take photos related to their lives and identities. This method was used to engage his participants more in the research
process and help them consider difficult topics and experiences. Henry and Tait (2016) noted,
“through reflexivity, photovoice methods can then be used as a tool to support Indigenous male ex-gang members as they reflect back on their life history and the connections to
masculinity, identity, and street gangs.” Photovoice, in this context, was used to try to value the expertise research participants have. This method provided a rich way to examine a topic which
is difficult to study, due to the understandable reluctance of gang members about divulging information about their gang membership. Through photovoice, this project helped develop
knowledge that is culturally relevant on a topic that is often studied only through the lens of either the criminal justice system or people who work with gang members, and not those who are in gangs themselves (Henry and Tait, 2016).
Photovoice for Wellness
In Kettle and Stony Point First Nation, a First Nation community in Ontario, a wellness program was created from a participatory action research (PAR) project with men who had sought services for mental illness, substance abuse, and/or violence (George et al, 2021). This
participatory action research project used photovoice used to deepen knowledge of men’s health and wellness and gather the information needed for developing a wellness program.
Themes that emerged from the project photos included the need for decolonizing healthcare and focusing wellness and healing around spirituality and cultural identity. This project led to
the creation of Mishoomsinaang Mentorship Program, a culturally grounded health and wellness mentorship program for men and boys (George et al, 2021). This research project process provided space for Indigenous men and boys to advocate for their own needs and act
on pressing issues that they were facing.
Graphic Facilitation for Sexual Health
Graphic facilitation was used a way to explore issues related to Indigenous boys and men’s sexual health in study done with Indigenous community members from Atlantic Canada in Halifax, Nova Scotia (Doria et al, 2019). This project entailed a graphic designer recording
what participants said using words and drawings during a conversation about sexual health.
Oral and visual storytelling are central to Indigenous ways of knowing, so in this way this
method was culturally relevant. Graphic facilitation also provided transparency, and showed that conversations were being accurately recorded, so participants had more control over the narrative than in traditional research (Doria et al, 2019). Given the history of research in Indigenous communities often being done by non-Indigenous people who do not necessarily
have a good understand of community issues, this participant-led method is one that can help build trust that the information that is being collected is accurate, which in turn, can lead to
more relevant and useful knowledge creation for Indigenous communities.
In Eskasoni, Nova Scotia, a research project was carried out with young men between
the ages of 18 and 23 to further knowledge around solutions to sexual violence. Building on work previously done by young Indigenous men and women beginning in 2016 in the context of
the research project Networks for Change and Wellbeing, this youth-led project “aimed at initiating conversations around relationships, community and violence as it relates to sex, sexuality, and sexual violence” (Living by the Seven Sacred Teachings, n.d.). Through reflective activities such as body maps and solution trees, participants identified what positive notions of
masculinity are. Some key findings that emerged around masculinity aligned with Indigenous Seven Sacred Teachings, such as being supportive, empathetic, and confident. Having role
models within the community were identified as being critical to build these traits and skills
that support healthy development of masculinity.
