Islam in a Nutshell

Islam in a Nutshell Contents Articles History of Islam! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

History of Islam!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Spread of Islam!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Beliefs of Islam ! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Islam! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Afterlife in Islam! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Akhirah!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Jannah!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Barzakh!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Islamic view of the Last Judgment!

Belief in Life After Death! !

!

Islam After Life and Salvation Islamic Beliefs About the Afterlife

References Article Sources and Contributors!

Article Licenses License

History of Islam History of Islam The history of Islam is the history of the Muslim people. Muslims are adherents of Islam. They have impacted political history, economic history, and military history. Following its origin in Mecca and Medina, the Islamic world expanded to include people of the Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization.

Three centuries after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Arab Caliphates extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Ghaznavids, Seljuqs, Safavids, Mughals, and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early Modern period.

Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member) were partitioned into several nations under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.

Modern interpretations of Islamic texts advocate the unification of religion and state ruled by a Caliph.

Such a polity has not existed since the early Islamic city-states and universal imperial period beginnings.

The common slogan al-islam dinun was dawlatun` (translation: Islam is a religion and a state) is neither a Koranic verse nor a quote from the hadith, but a 19th century political Salafi slogan popularized in opposition to Western Egyptian influence.[1] Such a recent origin was a handicap for a belief system bound by the scripture revealed, and the ways of those who lived, twelve centuries earlier.

Although affected by ideologies such as communism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization changed the influence of Islam on the 21st century.[2]

Major periods The Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stages.[3] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the early period of the Middle Ages. The "Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of the Middle Ages.

The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century.

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.

Further information: Timeline of Muslim history History of Islam 2

Islamic Origins In pre-Islamic Arabia Arab people lived in the Arabian Plate. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of Middle Ages Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Mohammed belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba was an important pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of

the Quraysh clan,[4] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).

According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with revelations to Muhammad Koranic revelations in 610. The history of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The rise of Islam began around the time the Muslims took flight in the Hijra, moving to Medina. With Islam, blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood or only the culprit was executed.

In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.

City-states and Imperial period After Muhammed died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn alKhattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan (644-656), Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.[5] Afterwards, factions arose and the last two Rashidun caliphs were murdered. The death of Uthman was followed by a civil war known as the First Fitna, and the succession to Ali ibn Abi Talib was disputed, leading to the split between the Sunni and Shia sects, and later to competing caliphates when the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and Ali set up separate Fatimid societies.

After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,[6] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[7] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[7] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[8] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[9] Succession and Umayyad accession Muhammad Kaaban NakkaĹ&#x; Osman, Istanbul (1595) (Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)

History of Islam 3 Consult particular article for details

The Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the greatgrandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,[10][11] Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.

The Umayyads viewed Islam as a religion exclusively for Arabs. The Umayyads paid for the state by taxing the Dhimmis. A non-Arab who wanted to convert was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, non-Arabs (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5000000 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong' km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[12] and the fifth largest

contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of CĂłrdoba, which lasted until 1031.

City-states and Imperial period Conquest Arabs/Saracens/Up to the death of Mohammed, 632 Under the first three caliphs, 632–656 Ommiad Califs, 661-750 Boundary of the Califate of the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire

History of Islam 4 Caliphs at Damascus Consult particular article for details Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[13] slandering the Prophet's family[14] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.

[15] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. and the allah is there god of there reign During the caliphate of Yazid, Muslims suffered several setbacks. In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[16] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[17] With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.[18] They also lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete.

The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.

Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Ummayad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.

Dome of the Rock The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.

Umayyad Mosque The Great Mosque of Damascus was built by Al-Walid; completed by the time of the succession of Sulayman.

History of Islam 5 Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn alMuhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat.

Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed

him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

Sulayman's successor Umar II strictly enforced Sharia.[19] He abolished the Jizya tax for converts, who had been taxed even after conversion under other Umayyad rulers. Umar II ordered the first official collection of hadith material, fearing that some might be lost. Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm and Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri are among those who did so.[20] Umar also sent Ibn Hatim ibn al-Nu'man to repel Turks invading Azerbaijan. He faced Kharijite uprising and preferred negotiations to armed conflict, personally holding talks with two Kharijite envoys shortly before his death. He recalled the troops besieging Constantinople, a serious blow to Umayyad prestige.

Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[21] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[22] Hisham died in 743.

Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[23] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[24] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty The Second Arab siege of Constantinople from the 14th-century Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle.

History of Islam 6 there. Further information: Byzantine–Arab Wars

Universal period and decentralization Islamic Golden Age The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[25] The ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Ummayads, cultured by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.[26] [27] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age".[28] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution), and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813) and their immediate successors.[29] Universal Golden period Decentralized territory

Islamic States Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820)

Regions are approximate, consult particular article for details.

History of Islam 7 Baghdad became the capital (moved Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[29] At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.[30][31] Abbasid influence had been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.[29] Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[25] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[25] The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Islamic faith and mosques separated by doctrine, history, and practice were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking both their moral character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".[32] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. The achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[33] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world beyond their control would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.) The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[34] In early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in [The Decisive Treatise providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology, thus Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[35][36] Golden Baghdad Abbasids Early Middle Ages Consult particular article for details According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.

In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims.

Islam nearly History of Islam 8

doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father Al-Hadi was very open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the progressive policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts.

The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled. His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom") and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakids family played a decisive role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during his rule.

According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General l Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.

Regional powers The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.[37] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[38] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.

High Baghdad Abbasids Early Middle Ages Consult particular article for details Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun grew the Abbasid empire somewhat during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[39] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating AlMa'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy.

Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna (the Abbasid inquisition) which he introduced in 833, An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.

History of Islam 9 four months before he died.[40] The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of AlMa'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[41] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the

breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn AlMa'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slavesoldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.

During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tributes and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed

by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.

Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists.

He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.

History of Islam 10 Minaret at the Great Mosque of Samarra.

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra[42] as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of the walled royal hunting park. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shī‘i faced repression embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ‘Alī, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication.

During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.

•!

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator; •!

Ibn Fadlan, explorer; •! Al Battani, astronomer; •!Tabari, historian and theologian; •!

Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist; •! Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher; •! Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician; •!

Alhazen, mathematician; •!

Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist; •!

Omar Khayyám, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;

High Abbasids Jurisprudence •••• Four constructions of Islamite law Abu Hanifa (Iraq teacher) Malik bin Anas (Medina Imam) Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (Egyptian Iman) Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad teacher)

Early Abbasids Literature and Science History of Islam 11 •!

Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher

Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. AlMu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. AlMuhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned alMuwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded

by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. AlMu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.

Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. AlMu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors.

For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slavegirl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided acoss the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[43] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, AlMuqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (Amir al-Umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s, ʻAlī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded the Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ʻAlī was able to recruit an

army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming History of Islam 12 de facto independent.[44] Middle Baghdad Abbasids Early High Middle Ages Consult particular article for details At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. Bajkam, Amir al-Umara, contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanid. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir ad-Daula advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became Amir al-Umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger.

Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.

Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Tthrough the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia.

Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.

The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Buwayhid dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Byzantine Mediterrean Region and the States of the Crusades Regional States, ca. 1180.

Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims •••• Ibn Rushd (Averoes), philosopher; al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian) philosopher; Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet; Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician, philosopher, and scientist

History of Islam 13 Emperor John Tzimisces's attacked and deposed Al-Ta'i.

By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent. Al-Qadir was recalled and appointed to the office. During his Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the createdness of the Qurʾan. He outlawed the Muʿtazila. During this and the next period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.

During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power.

Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from

the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.

Late Baghdad Abbasids Late High Middle Ages Consult particular article for details The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the First Crusade in Syria. Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle of Manzikert.

The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Frankss (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.

Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[45] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundered Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Al-Aqsa Mosque Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985 Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque

History of Islam 14 Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.

After the siege of Damascus (1134),[46] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[47] His son, AlRashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowe4d al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.

The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.

An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.

Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ă–gedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.[48] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[49] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[50]

Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

Cairo Abbasid Caliphs Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo Late Middle Ages Consult particular article for details The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.

History of Islam 15

Fatimid Empire The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 by ‘Abdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ‘Alī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the first Shī‘a Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[51] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, [Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[52] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.

Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[53] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[54] Fatimid caliphs Early and High Middle Ages Consult particular article for details Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above) During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of information gatherers helped update Al Mahdi on each development which took place in North Africa.

Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards The Al-Hakim Mosque Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh "Islamic Cairo" building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Gamali.

History of Islam 16 north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.

Berbers and Iberian Umayyads The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[55] The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus.

After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there.

By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba (912-961).[56] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961.

He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[57] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[58] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[59] The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[60] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[61] The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs.

History of Islam 17 Emirs of Córdoba Consult particular article for details Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt.

Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl

refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.[62] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. Near the end of his life, it is said that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and sequestered himself in his palaces.

Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Córdoba, he built many mosques and completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.

Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman III repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba.

Thereafter he constructed a fleet and The exterior of the Mezquita.

History of Islam 18 naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.

Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.

Caliphs at Córdoba Consult particular article for details Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.

Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia Consult particular article for details Ifriqiyah,!

Iberian History of Islam

19 Almohad caliphs

The Crusades Consult particular article for details Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after Battle of HattinList of Crusades Early period · First Crusade 1095–1099 · Second Crusade 1147– 1149 · Third Crusade 1187–1192 Low Period · Fourth Crusade 1202–1204 · Fifth Crusade 1217–1221 · Sixth Crusade 1228–1229 Late period · Seventh Crusade 1248–1254 · Eighth Crusade 1270 · Ninth Crusade 1271–1272

Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, Tripoli and Jerusalem.

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the are in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.

In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; preventing them from further expansion into Christendom and targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.

Ayyubid dynasty The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan asSalih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.

History of Islam 20 Sultans of Egypt Consult particular article for details Sultans and Emirs of Damascus Emirs of Aleppo Consult particular article for details Consult particular article for details

Mongol invasions After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols ended to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.

With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, alMusta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at

around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260.

Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[63][64][65] In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found had many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.

The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, studying the Quran.

History of Islam 21

The Mamluks In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and control the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[66] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).

As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored numerous religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo survive, particularly in Old Cairo.

Bahri Sultans Consult particular article for details A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the accession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.

[31] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.

Burji Sultans Eastern Mediterranean 1450

Consult particular article for details See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.

History of Islam 22

African region The first continent outside of Arabia to have an Islamic history was Africa, particularly Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea).

Maghreb region Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the Great Mosque of Kairouan[67] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[68]

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I. The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide area of NorthWestern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.

The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with AlAndalus.

East African region Islam came to East Africa along existing trade routes.[69] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs. Islam in East Africa dates back to the hijra; in 615, a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Abyssinia (an act known as the First migration to Abyssinia), which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king named al-Najashi (Negus, King of Abyssinia). The people overthrew the current ruler. Islamic tradition states that the first muezzin, Bilal al-Habeshi, was a companion of Muhammad from Abyssinia (Habasha).[70] East African Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to East Africa. In pre-colonial East Africa, the structure of Islamic authority was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[71] The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was founded in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of Kairouan, Tunisia.

History of Islam 23 West African region Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.

Asia and the Far East South Asia On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muhammad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in Hijra 5 (629).

Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.

In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.

China Further information: History of Islam in China In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the Chittagong–Kamrup–Manipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed

for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.

Southeast Asia Many of historian predict that Islam reached South East Asia, espescially western part of Indonesia Archipelago on the 13th Century. But, More than Two Thousands years ago Arab traders from Yaman had been connected to other far east Asia through trading and traveling by sea. The trader from Arab is the intermediary trader between Europe to African, Indian, South East Asian, and Far East Asian, including Japan and China. They were not just sold goods from Arab, but also goods from Africa, India, and so on, such as ivory, fragrance, spice, seasoning, gold, etc.[72] Islam reached the islands of Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the first century of Islamic Calendar or in the 7th century.[31] The traders who also a good Islamic Believers was mingled to native. In their interaction, many of the native in south east Asia adopt Islam as their new faith. Because Islam offer them more freedom of speech, freedom of faith, and also freedom of caste in society.

The Taj Mahal

History of Islam 24 There are many strong possibility that Islam had been spread by Arab traders to South East Asia in the 1st Century of Islamic Calendar or 7th Century of Christian/Gregorian Calendar. This Fact is much stronger, according to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam - In the 2nd Century of Islamic Calender (Hijri), Arab trader had been trade to Ceylon or Srilangka (island in southern part of India). The same argument has been told by Prof.Dr. B.H. Burger and Prof.Dr.Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[73] There are more possibility that Islam was spread by Arab Traders to South East Asia. According to Al Biruni, the Muslim Scholar Geographical Experty, 973 - 1048 AD, in his World Atlas written that Indian or Indonesia Ocean used to be call as Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled, it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[74] Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay.

Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[75] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince in the Malay peninsula. Through trade and commerce, Islam spread to Borneo and Java, Indonesia. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines.[76] As Islam spread from 7th Century AD, the social changes had been developed, from the individual faith changes to society changes. Soon, after five centuries of mingled and interraced with assimilation and acculturation with the native south east Asia society, Islam was emerged as political power in the region.

So, as Islam spread, three main Muslim political powers emerged. Aceh, the most important Muslim power, was based in Northern Sumatra. It controlled much of the area between Southeast Asia and India.

The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak was the third power, appearing in Java, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[77] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[31] Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Brunei established themselves as centers of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei's sultanate remains intact even to this day.[31]

Fragmentation period Three Early Modern empires In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughul Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration.[78] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.

Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary states. In the contemporary National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had

armistice or peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality to tributary states.

History of Islam 25

Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[31][79] The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries.

Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[31][79] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort.

During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[79]

Safavid Empire The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region's official religion and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.

Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.

In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removing casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.

Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (unknown operator: u'strong' m2).[80] Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India.

Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli Jabbador, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the two Georgian figures with their names at the top left.

History of Islam 26

Ottoman Empire The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the Mongol invasion.[81] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.[82] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.[83] Victory at the Battle of

Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.[84] Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.[31] Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II renamed it Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[31] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[78] In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman Empire. The rapid European industrialization thereafter sent it into a relative decline.[31][85]

Modern history The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powers globalized economically and colonized much of the region.

The Suleiman Mosque (Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in 1557

History of Islam 27 Ottoman Empire partition By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).

Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted HinduArabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.[86] Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[87] Ottoman successor states include today's

Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.[88] Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which found its way into the Saudi royal family.

Indian partition The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.

In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world, following Indonesia. Pakistan is the only nuclear power of the Muslim world.

History of Islam 28 Post-1945 era Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.

In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.

The Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar al-Gaddafi in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.

In 1970, Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for price increases.

In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and the war strengthened their unity.

The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle.

The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.

Persian revolutions The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and the restriction of the power of the Shah (king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and threatened the country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.

In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. At the same time, the U.S., the USSR, and most of the Arab governments of the Middle East feared that their dominance in the region would be challenged by the History of Islam 29 Islamic ideology, so they encouraged and supported Saddam Hussein to invade Iran, which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war.

National period Arab-Israeli conflict The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab nations and the state of Israel (see related Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between other Muslim nations and Israel. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Arab or Muslim world,[89][90] others oppose this view.[91] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

Anatolian region Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatürk's Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied support from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the Turkish secularist state.

Contemporary National period Islam in the modern world!

Ibadi countries

History of Islam 30

Sunni countries Shia countries

Arab Spring In the Near East and North Africa, a series of protests and demonstrations calling for democracy and freedom across the region became known as the Arab Spring. The protests, uprisings and revolutions brought about the overthrow of the Tunisian and Egyptian governments. The period of political liberalization also affected countries that were not part of the Arab world.

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Halliday, Fred, 100 Myths about the Middle East, Saqi Books, 2005. p.85-6 Milestones of Islamic History (http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226& pagename=ZoneEnglish-ArtCulture/ACELayout) Khaddūrī 2002, pp. 19–20 Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land By Francis E. Peters Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series 50 (1): 3. W. Montgomery Watt. Khārijite thought in the Umayyad Period. Der Islam. Volume 36, Issue 3, Pages 215–231, ISSN (Online) 1613-0928, ISSN (Print) 0021-1818, DOI: 10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215, //1961 The Encyclopædia Britannica by Hugh Chisholm. Page 28 (http:// books.google.com/books?id=L0UbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28) Roberts, J: "History of the World.". Penguin, 1994. Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Brothers. Page 183.

[7] [8] [9] [10]! The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung. Page 340. [11] !

Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. Page 543 [12] !

Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads.

State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 0791418278 [13]! answering-ansar.org. ch 8. (http://www.answering-ansar.org/ answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php) [14]! answering-ansar.org. ch 7. (http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/ chap7.php) [15]!Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, By Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. Page 484.

[16] [17] [18] [19] HHistory of the Arab by Philip K Hitti History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb Umar II pushing to end drinking and bathhouses where men and women would mix freely. Umar is considered one of the finest rulers in Muslim history, second only to the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. He continued the welfare programs of the last few Umayyad caliphs, expanding them and including special programs for orphans and the destitute. [20] http://people.uncw.edu/bergh/par246/ L21RHadithCriticism.htm [21]! In the Al Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720-721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah. [22]! *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24913-1 p. 3. [23]! von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd Ed. [24]! Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660 [25]!

"Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

[26]!

Lewis 1993, p. 84 [27]! Holt 1977a, p. 105 [28]!Holt 1977b, pp. 661–663 [29]! "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) [30]! "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) [31]! Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600" (http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html).

University of Calagary. . Retrieved 2007-04-18. [32]! Lapidus 2002, p. 54 [33]!

Nasr 2003, p. 121 [34]! Khaddūrī 2002, pp.

21–22 [35]!

Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd (http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm), Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica.

[36]!

Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/ is_n2_v18/ ai_18627295/pg_13), Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ).

[37]!

Nasr 2003, pp. 121–122

History of Islam 31 [38]!

Lapidus 1988, p. 129 [39]!

Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.

[40]!

The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the quality and state of the creation of the Qur'an, if the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.

[41]!

It is said that, had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".

[42]!

Its minaret were spiralling cones 55 metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) high with a spiral ramp and had 17 aisles with its wall paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.

[43]!

A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives. [44]! Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the Kakūyid dynasty of Isfahān, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran. [45]! ‘Izz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491-541/1097-1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response. [46]! Jean Richard, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 1. 1979. Page 36. [47]! It is supposed by an emissary of the Hashshashins, who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter.

[48] [49] [50] [51] Grigor of Akanc-The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303 Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p.210 Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84 Beeson, Irene (September/October 1969). "Cairo, a Millennial" (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial. htm). Saudi Aramco World: 24, 26–30. . Retrieved 2007-08-09. [52]!

Firestone, R. (2008). An introduction to Islam for Jews.

Philadelphia: JPS/Jewish Publication Society. Page 66 [53]!

Lane, J.-E., Redissi, H., & Ṣaydāwī, R. (2009). Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. Company. Page 83 [54]!Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org (http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/ Cairo_of_the_mind.htm) [55]! Collins 2004, p. 139 [56]!

Hourani 2003, p. 41 [57]!

Glubb, John Bagot (1966). The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Prentice-Hall. pp. 128. [58]! Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. pp. 102. ISBN 9-0041-4771-3. [59]! Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press. pp. 599.

ISBN 0-5214-1410-5. [60]!

O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. pp. 133. ISBN 0-8014-9264-5. [61]! Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 103. ISBN 0-8122-15699. [62]! This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph. [63]!Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680 [64]!

The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Abū al-Faz̤l ‘Izzatī, A. Ezzati, pg. 274 [65]! Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravilʹ Bukharaev, pg. 145 [66]!

Hourani 2003, p. 85 [67]!

Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage.com) (http:// muslimheritage.com/topics/default. cfm?ArticleID=1176) [68]!

Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. 2007. p. 264 (http:// books.google.fr/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC& pg=PA264&dq=kairouan+mosque+most+prestigious&lr=&cd=17#v=onepage&q=kairouan mosque most prestigious&f=false) [69]!

Nicolini, B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar: Three-terminal cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean, 1799-1856. Leiden: Brill. Page 35 [70]! Curtis, Edward E. (2002). Islam in Black America: identity, liberation, and difference in African-American Islamic thought. SUNY Press. pp. 119. ISBN 0-7914-5370-7.

[71] [72] [73] [74] NNimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gustave Le Bon. 1956. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. 3rd Print. Cairo. P.95. Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur.2009. API Sejarah. 1st Printed. Bandung. Indonesia. P. 2 - 3 Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guilaume, (Editor), 1965. The Legacy of Islam. Oxford University Press, New York, P.87.

History of Islam 32 [75]!

Nasr 2003, p. 143 [76]! Spencer C. Tucker, The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars: a political, social, and military history, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2009, page 419 (http://books.google.fr/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA419&dq=late+15th+century+islam+ philippines&hl=fr&ei=zhX0TauuBI_1sgb8sam9Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=late 15th century islam philippines&f=false) [77]!

Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 226–230 [78]! Armstrong 2000, p. 116 [79]! Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 211–219 [80]!

Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 199–204 [81]! Holt 1977a, p. 263 [82]!

Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Page 94. [83]! Koprulu 1992, p. 109 [84]!

Koprulu 1992, p. 111 [85] www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com

[86]!

Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 961, 969 [87]!

Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 971–972 [88]!

McNeill, Bentley & Christian 2005, p. 1402) [89]!

Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective (http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/ 2003/issue4/jf7n4a6. html) by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal. Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003 [90]!Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (http:// www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict-2.asp#Clash) (Israel Science and Technology) [91]!

Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century (http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1050)

References and further reading Books, articles, and journals •!

Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0679640400. •! Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. •!

Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999. •!Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1057-9. •! Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1.

Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 0521291364. •!

Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. •!

Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition.

ISBN 978-0674010178. •!Khaddūrī, Majīd (2002). The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar (http:// books.google.dk/ books?id=89spaKByt_MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=majid+khadduri+siyar&hl=da& ei=9LP0TfmOGZKGvAO05LHeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q="the stages through which"&f=false). JHU Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0801869757, 9780801869754.

•!

Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191.

•!

Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic societes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77056-4. •! Lewis, B. (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.

•!

Rahman, F. (1982). Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. University of Chicago Press.

ISBN 0-226-70284-7. •! Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam:Religion, History and Civilization. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

ISBN 0-06-050714-4. •! Sonn, Tamara (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-0900-9. •! Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Mulsim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.

INUPress. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.

History of Islam 33 •!

Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21591-2.

•! al-Balādhurī, A. Y.; Hitti, P. K. (1916). The origins of the Islamic state: Being a translation from the Arabic accompanied with annotations, geographic and historic notes of the Kitâbfutûḥ al-buldân of al-Imâm abu l'Abbâs Aḥmad ibn-Jâbir al-Balâdhuri (http://books.google.com/books?id=z5FCAAAAYAAJ). New York. • !

Williams, H. S., ed. (1904). The historians' history of the world: Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs.

The crusades and the papacy (http://books.google.com/books?id=9mWDAAAAMAAJ). New York: The Outlook Company. •! Le, S. G. (1900). Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate: From contemporary Arabic and Persian sources (http:// books.google.com/books?id=rdcoAAAAYAAJ). Oxford: Clarendon Press. •! Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. New York: McGraw-Hill. •!

Zaydān, J.; Margoliouth, D. S. (1907). "Being the fourth part of Jurjí Zaydán's history of Islamic civilization." (http://books.google.com/books?id=DRByAAAAMAAJ). Umayyads and ‘Abbásids. Leyden: E.J. Brill,

imprimerie orientale. •! "Islam Aflame with Revolt" (http://books.google.co/books? id=IYXNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136). The World's work. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1900. •! Smith, Elder (1877). The life of Mahomet: from original sources (http://books.google.com/ books?id=reZBAAAAIAAJ). •! Irving, W. (1868). Mahomet and his successors (http://books.google.com/ books?id=2VMLAAAAIAAJ). New York: Putnam. •! Sale, G.; Psalmanazar, G.; Bower, A.; Shelvocke, G.; Campbell, J.; Swinton, J. (779).

A universal history: From the earliest accounts to the present time. (http://books.google.com/books?id=m6o-AAAAYAA). 21.

London: C. Bathurst. •! *Brill Archive, ed. A history of muslim historiography (http://books.google.com/books? id=kssUAAAAIAAJ).

Encyclopedias •!

P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.

•!

Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. 4. Berkshire Publishing Group. 2005. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1. •! The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005.

ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9. •!

Baynes, T. S. (1888). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. New York, N.Y: H.G. Allen. Page 545 (http://books.google.com/books?id=BZ0MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA545) 606. •!In Pace, E. A. (1922). The Catholic encyclopedia: An international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline and history of the Catholic Church. New York: Encyclopedia Press. " Mohammed and Mohammedanism. (http://books.google.com/books?id=RmoQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA424)". Pg. 424–428

External links •!

BBC Islamic History Special (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/) •!Chronological history of Islam and Muslims up to current time (http://www.classicalislam.com/pages/history/ chronological.htm) •!

Islam: 662AD - Present (http://friesian.com/islam.htm) •! Internet Islamic History Sourcebook (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html) •!A history of Islam in America (http:// www.sunnah.org/history/islamamr.htm) •! Ethiopian Muslims History (http://www.selamta.net/ethiopian muslims history.htm) The Haven of the First Hijra (Migration): an African nation is the Muslimsʼ first refuge •! Brief history of Islam (http:// www.barkati.net/english/) History of Islam 34 •!Chronological history of Islam (http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm) •!A history of Islamic culture (http://www.muslimheritage.com/) •!Islamic Civilization (http://www.cyberistan.org/) •!Islamic Historical pictures - Gallery/‫"ر‬# (http://www.islamology.com/gallery/)

Spread of Islam The Spread of Islam began shortly after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632. During his lifetime the Muslim ummah was established in Arabia by way of their conversion or allegiance to Islam. In the first centuries conversion to Islam followed the rapid growth of the Muslim world created by the conquests of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphs.

Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljuk Turks, Mughals in India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers, all of whom contributed to the Golden Age of Islam.

The activities of this quasi-political community of believers and nations, or ummah, resulted in the spread of Islam over the centuries, spreading outwards from Mecca to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and the Pacific Ocean on the east. As of October 2009, there were 1.571 billion Muslims,[1] making Islam the second-largest religion in the world.[2]

Conversion The conquests of the Arab Empire in the first centuries after the Islamic prophet Muhammad's death soon established Muslim dynasties in North Africa, West Africa, throughout the Middle East and in Iran.

Phase I: The Early Caliphs and Umayyads (610-750 AD) This was the time of the life of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his early successors, the four rightly guided Caliphs.

Within the first century of the establishment of Islam upon the Arabian peninsula and the subsequent rapid expansion of the Arab Empire during the Muslim conquests, resulted in the formation of one of the most significant empires in history.[3] For the subjects of this new empire, formerly subjects of the greatly reduced Byzantine, and obliterated Sassanid, Empires, not much changed in practice. The objective of the conquests was more than anything of a practical nature, as fertile land and water were scarce in the Arabian peninsula. A real Islamization therefore only came about in the subsequent centuries.[4] Ira Lapidus distinguishes between two separate strands of converts of the time: one is animists and polytheists of tribal societies of the Arabian peninsula and the Fertile crescent; the other one is the monotheistic populations of the Middle Eastern agrarian and urbanized societies.[5] For the polytheistic and pagan societies, apart from the religious and spiritual reasons each individual may have had, conversion to Islam "represented the response of a tribal, pastoral population to the need for a larger framework for political and economic integration, a more stable state, and a more imaginative and encompassing moral vision to An Islamic Silver Dirham from the year 729.

Spread of Islam 35 cope with the problems of a tumultuous society."[5] In contrast, for sedentary and often already monotheistic societies, "Islam was substituted for a Byzantine or Sassanian political identity and for a Christian, Jewish or Zoroastrian religious affiliation."[5] Conversion initially was neither required nor necessarily wished for: "(The Arab conquerors) did not require the conversion as much as the subordination of non-Muslim peoples. At the outset, they were hostile to conversions because new Muslims diluted the economic and status advantages of the Arabs."[5] Only in subsequent centuries, with the development of the religious doctrine of Islam and with that the understanding of the Muslim ummah, did mass conversion take place. The new understanding by the religious and political leadership in many cases led to a weakening or breakdown of the social and religious structures of parallel religious communities such as Christians and Jews.[5] The caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty established the first schools inside the empire, called madrasas, which taught the Arabic language and Islamic studies. They furthermore began the ambitious project of building mosques across the empire, many of which remain today as the most magnificent mosques in the Islamic world, such as the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain were Muslim. Only on the Arabian peninsula was the proportion of Muslims among the population higher than this.[6]

Phase II: The Abbasids (750-1258) This was the time of the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258), the second great dynasty with the rulers carrying the title of 'Caliph'.

Expansion ceased and the central disciplines of Islamic philosophy, theology, law and mysticism became more widespread and the gradual conversions of the populations within the empire occurred. Significant conversions also occurred beyond the extents of the empire such as that of the Turkic tribes in Central Asia and peoples living in regions south of the Sahara in Africa through contact with Muslim traders active in the area and sufi missionaries. In Africa it spread along three routes, across the Sahara via trading towns such as Timbuktu, up the Nile Valley through the Sudan up to Uganda and across the Red Sea and down East Africa through settlements such as Mombasa and Zanzibar. These initial conversions were of a flexible nature and only later were the societies forcibly purged of their traditional influences.[3] The reasons why, by the end of the 10th century CE, a large part of the population had converted to Islam are diverse. One of the reasons may be that "Islam had become more clearly defined, and the line between Muslims and non-Muslims more sharply drawn. Muslims now lived within an elaborated system of ritual, doctrine and law clearly different from those of non-Muslims. (...) The status of Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians was more precisely defined, and in some ways it was inferior. They were regarded as the 'People of the Book', those who possessed a revealed scripture, or 'People of the Covenant', with whom compacts of protection had been made. In general they were not forced to convert, but they suffered from restrictions. They paid a special tax; they were not supposed to wear certain colors; they could not marry Muslim women;."[6] It should be pointed out that most of these laws were elaborations of basic laws concerning non-Muslims (dhimmis) in the Quran. The Quran does not give much detail about the right conduct with non-Muslims, in principle recognizing the religion of "People of the book" (Jews, Christians, and sometimes others as well) and securing a separate tax from them inlieu of the zakat imposed upon Muslim subjects.

American historian Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses.[7] He writes that : The Abbasids are known to have founded some of the worlds earliest educational institutions such as the House of Wisdom.

Spread of Islam 36 "The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply a complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came."[7] The result of this, he points out, can be seen in the diversity of Muslim societies today, with varying manifestations and practices of Islam.

Conversion to Islam also came about as a result of the breakdown of historically religiously organized societies: with the weakening of many churches, for example, and the favoring of Islam and the migration of substantial Muslim Turkish populations into the areas of Anatolia and the Balkans, the "social and cultural relevance of Islam" were enhanced and a large number of peoples were converted. This worked better in some areas (Anatolia) and less in others (e.g. the Balkans, where "the spread of Islam was limited by the vitality of the Christian churches.")[5] Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language and Arab customs spread throughout the empire. A sense of unity grew among many though not all provinces, gradually forming the consciousness of a broadly Arab-Islamic population: something which was recognizably an Islamic world had emerged by the end of the 10th century.[8] Throughout this period, as well as in the following centuries, divisions occurred between Persians and Arabs, and Sunnis and Shiites, and unrest in provinces empowered local rulers at times.[6] Conversion within the Empire: Umayyad Period vs. Abassid Period

There are a number of historians who see the rule of the Umayyads as responsible for setting up the "dhimmah" to increase taxes from the dhimmis to benefit the Arab Muslim community financially and to discourage conversion.[9] Islam was initially associated with the ethnic identity of the Arabs and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status of mawali.[9] Governors lodged complaints with the caliph when he enacted laws that made conversion easier, depriving the provinces of revenues.

During the following Abbasid period an enfranchisement was experienced by the mawali and a shift was made in the political conception from that of a primarily Arab empire to one of a Muslim empire[10] and c.

930 a law was enacted that required all bureaucrats of the empire to be Muslims.[9] Both periods were also marked by significant migrations of Arab tribes outwards from the Arabian Peninsula into the new territories.[10] Conversion within the Empire: Conversion Curve Richard Bulliet's "conversion curve" shows a relatively low rate of conversion of non-Arab subjects during the Arab centric Umayyad period of 10%, in contrast with estimates for the more politically multicultural Abbasid period which saw the Muslim population grow from approx. 40% in the mid 9th century to close to 100% by the end of the 11th century.[10] This theory does not explain the continuing existence of large minorities of Christians in the Abbasid Period. Other estimates suggest that Muslims were not a majority in Egypt until the mid-10th century and in the Fertile Crescent until 1100. Syria may have had a Christian majority within its modern borders until the Mongol Invasions of the 13th century.

Spread of Islam 37

Phase III: Dissolution of the Abbasids and the emergence of the Seljuks and Ottomans (950-1450) The expansion of Islam continued in the wake of Turkic conquests of Asia Minor, the Balkans, and the Indian subcontinent.[3] The earlier period also saw the acceleration in the rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland while in the wake of the conquests the newly conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim populations in contrast to the regions where the boundaries of the Muslim world contracted, such as Sicily and Al Andalus, where Muslim populations were expelled or forced to Christianize in short order.[3] The latter period of this phase was marked by the Mongol invasion (particularly the sack of Baghdad in 1258) and after an initial period of persecution, the conversion of these conquerors to Islam.

Phase IV: Ottoman Empire: 13th Century - 1918 The Ottoman Empire defended its frontiers initially against threats from several sides: the Safavids on the Eastern side, the Byzantine Empire in the North which vanished with the fall of Constantinople 1453, and the great Catholic powers from the Mediterranean Sea: Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice with its eastern Mediterranean colonies.

Later, the Ottoman Empire set on to conquer territories from these rivals: Cyprus and other Greek islands (except Crete) were lost by Venice to the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to the Danube basin as far as Hungary. Crete was conquered during the 17th century, but the Ottomans lost Hungary to the Holy Roman Empire, and other parts of Eastern Europe, ending with the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699).[11]

Phase V: (Post-Ottomans - present) Islam has continued to spread through commerce, the activities of Sufi missionaries, and migrations; especially in Southeast Asia.[3]

By region Arabia At Makkah, prophet Muhammad is said to have received repeated embassies from Christian tribes.

Asia Soon after the death of prophet Muhammad, all these provinces fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Muslims, who threatened, for a while, the entire extinction of Christianity in Western Asia. Due however to the tolerant attitude of the majority of the Umayyad, and the Abbasid caliphs of Damascus and Baghdad respectively, Christianity in the Muslim empire gradually began to experience a new and unprecedented level of revival and vigour. Nestorian and Jacobite theologians, philosophers, and men of letters soon became the teachers of the conquering Arabs, and the pioneers of Islamo-Arabic science, civilization, and learning. Nestorian physicians became the attending physicians

Age of the Caliphs Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1-11 Expansion during the Rashidun EmpireRashidun Caliphate, 632–661/A.H. 11-40 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750/A.H. 40-129

Spread of Islam 38 of the court, and the Nestorian patriarch and his numerous bishops were regarded in Asia as second to none in power and authority.

Under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphs, Christianity enjoyed, with few exceptions, great freedom and respect throughout all the Muslim Empire, as can be seen from the facts and data collected by Assemani and Bar-Hebraeus, according to which many Nestorian and Jacobite patriarchs from the 7th to the 11th centuries received diplomas, or firmans, of some sort from prophet Muhammad himself, from Umar, Ali, Marwan, Al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, Abu Ja'far, and others. (Shedd, op. cit., 239-241; Assemani, De Catholicis Nestorianis, 41-433 sqq; Bar-Hebraeus, Chronicon Ecclesiasticum I, 309, 317, 319, 325; II, 465, 625; III, 307, 317, 229, 433, etc.; and Thomas of Marga, op. cit., II, 123, note:)

Greater Syria Like their Byzantine and late Sasanian predecessors, the Marwanid caliphs nominally ruled the various religious communities but allowed the communities' own appointed or elected officials to administer most internal affairs. Yet the Marwanids also depended heavily on the help of non-Arab administrative personnel and on administrative practices (e.g., a set of government bureaus). As the conquests slowed and the isolation of the fighters (muqatilah) became less necessary, it became more and more difficult to keep Arabs garrisoned. As the tribal links that had so dominated Umayyad politics began to break down, the meaningfulness of tying non-Arab converts to Arab tribes as clients was diluted; moreover, the number of non-Muslims who wished to join the ummah was already becoming too large for this process to work effectively.

Palestine The Muslim Saracen army attacked Jerusalem, held by the Byzantine Romans, in November, 636 CE. For four months, the siege continued. Ultimately, the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Sophronius, an ethnic Arab,[12] agreed to surrender Jerusalem to caliph Omar in person. The caliph, then at Medina, agreed to these terms and travelled to Jerusalem to sign the capitulation in the spring of 637. Sophronius also negotiated a pact with Omar, known as the Umariyya Covenant or Covenant of Omar, allowing for religious freedom for Christians in exchange for "jizya", a tax to be paid by conquered non-Muslims, called "dhimmis". Under Muslim Rule, the Christian and Jewish population of Jerusalem in this period enjoyed the usual tolerance given to non-Muslim theists. [13] [14] Having accepted the surrender, Omar then entered Jerusalem with Sophronius "and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious antiquities".[15] When the hour for his prayer came, Omar was in the Anastasis church, but refused to pray there, lest in the future Muslims should use that as an excuse to break the treaty and confiscate the church. The Mosque of Omar, opposite the doors of the Anastasis, with the tall minaret, is known as the place to which he retired for his prayer.

Bishop Arculf, whose account of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the 7th century, De Locis Sanctis, written down by the monk Adamnan, described reasonably pleasant living conditions of Christians in Palestine in the first period of Muslim rule. The caliphs of Damascus (661-750) were tolerant princes who were on generally good terms with their Christian subjects. Many Christians (e.g. St. John Damascene) held important offices at their court. The Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad (753-1242), as long as they ruled Syria, were also tolerant to Christians. Harun Abu-Ja-'afar (786-809), sent the keys of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne, who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.[13] Rival dynasties and revolutions led to the eventual disunion of the Muslim world. In the 9th century, Palestine was conquered by the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa. Palestine once again became a battleground as the various enemies of the Fatimids attacked. At the same time, the Byzantine Greeks continued to attempt to regain their lost territories, including Jerusalem. Christians in Jerusalem who sided with the Byzantines were put to death for high treason by the ruling Muslims. In 969, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, John VII, was put to death for treasonous correspondence with the Byzantines. As Jerusalem grew in importance to Muslims and pilgrimages increased, Spread of Islam 39

tolerance for other religions declined. Christians were persecuted and churches destroyed. The sixth Fatimid caliph, Caliph Al-Hakim, 996-1021, who was believed to be "God made manifest" by the Druze, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre in 1009. This powerful provocation helped ignite the flame of fury that led to the First Crusade.[13]

Persia and Central Asia It used to be argued that Zoroastrianism quickly collapsed in the wake of the Islamic conquest of Persia due to its intimate ties to the Sassanid state structure.[16] Now however, more complex processes are considered, in light of the more protracted time frame attributed to the progression of the ancient Persian religion to a minority; a progression that is more contiguous with the trends of the late antiquity period.[16] These trends are the conversions from the state religion that had already plagued the Zoroastrian authorities that continued after the Arab conquest, coupled with the migration of Arab tribes into the region during an extended period of time that stretched well into the Abbassid reign.[16] While there were cases such as the Sassanid army division at Hamra, that converted en masse before pivotal battles such as the Battle of al-QÄ disiyyah, conversion was fastest in the urban areas where Arab forces were garrisoned slowly leading to Zoroastrianism becoming associated with rural areas.[16] Still at the end of the Umayyad period, the Muslim community was only a minority in the region.[16] Islam was readily accepted by Zoroastrians who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian dogma, such occupations that involved defiling fire made them impure.

[17] Moreover, Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenets to Zoroastrians, as there were many similarities between the faiths. According to Thomas Walker Arnold, for the Persian, he would meet Ahura Mazda and Ahriman under the names of Allah and Iblis.[17] At times, Muslim leaders in their effort to win converts encouraged attendance at Muslim prayer with promises of money and allowed the Quran to be recited in Persian instead of Arabic so that it would be intelligible to all.[17] A number of the inhabitants of Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Umar ibn AbdulAziz.[18] Later, the Samanids, whose roots stemmed from Zoroastrian theocratic nobility, propagated Sunni Islam and Islamo-Persian culture deep into the heart of Central Asia. The population within its areas began firmly accepting Islam in significant numbers, notably in Taraz, now in modern day Kazakhstan. The first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian occurred during the reign of Samanids in the 9th century. According to historians, through the zealous missionary work of Samanid rulers, as many as 30,000 tents of Turks came to profess Islam and later under the Ghaznavids higher than 55,000 under the Hanafi school of thought.[19] After the Saffarids and Samanids, the Ghaznavids re-conquered the Afghan-Persian region and invaded the Indian subcontinent in the 11th century. This was followed by the Ghurids and Timurids who further expanded the culture of Islam.

Courtiers of the Persian ruler Bayasanghori playing chess in Ferdowsi's epic work known as the Shahnameh.

Spread of Islam 40

South Asia See also: Mughal Empire, Islam in India Contrary to popular belief, Islam came to South Asia prior to Muslim invasions of India. Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders.

Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which was a link between them and the ports of South East Asia to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their book The History of India as told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 AD, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 571–632) in Kodungallur, in district of Thrissur, Kerala by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called Mappila.

H.G. Rawlinson, in his book: Ancient and Medieval History of India[20] claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals,[21] and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[22]

The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.[23] It was however the subsequent expansion of the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent over the next millennia that established Islam in the region.

Embedded within these lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled with the politics of the partition and communalism in India.[24] These are typically represented by the following schools of thought:[24] A panorama in 12 folds showing a fabulous Eid ul-Fitr procession by Muslims in the Mughal Empire.

Mir Sayyid Ali, writing a commentary on the Quran, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

1. 2.

3. 4.

That the bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian plateau or Arabs.[25] A related view is that conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes[24][25] Was a combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart[24] As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilization and global polity at large.[25] Muslim missionaries played a key role in the spread of Islam in India with some missionaries even assuming roles as merchants or traders. For example, in the 9th century, the Ismailis sent missionaries across Asia in all directions under various guises, often as traders, sufis and Spread of Islam 41 merchants. Ismailis were instructed to speak potential converts in their own language. Some Ismaili missionaries traveled to India and employed effort to make their religion acceptable to the Hindus. For instance, they represented Ali as the tenth avatar of Vishnu and wrote hymns as well as a mahdi purana in their effort to win converts.[17] At other times, converts were won in conjunction with the propagation efforts of rulers. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khiljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold.[26] During Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's control of the Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.[27] Although we must take into consideration the fact that these are historians opinions, Gandhi a Hindu from India, has also stated: "I become more than ever convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet, the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers and his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle�

Southeast Asia Minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque, influenced by both Islamic and mainly Javanese art and architecture.

Even before Islam was established amongst Indonesian communities, Muslim sailors and traders had been often visited the shores of modern Indonesia, most of these early sailors and merchants arrived from the Abbasid Caliphate's newly established ports of Basra and Debal, many of the earliest Muslim accounts of the region note the presence of animals such as Orang-utans, Rhinos and valuable Spice trade commodities such as Cloves, Nutmeg, Galangal and Coconut.[28] Islam came to the Southeast Asia, first by the way of Muslim traders along the main trade-route between Asia and the Far East, then was further spread by Sufi missionaries and finally consolidated by the expansion of the territories of converted rulers and their communities.[29] The first communities arose in Northern Sumatra (Aceh) and the Malacca's remained a stronghold of Islam from where it was propagated along the trade routes in the region.[29] There is no clear indication of when Islam first came to the region, the first Muslim gravestone markings date to 1082.

[30]

When Marco Polo visited the area in 1292 he noted that the urban port state of Perlak was Muslim,[30] Chinese sources record the presence of a Muslim delegation to the emperor from the Kingdom of Samudra (Pasai) in 1282,[29] other accounts provide instances of Muslim communities present in the Melayu Kingdom for the same time period while others record the presence of Muslim Chinese traders

from provinces such as Fujian.[30] The spread of Islam generally followed the trade routes east through the primarily Buddhist region and a half century later in the Malacca's we see the first dynasty arise in the form of the Sultanate of Malacca at the far end of the Archipelago form by the conversion of one Parameswara Dewa Shah into a Muslim and the adoption of the name Muhammad Iskandar Shah[31] after his marriage to a daughter of the ruler of Pasai.[29][30] In 1380 Sufi missionaries carried Islam from here on to Mindanao.[32] Java was the seat of the primary kingdom of the region, the Majapahit Empire, which was ruled by a Hindu dynasty. As commerce grew in the region with the rest of the Muslim world, Islamic influence extended to the court even as the empires political power waned and so by the time Raja Kertawijaya converted in 1475 at the hands of Sufi Sheikh Rahmat, the Sultanate was already of a Muslim character.

Another driving force for the change of the ruling class in the region was the concept among the increasing Muslim communities of the region when ruling dynasties to attempt to forge such ties of kinship by marriage.[32] By the time the colonial powers and their missionaries arrived in the 17th century the region up to New Guinea was Spread of Islam 42 overwhelmingly Muslim with animist minorities.[30]

Inner Asia and Eastern Europe One of the earliest introductions of Islam into Eastern Europe was through the work of an early 11th century Muslim prisoner who was captured by the Byzantines during their war against Muslims. The Muslim prisoner was brought into the territory of the Pechenegs where he taught and converted individuals to Islam.[33] Little is known about the timeline of the Islamization of Inner Asia and the Turkic peoples who lay beyond the bounds of the caliphate. Around 600s and 700s, there were some states of Turkic peoples like Turkic Khazar Khaganate (See Khazar-Arab Wars) and Turkic Turgesh Khaganete who fought against the caliphate in order to stop Arabization and Islamization in Asia. From the 9th century onwards, the Turks (at least individually, if not yet through adoption by their states) began to convert to Islam. Histories merely note the fact of pre-Mongol Central Asia's Islamization.[34] The Bulgars of the Volga are noted to have adopted Islam by the 10th century[34] under Almış, to whom the modern Volga Tatars trace their Islamic roots. When the Friar William of Rubruck visited the encampment of Batu Khan of the Golden Horde, who had recently completed the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, he noted "I wonder what devil carried the law of Machomet there".[34] Another contemporary known to have been Muslim, was the Qarakhanid dynasty of the Kara-Khanid Khanate which lay much further east,[34] and which was established by Karluks who were Islamizated after Battle of Talas. However, the modern day history of the Islamization of the region - or rather a conscious affiliation with Islam - dates to the reign of the ulus of the son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, who founded the Golden Horde.[35] Kazakhs, Uzbeks and some Muslim populations of the Russian Federation trace their Islamic roots to the Golden Horde[34] and while Berke Khan was the first Mongol monarch to officially adopt Islam and even oppose his kinsman Hulagu Khan[34] in the defense of Jerusalem at the Battle of Ain Jalut, it was only much later that the change became pivotal and the Mongols converted en masse[36] when a century later Uzbeg Khan converted - reportedly at the hands of the Sufi Saint Baba Tukles.[37] Some of the Mongolian tribes became Islamized. Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Hulagu Khan and after the Battle of Baghdad (1258) Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia,and the caliphate was destroyed and Islam was persecuted by the Mongols and replaced by Buddhism as the official religion of the land.[36] In 1295 however, the new Khan of the Ilkhanate, Ghazan converted to Islam and two decades later the Golden Horde followed suit.[36] The Mongols had been religiously and culturally conquered, this absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis[36] that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

In the 1330s the Mongol ruler of the Chagatai Khanate converted to Islam, causing the eastern part of his realm called Moghulistan to rebel.[38] However during the next three centuries these Buddhist, Shamanistic and Christian Turkic and Mongol nomads of the Kazakh Steppe and Xinjiang would also convert at the hands of competing Sufi orders from both east and west of the Pamirs.[38] The

Naqshbandi's are the most prominent of these orders, especially in Kashgaria where the western Chagatai Khan was also a disciple of the order.[38] The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, studying the Quran.

Spread of Islam 43

Africa North Africa See also: Umayyad conquest of North Africa, Islamization of Egypt, Islamization of Sudan In Egypt, the victorious Muslims granted religious freedom to the Christian community in Alexandria, for example, and the Alexandrians quickly recalled their exiled Monophysite patriarch to rule over them, subject only to the ultimate political authority of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an Arab Muslim domination more welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium .[40] Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Tunisia from 647-648[41] and Morocco in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam. In 670, the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi established the city of Kairouan (in Tunisia) and its Great Mosque also known as the Mosque of Uqba;[42] the Great Mosque of Kairouan is the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world.[39] Berber troops were used extensively by the Arabs in their conquest of Spain, which began in 711.

No previous conqueror had tried to assimilate the Berbers, but the Arabs quickly converted them and enlisted their aid in further conquests. Without their help, for example, Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the Islamicate state. At first only Berbers nearer the coast were involved, but by the 11th century Muslim affiliation had begun to spread far into the Sahara.[43] The conventional historical view is that the conquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between AD 647–709 effectively ended Catholicism in Africa for several centuries.[44] However, new scholarship has appeared that provides more nuance and details of the conversion of the Christian inhabitants to Islam. A Christian community is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 AD to tombs of Catholic saints outside of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab Spain. In addition, calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome. During the reign of Umar II, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just administration, and other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam.[17] Horn of Africa See also: Islam in Somalia, Islam in Ethiopia The history of commercial and intellectual contact between the inhabitants of the Somali coast and the Arabian Peninsula may help explain the Somali people's connection with the Prophet Muhammad. Early on, a band of persecuted Muslims had, at the Prophet's urging, fled across the Red Sea into the Horn of Africa. There, the Muslims were granted protection by the Ethiopian negus (king). Islam may thus have been introduced into the Horn of Africa well before the faith even took root in its place of origin.[45] The Great Mosque of Kairouan, founded in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest mosque in western Islamic lands[39] and represents an architectural symbol of the spread of Islam in North Africa, situated in Kairouan, Tunisia.

Spread of Islam 44 East Africa On the east coast of Africa, where Arab mariners had for many years journeyed to trade, mainly in slaves, Arabs founded permanent colonies on the offshore islands, especially on Zanzibar, in the 9th and 10th century. From there Arab trade routes into the interior of Africa helped the slow acceptance of Islam. by the 10th century the Kilwa Sultanate was founded by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi (was one of seven sons of a ruler of Shiraz, Persia, his mother an Abyssinian slave girl. Upon his father's death, Ali was driven out of his inheritance by his brothers). His successors would rule the most powerful of Sultanates in the Swahili coast, during the peak of its expansion the Kilwa Sultanate stretched from Inhambane in the south to Malindi in the north. The 13th century Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta noted that the great mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani was made of coral stone (the only one of its kind in the world).

In the 20th century, Islam grew in Africa both by birth and by conversion. The number of Muslims in Africa grew from 34.5 million in 1900 to 315 million in 2000, going from roughly 20% to 40% of the total population of Africa.[46] However, in the same time period, the number of Christians also grew in Africa, from 8.7 million in 1900 to 346 million in 2000, surpassing both the total population as well as the growth rate of Islam on the continent.[46][47] Western Africa The spread of Islam in Africa began in the 7th to 9th century, brought to North Africa initially under the Umayyad Dynasty. Extensive trade networks throughout North and West Africa created a medium through which Islam spread peacefully, initially through the merchant class. By sharing a common religion and a common transliteralization (Arabic), traders showed greater willingness to trust, and therefore invest, in one another.[48] Moreover, toward the 18th century, the Nigeria based Sokoto Caliphate led by Usman dan Fodio exerted considerable effort in spreading Islam.[17] Europe Hispania /Al-Andalus The history of Arab and Islamic rule in the Iberian peninsula is probably one of the most studied periods of European history, but the variety and quantity of writing has not escaped the prejudices of the authors.

For centuries after the Arab conquest, European accounts of Arab rule in Iberia were negative. European points of view started changing with the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in new descriptions of the period of Islamic rule in Spain as a "golden age" (mostly as a reaction against Spain's militant Roman Catholicism after 1500).

The tide of Arab expansion after 630 rolled through North Africa up to Ceuta in present day Morocco.

Their arrival coincided with a period of political weakness in the three centuries old kingdom established in the Iberian peninsula by the Germanic Visigoths, who had taken over the region after seven centuries of Roman rule. Seizing the opportunity, an Arab-led (but mostly Berber) army invaded in 711, and by 720 had conquered almost all of the peninsula. The Arab expansion pushed over the mountains into southern France, and for a short period Arabs controlled the old Visigothic province of Septimania (centered on present-day Narbonne). The Arab Caliphate was pushed back by Charles Martel (King of the Franks or French) at Poitiers, and Christian armies started pushing southwards over the mountains, until Charlemagne established in 801 the Spanish March (which stretched from Barcelona to present day Navarre).

The interior of the Cathedral of Cordoba, formerly the Great Mosque of C贸rdoba was built in the year 742. It is one of the finest examples of Islamic architecture in the Umayyad style; inspired the design of other Mosques in Al-Andalus.

Spread of Islam 45 A major development in the history of Muslim Spain was the dynastic change in 750 in the Arab Caliphate, when an Ummayad Prince escaped the slaughter of his family in Damascus, fled to Cordoba in Spain, and created a new Islamic state in the area. This was the start of a distinctly Spanish Muslim society, where large Christian and Jewish populations coexisted with an increasing percentage of Muslims. There are many stories of descendants of Visigothic chieftains and Roman counts whose families converted to Islam during this period. The at-first small Muslim elite continued to grow with converts, and with a few exceptions, rulers in Islamic Spain allowed Christians and Jews the right specified in the Koran to practice their own religions, though it is true that non Muslims suffered from political and taxation inequities. The net result was, in those areas of Spain where Muslim rule lasted the longest, the creation of a society that was mostly Arabic-speaking because of the assimilation of native inhabitants, a process in some ways similar to the assimilation many years later of millions of immigrants to the United States into English-speaking culture.

The Islamic state centered in Cordoba ended up splintering into many smaller kingdoms (the so-called taifas). While Muslim Spain was fragmenting, the Christian kingdoms grew larger and stronger, and the balance of power shifted against the taifa kingdoms. The last Muslim kingdom of Granada in the south fell to Christian conquerors in 1492. In 1499, the remaining Muslim inhabitants were ordered to convert or leave (at the same time the Jews were expelled). Poorer Muslims (Moriscos) who could not afford to leave ended up converting to Catholic Christianity and hiding their Muslim practices, hiding from the Spanish Inquisition, until their presence was finally extinguished.

Balkans See also: Rumelia, Balkans Ottoman Empire

In Balkan history, writing the question of conversion to Islam was, and still is, a highly charged political issue. It is intrinsically linked to the issues of formation of national identities and rival territorial claims of the Balkan states. The generally accepted nationalist discourse of the current Balkan historiography defines all forms of Islamization as results of the Ottoman government's centrally organized policy of conversion or dawah. The truth is that Islamization in each Balkan country took place in the course of many centuries, and its nature and phase was determined not by the Ottoman government but by the specific conditions of each locality. Ottoman conquests were initially military and economic enterprises, and religious conversions were not the their primary objective. True, the statements surrounding victories all celebrated the incorporation of territory into Muslim domains, but the actual Ottoman focus was on taxation and making the realms productive, and a religious campaign would have disrupted that economic objective.

Ottoman Islamic standards of toleration allowed for autonomous "nations" (millets) in the Empire, under their own personal law and under the rule of their own religious leaders. As a result, vast areas of the Balkans remained mostly Christian during the period of Ottoman domination. In fact, the Eastern Orthodox Churches had a higher position in Ottoman Empire, mainly because the Patriarch resided in Istanbul and was an officer of the Ottoman Empire. In contrast, Roman Catholics, while tolerated, were suspected with loyalties to a foreign power (the Papacy). It is no surprise that the Roman Catholic areas of Bosnia, Kosovo and northern Albania, ended up with more substantial conversions to Islam. The defeat of the Ottomans in 1699 by the Austrians resulted in their loss of Hungary and present-day Croatia. The remaining Muslim converts in both elected to leave "lands of unbelief" and moved to A Slovenian Mosque in the town of Log pod Mangartom, before World War I.

Spread of Islam 46 territory still under the Ottomans. Around this point in time, new European ideas of romantic nationalism started to seep into the Empire, and provided the intellectual foundation for new nationalistic ideologies and the reinforcement of the self-image of many Christian groups as subjugated peoples.

As a rule, the Ottomans did not require followers of Greek Orthodoxy to become Muslims, although many did so in order to avert the socioeconomic hardships of Ottoman rule[49] or because of the corruption of the Greek clergy.[17] Indeed, the Greek Church hierarchy burdened Christians with extraordinary tax, and made them purchase, at high rates, the right of a Christian burial as well as other sacraments.[17] The clergy were even said to carry off children and sell them as slaves.[17] Another cause for conversion was the condition of the Greek church, which according to Thomas Walker Arnold arose to an "ecclesiastical despotism which had crushed all energy of intellectual life under the weight of dogmatism that interdicted all discussions in matters of morals and religion."[17] According to Arnold, others turned away from the Greek Church and converted to Islam because of Islam's clear, intelligible teachings as opposed to the Christian doctrines which sparked endless discourse on such "trivialities as the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Blessed Sacrament."[17] Islam was not spread by force in the areas under the control of the Ottoman Sultan. Rather Arnold concludes by quoting a 17th century author who stated: Meanwhile he (the Turk) wins (converts) by craft more than by force, and snatches away Christ by fraud out of the hearts of men. For the Turk, it is true, at the present time compels no country by violence to apostatise; but he uses other means whereby imperceptibly he roots out Christianity...[17] According to a historian, We find that many Greeks of high talent and moral character were so sensible of the superiority of the Mohammedans, that even when they escaped being drafted into the Sultan's household as tribute children, they voluntarily embraced the faith of Mahomet. The moral superiority of the Othoman society must be allowed to have had as much weight in causing these conversions, which were numerous in the fifteenth century, as the personal ambition of individuals.[17] One by one, the Balkan nationalities asserted their independence from the Empire, and frequently the presence of members of the same ethnicity who had converted to Islam presented a problem from the point of view of the now dominant new national ideology, which narrowly defined the nation as members of the local dominant Orthodox Christian denomination. Thousand of Muslims chose to leave, and in some cases were expelled, to what was left of the Ottoman Empire. This demographic transition can be

illustrated by the decrease in the number of Mosques in Belgrade, from over 70 in 1750 (before Serbian independence in 1815), to only three in 1850.

As an example of what most indigenous Muslims endured when the new Christian nation-states emerged in the 19th century, peninsular and Cretan Greeks, who saw themselves as Greek first and spoke the Greek language, eventually were still forced to leave Greece. In the long run, with the exception of Bosnia, Albania, and Kosovo, the vast majority of descendants of Balkan converts to Islam emigrated to Turkey and integrated themselves into Turkish society. Bosnia, Albania, and Kosovo like many other nations were also attacked by other nations to forcefully leave Islam, or else persecuted. In Albania, atheist regimes were so intense that Albania was eventually declared the first atheist state.

Immigration Since the 1960s, many Muslims have migrated to Western Europe. They have come as immigrants, guest workers, asylum seekers or as part of family reunification. As a result Muslim population in Europe has steadily risen.

The writer Bat Ye'or stated in her book "Eurabia" that Muslims may become a majority within a few generations due to continued immigration and high birth rates. This theory has been criticized, however.

Many suggest the claims are built on unreliable claims and that fertility rates of Muslims will eventually decrease and that immigration to European nations could be limited.

Spread of Islam 47 A Pew Forum study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase of proportion of Muslims in European population from 6% in 2010 to 8% in 2030.[50]

Notes [1] [2] http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdfpp.4 "Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam). .

Retrieved 2007-07-03.

[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] Goddard, pg.126-131 Hourani, pg.22-24 Lapidus, 200-201 Hourani, pg.41-48 Hourani, pg 198 Hourani, pg.54 Fred Astren pg.33-35 Tobin 113-115 Hourani, pg.221,222 Donald E. Wagner. Dying in the Land of Promise: Palestine and Palestinian Christianity from Pentecost to 2000 "Jerusalem" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08355a.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia.

1910. .

Marcus, Jacob Rader (March 2000). The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 315-1791 (Revised ed. ed.). Hebrew Union College Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 087820217X. Gibbon, ci, ed. Bury, London, 1898, V, 436 Berkey, pg. 101-102 The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258 The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, By Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 183 The History of Iran By Elton L. Daniel, pg. 74 ISBN 81-86050-79-5 Ancient and Medieval History of India] Sturrock, J.,South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895) ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV -Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community (http://www.jaihoon.com/watan/indarbmappilacommunity.htm) der Veer, pg 27-29 Eaton, "5. Mass Conversion to Islam: Theories and Protagonists" The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 212 The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 227-228 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor P. M. ( Peter Malcolm) Holt, Bernard Lewis, "The Cambridge History of Islam", Cambridge University Press, pr 21, 1977, ISBN 0-521-29137-2 pg.123-125 [30]!Colin Brown, A Short History of Indonesia", Allen & Unwin, Jul 1, 2003 ISBN 1-86508-838-2 pg.31-33 [31]!

He changes his name to reflect his new religion. [32]! Nazeer Ahmed, "Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War", Xlibris Corporation, Dec 1, 2000, ISBN 0-7388-5962-1 pg. 394-396 [33]! The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 335 (http://books.google. com/books?id=O45CAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=thomas+walker+arnold+preaching&hl=en& ei=Vh74TLilEIOdlgfN34ifAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) [34]!

Devin pg. 19 [35]!

Devin pg 67-69 [36]! Daniel W. Brown, " New Introduction to Islam", Blackwell Publishing, Aug 1, 2003, ISBN 0-631-21604-9 pg. 185-187 [37]!

Devin 160. [38]!S. Frederick (EDT) Starr, "Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland", M.E. Sharpe, Apr 1, 2004 ISBN 0-7656-1317-4 pg. 46-48 [39]! John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab civilization : source of Renaissance, Taylor & Francis, 1983, p. 104 (http://books.google.fr/books?id=IaM9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA104&dq=oleg+grabar+kairouan+mosque&cd=3#v=onepage&q=oleg grabar kairouan mosque&f=false) [40]! "Byzantine Empire - The successors of Heraclius: Islam and the Bulgars" (http:// www.britannica.com/eb/article-9239). Britannica. 2007.

. [41]! Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period, Cambridge University Press, 1987, page 28 (http:// books.google. com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&pg=PA28&dq=arabs+conquest+tunisia+647&hl=fr&ei=QwJITeLPCYX4sgbEx6SFAw&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) [42]!

Linda Kay Davidson and David Martin Gitlitz, Pilgrimage : from the Ganges to Graceland : an encyclopedia, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2002, pages 301-302 (http://books.google.com/books?id=YVYkrNhPMQkC&pg=PA302&dq=670+great+mosque+of+kairouan&hl=fr&

Spread of Islam 48 ei=TARITd2BC4TLswbZxODmAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=670 great mosque of kairouan&f=false) [43]!

"Islamic world - Berbers" (http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-26922). Britannica. 2007. .

[44] http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html [45]! A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014)) [46]!

"The Return of Religion: Currents of Resurgence, Convergence, and Divergence- The Cresset (Trinity 2009)" (http://www.valpo.edu/ cresset/2009/Trinity/Sanneh_T09.htm). . Retrieved 22 June 2011. [47]! "Christian Number-Crunching reveals impressive growth" (http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/facts/fm0146.htm). . Retrieved 22 June 2011. [48]!Paul Stoller, "Money Has No Smell: The Africanization of New York City," Chicago: University of Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-77529-6 (http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14758.ctl) [49]! Crypto-Christians of the Trabzon Region of Pontos (http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1387& Itemid=90) [50] Pewforum.org(http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx?print=true)

References •!

Devin De Weese, Devin A, "Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde", Penn State University Press, Sep 1, 1994, ISBN 0-271-01073-8 •!

Fred Astren, "Karaite Judaism and Historical Understanding", Univ of South Carolina Press, Feb 1, 2004 ISBN 1-57003-518-0 •!

Tobin Siebers, "Religion and the Authority of the Past", University of Michigan Press, Nov 1, 1993, ISBN 0-472-08259-0 •!

Jonathan Berkey, "The Formation of Islam", Cambridge University Press, Jan 1, 2003, ISBN 0-521-58813-8 •! Goddard, Hugh Goddard, "Christians and Muslims: from double standards to mutual understanding", Routledge (UK), Oct 26, 1995 ISBN 0-7007-0364-0 •! Hourani, Albert, 2002, A History of the Arab Peoples, Faber & Faber, , ISBN 0-571-21591-2 •! Lapidus, Ira M. 2002, A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. •! Timothy M. Savage, Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing, The Washington Quarterly, Summer 2004. http://www.twq.com/04summer/docs/04summer_savage.pdf •!

Stoller, Paul. "Money Has No Smell: The Africanization of New York City," Chicago: University of Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-77529-6 •!

Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1993 1993. Online version last accessed on 1 May 2007 (http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ ft067n99v9/) •!

Peter van der Veer, "Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India", University of California Press, Feb 7, 1994, ISBN 0-520-08256-7 •! Kayadibi, Saim. “Ottoman Connections to the Malay World: Islam, Law and Society”(Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2011) ISBN:978 983 954 1779.

49

Beliefs of Islam Islam Islam (English!/ˈɪzlɑːm/;[1] Arabic: $%&'%‫ اإ‬al-ʾislām IPA: [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ( listen)[2]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: *‫ا‬ Allāh), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to love and serve God.[3][4] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets.[5] They maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time,[6] but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[7] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment.[8][9] The majority of Muslims are Sunni, being over 75–90% of all Muslims.[10] The second largest sect, Shia, makes up 10–20%.[11] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[12] 25% in South Asia,[12] 20% in the Middle East,[13] 2% in Central Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15% in SubSaharan Africa.[14] Sizable communities are also found in China, Russia, and parts of Europe. With over 1.5 billion followers or over 22% of earth's population,[14][15] Islam is the second-largest and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world.[16][17]

Etymology and meaning Further information: S-L-M Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.[18] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[19][20] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[21] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[22] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[23] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of service (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[24] The Kaaba, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity.

Islam 50

Articles of faith The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one God – unitary and beyond comprehension – and that Muhammad is His prophet, the last in a series of prophets beginning with Adam. The Qurʼan is upheld as the eternal, literal word of God, and revelations to earlier prophets, as seen in the Jewish Torah and Christian Gospels, are believed to have become distorted by human intervention. Muslims believe that the Qurʼan was revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, and belief in angels as Godʼs servants is part of the Islamic tradition. Belief in the Day of Judgment, when all people will undergo bodily

resurrection and be judged by God, is another core tenet. While Sunni and Shiʼa Muslims adhere to these basic beliefs, Shiʼa also believe in the Imamate, the line of infallible spiritual and political leaders who succeeded Muhammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.[25]

God Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd (Arabic: +,-".). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[26] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being AlRahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[27] Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into being by Godʼs sheer command “ʻBeʼ and so it is.”[28][29] and that the purpose of existence is to love and serve God.[4][30] He is viewed as a personal God who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[28][31] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[32] Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews meaning the one God, while ʾilāh (Arabic: /%‫ )إ‬is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[33] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.

Angels Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: 0%&1 malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[34] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[35] Allah means God in Arabic

Islam 51

Revelations The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[6] The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[36][37][38] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl).

On many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[39] The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph.

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics.

The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[40] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[41] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[42] When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are

therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[43]

Prophets Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: 234 nabī ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an[44] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[45] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God repeated by Muhammad differing from the Quran in that they are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the quran are the "direct words of God". The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[28] The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi

Islam 52

Resurrection and judgment Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: 51&,6%‫"م ا‬8) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[46] On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief (Arabic: 9:; Kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if He so wills.

[47] Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[48] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: <8+%‫"م ا‬8), "Day of Religion";[49] as-sāʿah (Arabic: 5=&'%‫)ا‬, "the Last Hour";[50] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: 5=‫&ر‬6%‫)ا‬, "The Clatterer."[51]

Predestination In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[52] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[53]

Five pillars The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving

(zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[54]

Testimony The Shahadah,[55] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[56] Islam 53

Prayer Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: 5%&#), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances.

The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[57] A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).[58] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[59] Shia Islam permits combining prayers in succession.[60]

Fasting Further information: Sawm of Ramadan Fasting, (Arabic: ‫"م‬# ṣawm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[61]

Alms-giving "Zakāt" (Arabic: ‫ ز;&ة‬zakāh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (ṣadaqah).[62]

Pilgrimage The pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: @- ḥaǧǧ) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[63] Muslims praying

Islam 54

Law and jurisprudence The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[64] Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery.

Though not in the Qur'an , there are also laws against apostasy (although Muslims disagree over punishment).[65] The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[66] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri have since died out.[67][68] Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. Much of it has evolved to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid'ah. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence").

According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-RisÄ lah.

[69]

Jurists There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvisâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulama (singular Aalim). Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[70]

Etiquette and diet Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "assalamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.

Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[71] Islam 55

Family life The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their wellbeing. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[72] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[73] A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[74] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[75]

Government

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[76]

Military Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[77] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation."

Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[78] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[79][80] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[81] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[82] Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[83][84] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.

[85] Marriage in Islam requires nikah and a legal marriage certificate.

Islam 56 Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[84] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[86] occultation in 868 AD.[87]

History Muhammad (610–632) Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader.

However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.[88] During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[89] During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622, after initially trying the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as

Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[90] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[91] Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2nd most sacred Mosque in Islam.

Islam 57

Caliphate and Sunni-Shia split (632–750) Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[92] His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[94] When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661.

Following this, Mu'awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[95] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community.

The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.

[96] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[97] The local population of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[98][99] The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only;[100] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750 and moved the capital to Baghdad.[101] The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization.[93]

Islam 58

Abbasid era (750–1258) Expansion of the Muslim world continued by both conquest and proselytism as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[102] The Ghaznavids and Ghurids conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. Many Muslims went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.

[103]

The major hadith collections were compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. AlShafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith.[104] Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir

ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[105] Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic.[106] Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to a unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.[107] The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari. Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires.

Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[108] Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[109] Islamic civilization flourished in what is sometimes referred to as the "Islamic Golden Age".[110] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,[111][112] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[113][114] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[115] The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in law schools.[116] Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,[117] were introduced to the scientific process.[118] An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "worldʼs first true scientist."[119][120] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[117] Discoveries include gathering the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions and Al-Jahizʼs proposal of the theory of natural selection.[121][122] Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America.[123][124] Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[125][126] The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 836, the capital was moved to Samarra by Caliph Al-Mu'tasim and it was returned to Baghdad in 892. In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone.[127] By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power but continued the caliph's titular authority.[128] The Mongol Empire finally put an end to the Abbassid dynasty, killing its last Caliph at Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the Battle of Hattin in 1187.

Built during the Ghurids in the 13th century, the Friday Mosque of Herat is one of the oldest mosques in Afghanistan.

Islam 59 the Battle of Baghdad in 1258.

Fall of Abbasids to end of caliphate (1258–1924) Expansion continued with independent powers moving into new areas. An alliance of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars, known as the Crusades, aimed at capturing the Holy Land, though initially successful, was reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[129] In Europe, the Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[130] In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire conquered the Balkans, parts of Greece, Constantinople[131] and reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[132] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim.

While cultural styles used to radiate from Baghdad, the Mongol destruction of Baghdad led Egypt to become the Arab heartland while Central Asia went its own way and was experiencing another golden age. The Safavid dynasty of Persia made ties with India and Persian poetry rose to new heights while Arabic poetry was in state of decline. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[133][134]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. Large areas of Islamic Central Asia were seriously depopulated largely as a result of Mongol destruction.[135] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.[136][137] This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.

[138] The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian states were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty.[139] The Ottoman era ended after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.

[140][141]

Reform and revival movements during this period include an 18th century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of the Prophet and his Companions.[142] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

A miniature from Padshahnama depicting the surrender of the Shi'a Safavid garrison of Kandahar in 1638 to the Mughal army.

The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, was built during the Ottoman Empire.

Islam 60

Modern times (1924–present) Further information: Iranian revolution and Islamic revival Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration.

Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[143] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling the Muslims population between 1869 and 1914.[144] Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into Western European nations in the 1960s and 1970s.

New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[145] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[146] Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity.[147] Also of issue is the assimilation of Muslim communities and Islamophobia in host countries.[148] Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise.[147] Christopher Hitchens states that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[149] Syed Ameer Ali,[150] Ahmed Deedat,[151] Yusuf Estes and Tariq Ramadan.

Secular powers such as Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.[152][153] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were, as well as in Tunisia, banned in official buildings.[154][155] About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists whom, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.[156] However, Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.[157] Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[158] In Iran, revolution replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties are doing The Kul Sharif Mosque in Kazan, Russia National Mosque of Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur.

Completed in 1984, the Abuja mosque is the national mosque of Nigeria.

Islam 61 well in elections following the Arab spring.[159] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[160] Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.[161][162][163] Orthodox groups are sometimes well funded and are growing at the expense of traditional groups.[164] In many places, the prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common [165] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.

[166] With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[162] Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace TV.[167] Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.[168][169]

Denominations Sunni The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up over 75% to 90% of all Muslims.[10] Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".

[17][28] In Arabic language, as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine.

According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[170] Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.[171] A mosque in the Roxbury section of Boston, Massachusetts, in the United States.

Distribution of Sunni, Shia, and Ibadi branches of Islam.

Some of the major movements in Islam.

Islam 62 There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[172] The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.[173]

Shia The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[11] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who Shias believe was the true successor after Muhammad. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.[174] Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over validity of specific collections of hadith, with Shias preferring hadiths attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt.

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya). Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[175] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[176] Other smaller branches include the Alawites and Alevi.

Branches of Shia Islam which deviate from mainstream Shia doctrine are described by orthodox Shias as Ghulat.

Sufism

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.[177] By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[178] However, Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation.[179] Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.[180][181]

Minor denominations •!

Ahmadiyya is an Messianic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world.[182] •!

The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of kharijite. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.

•!

The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith. •! Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. •! Nation of Islam is a mainly African-American new religious movement founded in Detroit.

Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey

Islam 63

Demographics A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it's estimated over 75–90% are Sunni and 10– 20% are Shi'a,[14][28][183] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[184] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[185] Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million;[186] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion.

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[187] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[188][189] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[190] Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[191][192][193][194] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[195] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[196] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[14][197]

Culture Architecture Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (fouriwan and hypostyle).[198] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[199] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

Art Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[200] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2009).

The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture in Spain.

Islam 64

Calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[201] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: ,on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan ) 9A:%‫ ا‬+,= and Eid al-Adha (BCD%‫ اأ‬+,=) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.

[202]

Criticism of Islam Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early written criticism came from Christians, prior to the ninth century, many of whom viewed Islam as a radical Christian heresy.[203] Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[204][205][206] Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life.[206][207] Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.[208][209] Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[210][211] In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[212]

References Notes Muslim family in Tajikistan celebrating Eid-ul-Fitr [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are English pronunciation: /ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and English pronunciation: / ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary). /ʔiˈslaːm/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from [i]~[ɪ]~[e]. The second vowel ranges from [æ]~[a]~[ä]~ [ɛ]. At some geographic regions, such as Northwestern Africa they don't have stress.

See: •!

Qur'an 51:56 •! "God" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. "For Muslims, God is unique and without equal." "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence" (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/ Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html). Patheos.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-29. "People of the Book" (http:// www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Bennett (2010), p.101 Esposito (2002b), p.17 See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* "Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Islam 65 [10] See: •!

Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H_m14NlQQMYC&pg=PA130&dq=Sunnis+are + 90%&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5y_uTo2WEobxrQeH_6n3CA&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Sunnis are 90%&f=false). Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 352. ISBN 0761479260. . Retrieved December 19, 2011. "A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent and Shias at 10 percent."

•!

"Sunnite" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. "They numbered about 900 million in the late 20th century and constituted nine-tenths of all the adherents of Islām."

•!

"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population" (http:// pewforum. org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx). Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-08-24. "Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims."

•!

"Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6213248.stm). BBC News. 2011-12-06. . Retrieved December 18, 2011. "The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis - estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%."

•!

"Sunni and Shia Islam" (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0060)). Library of Congress Country Studies. . Retrieved December 17, 2011. "Sunni constitute 85 percent of the world's Muslims."

•!

"Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA" (http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2007-09-24-muslimtension_N.htm). USA Today. 2007-09-24. . Retrieved December 18, 2011. "Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite."

•!

"Religions" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population... Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide..."

•!

Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3& dq=Sunni+Islam&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2DLuTujOEcesrAej29DdCA&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Sunni Islam&f=false) "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."

•!

Inside Muslim minds (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Z4Ts0GkJBKgC&pg=PA20&dq=&hl=en& ei=hf7hTrCmNsvB8QOllfmCBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CE0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false) "around 80% are Sunni" •!

Who Gets To Narrate the World (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w_ngX--ji4C&pg=PA103&dq=&hl=en& ei=yQDiTt_qE9C28QOKn9yMBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEMQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=world muslim 80% sunni&f=false) "The Sunnis (approximately 80%)" •!

Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NI1G_9j1AhcC&pg=PA51&dq=&hl=en& ei=yQDiTt_qE9C28QOKn9yMBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEgQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=world muslim 80% sunni&f=false) "some 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni" •!

Islam and the Ahmadiyya jama'at (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&pg=PA32&dq=&hl=en& ei=yQDiTt_qE9C28QOKn9yMBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CGAQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=world muslim 80% sunni&f=false) "The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the worlds Muslim population" •!

A dictionary of modern politics (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qHXbGOUuF9YC&pg=PA252&dq=&hl=en& ei=5wHiTpzMGMrT8gPIl52FBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=world muslim 80% sunni&f=false) "probably 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni" [11] See •!

"Shīʿite" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Shīʿites have come to account for roughly one-tenth of the Muslim population worldwide."

•!

"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population" (http:// pewforum. org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx). Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-08-24. "The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population."

•!

"Shia" (http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shia). Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. . Retrieved December 5, 2011. "Shiʼa Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide..."

•!

"Religions" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population... Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide..."

[12]!

Miller (2009), pp.8,17 [13]!

See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19 [14]!

Miller, Tracy, ed. (10 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the Worldʼs Muslim Population (http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx). Pew Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-10-08. [15]!

"The World Factbook" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html). CIA Factbook. . Retrieved 2010-12-08.

Islam 66 [16]!

"The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions" (http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3835). Foreign Policy. May 14, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.

•• • • "Islam Today" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html). Islam: Empire of Faith (2000). PBS. . Retrieved 2010-08-25.

"Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest..." "No God But God" (http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god.html). Thomas W. Lippman. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."

"Understanding Islam" (http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/understanding-islam.html). Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http:// www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 2007-07-03.

[18]!

Dictionary listing for Siin roots (http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm) derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk [19]!

Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis. ''Islam: The Religion and The People''. Wharton School Publishing. 2009. pp. 8 (http://books. google.com/books?id=IVyMAvW9slYC&pg=PA8&dq=surrender+to+will+of+God+islam). Books.google.com. .

Retrieved 2011-11-04.

[20] [21] • • [22] [23] • • [24] [25] What does Islam mean? (http://www.qaem.org/wp/what-does-islam-mean/) The Friday Journal, Mumbai (6 Feb 2011) See: Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83 See: Qur'an 9:74, Qur'an 49:14 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission.

Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-82-322584-2. "Islam" (http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/islam).

Knowledge Resources. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. . Retrieved 2011-11-19. [26] See: •!

Qur'an 112:1–4 •!

Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76 •! Esposito (2004), p.22 •! Griffith (2006), p.248 •! D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

[27]!

Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library.

ISBN 0-87808-299-9.

[28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] ••• [34] [35] •••• [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] •• "Islām" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. Qur'an 2:117 Qur'an 51:56 Qur'an 2:186 Qur'an 50:16 See: "God" (http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh. L. Gardet. "Allah".

Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Qur'an 21:19–20, Qur'an 35:1 See: Qur'an 35:1 Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28 W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Gisela Webb. "Angel".

Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.

Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page. Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x. Bucaille, Maurice (1978). The Bible, the Qur'an and Science. p. 125. ISBN 8172311613. Esposito (2004), pp.

17,18,21 See: "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Qur'an". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Islam 67 [41] [42] • • [43] ••• Esposito (2004), p.79 See: Esposito (2004), pp.79–81 "Tafsir". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. See: Teece (2003), pp.12,13 C. Turner (2006), p.42 "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.

[45] • • [46] ••• [47] [48] •••• [49] [50] [51] [52] •• • [53] • • [54] [55] [56]

•••• [57] •••• SSee: Momem (1987), p.176 "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. See: "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003) "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna". L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Qur'an 5:31 See: Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565 "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000) Asma Afsaruddin.

"Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. "Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Qur'an 1:4 Qur'an 6:31 Qur'an 101:1 See: Qur'an 9:51 D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' " Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".

See: Farah (2003), pp.119–122 Patton (1900), p.130 Pillars of Islam (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1859?_hi=32&_pos=3), Oxford Islamic Studies Online Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272 See: Farah (1994), p.135 Momen (1987), p.178 "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004) ArticleClick.com (http://www.articleclick.com/Article/Ismaili/1035965) See: Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19 Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55 Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34 Momen (1987), p.178 "The Koran" (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/koran/koran-idx?type=proximity&q1=Imran&operator1=Near&amt1=80& [44] q2=Ibrahim&operator2=Near&amt2=80&q3=&size=First+100). Quod.lib.umich.edu. . Retrieved 2009-12-12.

Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128.

See: J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al.. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

"Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Islamic Customs and Culture (http://books.google.co.uk/books? id=IGZsKgWFUmAC&pg=PA10&dq=&hl=en&sa=X& [58] ISBN 0-486-41721-2.

[59] • • [60] ei=SuQ8T9bBBYfMhAeF6qHCBQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=&f=false) retrieved 16 February [61] See:

Islam 68 •••• [62] •••• [63] ••• [64] [65] [66] ••• [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] ••••••• [72] ••• [74] ••• [76] ••• [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] ••• [82] •• Qur'an 2:184 Esposito (2004), pp.90,91 "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "For whom fasting is mandatory" (http:// www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21. html#HEADING20). Compendium of Muslim Texts. USCMSA. . Retrieved 2007-04-18.

See: Qur'an 2:177 Esposito (2004), p.90 "Zakat". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.

See: Farah (1994), pp.145–147 Goldschmidt (2005), p.48 "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam (http://books.google.com/?id=OZbyz_HreIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q&f=false). Infobase Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 9780816054541. .

See: Menski (2006), p.290 B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon. "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. N. Calder; M. B. Hooker.

"Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.

Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.

Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162 Weiss (2002), pp.3,161 See: Qur'an 5:5 Curtis (2005), p.164 Esposito (2002b), p.111 Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws (http:// www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html) Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws (http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html) Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer (http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm) Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter".

Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam Waines (2003) pp. 93–96 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339 Esposito (1998) p. 79 *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241 Harald Motzki. "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Lori Peek. "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures.

See: Esposito (2004), p. 84 Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845 Lewis (2003), p. 100 Esposito (2003), p.93 Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18 Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18 Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad See: Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100 Esposito (2003), p.93 "jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

See: Firestone (1999) p.17 "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.

Islam 69 [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] •••• [89] • • [90] • • [91] [92] ••••• Firestone (1999) p.17 "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118 Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72 cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106 See: Esposito (1998), p.12 Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 F. E. Peters (2003), p.9 "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

See: Qur'an 18:110 F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. See: F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194 Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28 F. Buhl; A. T. Welch. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. See: Holt (1977a), p.57 Hourani (2003), p.22 Lapidus (2002), p.32 Madelung (1996), p.43 Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50 "Great Mosque of Kairouan" (http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=358). Muslim Heritage.com. 2003-04-24. .

[93] Retrieved 2010-05-16.

[94] • • [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] • • [106] [107] [108] • • [109] [110] ••••• [111] [112] See Holt (1977a), p.74 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72 Waines (2003) p.46 Donald Puchala, ʻʼTheory and History in International Relations,ʼʼ page 137. Routledge, 2003. Esposito (2010), p.38

Hofmann (2007), p.86 Hawting (2000), p.4 Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam".

Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. "Islam in China" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml). bbcnews.com. .

Retrieved 2011-08-10. Lapidus (2002), p.86 See: Lapidus (2002), p.160 Waines (2003) p.126,127 Esposito (2010), p.88 Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 0907461387.

See: Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91 "Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Esposito (2004), pp.104,105 See: Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105 Holt (1977b), pp.661–663 Lapidus (2002), p.56 Lewis (1993), p.84 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Micheau, Françoise. "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East". pp. 991–2., in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007) "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate" (https:// www.planetseed.com/node/17129). Planetseed.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-29.

Islam 70 [113]! Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837.

[114] [115] [116] Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD.. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 9004061312. The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242 Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423. [117]!

Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1590080408 page 23, 42, 84.

"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty." [118]!

Rosanna Gorini (2003), "AlHaytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy: "According

to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field.

His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."

[119] [120] BBC News (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm) The ʻfirst true scientist.ʼ Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (http://www.ishim.net/ ishimj/ 4/10.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2 (4): 53–55. . Retrieved 2008-09-25.

[121]! Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-30). "It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton" (http:// www.guardian.co.uk/ commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world). London: guardian.co.uk. . Retrieved 2011-12-13.

[122]! Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-29). "Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/ 3323462/ Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html). London: telegraph.co.uk. . Retrieved 2011-12-13.

[123]! Haviland, Charles (2007-09-30). "The roar of Rumi - 800 years on" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm). bbcnews.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-10.

[124] [125] [126] [127] "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml). bbcnews.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-10.

(Gaudiosi 1988) (Hudson 2003, p. 32) "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/371782/Mecca/37835/ History#ref887188). Encyclopædia [128] • • [129] [130] [131] ••• [132] • • [133] [134] [135] See: Lapidus (2002), p.103–143 "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310 Britannica. . Retrieved 2011-11-12.

The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves (http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf). Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.

See Holt (1977a), p.263 Lapidus (2002), p.250 "Istanbul". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

See: Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254 L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 073910375X. Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 0700710264. World Timelines - Western Asia - AD 1250-1500 Later Islamic (http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/asia/western/ AD1250-1500) [136]! Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M (http:// books.google.com/ books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC&pg=PA516&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false). ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 0313341028. . [137]!

Black Death (http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/09/13/2031252.htm?site=science/greatmomentsinscience), Great Moments in Science, ABC Science [138] [139] [140] [141] [142] [143] AAhmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1590080408 Lapidus (2002), pp.

358,378–380,624 Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493 "New Turkey" (http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm).

Weekly.ahram.org.eg. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. Esposito (2010), p.146 Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271

Islam 71 [144]! Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708 [145] [146] • • [147] [148] [149] Nigosian (2004), pp.41 See: Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179 Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830 Rippin (2001), p.288 Ernst (2004), p.11 For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446. [150]!

For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.

[151]! Westerlund (2003) [152]!

Page18*Elsie, Robert. 2000. A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture (http://books.google.com/ books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC). C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1. [153]! *Goldman, Merle (1986). "Religion in Post-Mao China". The Annals of the American Academy of Politica and Social Science 483 (1): 146–156. doi:10.1177/0002716286483001013. [154]! "Huge rally for Turkish secularsim" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm). bbcnews.com. 2011-04-29. . Retrieved 2011-12-06. [155]!

Saleh, Heba (2011-10-15). "Tunisia moves against headscarves" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm). bbcnews.com. . Retrieved 2011-12-06. [156]!

Perrin, Andrew (October 10, 2003). "Weakness in numbers" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/ 0,9171,428133,00.html).

Time.com. . Retrieved December 6, 2011. [157]!"Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab spring?" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ world-middle-east-14447820). bbcnews.com.

2011-08-09. . Retrieved 2011-08-10. [158]!

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004 [159] !

Kirkpatrick, David D. (2011-12-03). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule" (http://www.nytimes.com/ 2011/12/04/ world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html?_r=2&hpw). nytimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-12-08.

[160]! "Organization of the Islamic Conference" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm). BBC News.

2008-09-18. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [161]!

"Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast" (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/ 27256187/page/2/#.TkoWh2H4Jtx). MSNBC. .

Retrieved 2011-08-15. [162]! "Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit" (http://www.economist.com/node/9409354? story_id=9409354). Economist magazine.

2007-06-28. . Retrieved 2011-08-15. [163]!

Slackman, Michael (2008-12-23). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/ world/middleeast/24jordan.html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-08-15. [164]!

Lakshmi, Rama (2008-06-29). "India's moderate Muslims see peril in growth of stricter form of Islam" (http://www.washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/06/28/AR2008062801101.html?nav=rss_email/components). Washington Post. . Retrieved 2011-08-15. [165]!

Slackman, Michael (2007-01-28). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil" (http://www.nytimes.com/ 2007/01/28/weekinreview/ 28slackman.html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-08-15. [166]!

Beech, Hannah (2007-02-22). "Why Indonesia matters" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592576-2,00.html).

Time magazine. . Retrieved 2011-08-15. [167]! "24-hours Islamic International TV channel" (http://www.peacetv.tv/). Peace TV. .

Retrieved 2010-11-22. [168]! Onishi, Norimitsu (2001-11-01). "Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere" (http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/ 01/world/rising-muslim-power-in-africa-causes-unrest-in-nigeria-and-elsewhere.html). NewYorkTimes. . Retrieved 2011-11-17.

[169]! "Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa" (http://wwrn.org/articles/14286/?&place=eastern-africa). wwrn.org. . Retrieved 2011-11-17. [170] See: •••

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666 J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. D. W. Brown.

"Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/ [172] See: [171] e2280?_hi=2&_pos=2) ••• [173] Esposito (2003), pp.275,306 "Shariah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

Salafi Islam (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm) GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.

Islam 72 [174] ••• [175] • • [176] • • [177] See Lapidus (2002), p.46 "Imam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Shi'ite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

See: Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45 Nasr (1994), p.466 See: Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254 (http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/ martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm&date=2009-10-26+02:18:33) Shia branches (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/ index.html) "Religions" (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). . Retrieved 2010-08-25.

[178]! Trimingham (1998), p.1 [179]! Asghar Ali (3 June 2010). "Salafism and Sufism - is there real conflict?" (http://twocircles.net/ 2010jun03/ salafism_and_sufism_there_real_conflict.html). . Retrieved 18 October 2011.

[180] [181] •••• [182] [183] [184] [185] "Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths" (http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html). Uga.edu. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.

See: Esposito (2003), p.302 Malik (2006), p.3 B. S. Turner (1998), p.145 "Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism" (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061)). Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. . Retrieved 2007-04-18.

"Ahmadiyya Adherents" (http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_16.html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 21 February 2011. CIA (https:// www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html) retrieved 21 Dec 2011 Miller (2009), p.11 Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kassim Kone (2006). Muslims in the United States (http://books.google.com/?id=oj7krKWyVNAC). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0313328250, 9780313328251. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. [186]! Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38.

ISBN 0567094529. [187]!

"Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online" (http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/ opr/t125/e1087).

Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. . Retrieved 2010-05-16. [188]! Secrets of Islam (http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/ religion/islams_global_reach.htm) – U.S. News & World Report.

Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).

[189]! Miller (2009), pp.15,17 [190]! "Number of Muslim by country" (http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_musreligion-islam-number-of-muslim). nationmaster.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [191]!

"CIA – The World Factbook – China" (https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html). Cia.gov. .

Retrieved 2009-06-15. [192]! "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)" (http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm).

State.gov. . Retrieved 2009-06-15. [193]!

"NW China region eyes global Muslim market" (http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/09/ content_6831389.htm). China Daily. 2008-07-09. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [194]!

"Muslim Media Network" (http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922).

Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [195]!

Secrets of Islam (http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm), U.S. News & World Report.

Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University. [196] See: •!

Esposito (2004) pp.2,43 •!

"Islamic World". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Religions_By_Adherents.html). Adherents.com. . Retrieved 2007-01-09.

•!

"Muslims in Europe: Country guide" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm). BBC News (BBC). 2005-12-23. .

Retrieved 2006-09-28.

•!

"Religion In Britain" (http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293). National Statistics. Office for National Statistics.

2003-02-13. . Retrieved 2006-08-27.

Islam 73 [197]! The Mosque in America: A National Portrait (http://www.cair.com/Portals/0/pdf/ The_Mosque_in_America_A_National_Portrait.pdf) Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.

[198]! "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) [199]!

Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997 (http://books.google.com/?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PA175&dq=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns#v=onepage&q=mosque kairouan roman columns&f=false). ISBN 9780521455992. . Retrieved 2010-08-06. [200]!Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3 [201]! Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/ Sacred-Time.html) [202]!

Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws (http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html) [203]! De Haeresibus by John of Damascus. See Migne. Patrologia Graeca, vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954, pp. 392-398.

[204] [205] [206] Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus Books. p. 67. ISBN 1-59102-068-9. Ibn Kammuna, Examination of the Three Faiths, trans. Moshe Perlmann (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971), pp. 148–49 Mohammed and Mohammedanism (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm), by Gabriel Oussani, Catholic Encyclopedia.

Retrieved April 16, 2006. [207]! Ibn Warraq, The Quest for Historical Muhammad (Amherst, Mass.:Prometheus, 2000), 103.

[208]! Bible in Mohammedian Literature. (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1032&letter=B#3068), by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 22, 2006. [209]! Robert Spencer, "Islam Unveiled", pp. 22, 63, 2003, Encounter Books, ISBN 1-893554-77-5 [210]! http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm? page=22&year=2005&country=6825.See also Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05).

"Islam in Europe" (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371). The New York Review of Books. . [211]! Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). "Islam in Europe" (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371). The New York Review of Books. . [212]!

Tariq Modood (2006-04-06). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29.

ISBN 978-0415355155.

Citations Books and journals •!

Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1).

•!

Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002).

Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118.

•!

Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris.

ISBN 978-1860642579.

•!

Armstrong, Karen (2006). Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time. HarperCollins. ISBN 006059897-2.

•!

Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 9780826499448. •!

Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710. •!

Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986. •!

Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional.

ISBN 978-0813819464. •!Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press.

ISBN 0-8135-2614-0. •! Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4. •!

Esposito, John; John Obert Voll (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7. •! Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195396003. •!

Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344.

Islam

74 •!

Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.

•!

Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999.

•!

Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 978-0195168860. •!Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-515713-3. •! Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-512558-4. •! Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press.

ISBN 978-0195182668. •!Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series.

ISBN 978-0812018530. •!Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series.

ISBN 978-0764-12226-2. •!

Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800. •!

Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994. •! Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq.

OCLC 52901690. •!

Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757. •!

Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709. •! Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press. • !

Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750.

Routledge.

ISBN 0415240735. •!

Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing.

ISBN 978-1553698425. •!Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 9781590080474. •!

Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 0521291364. •!

Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. •!

Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition.

ISBN 978-0674010178. •!Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918. •!

Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People.

Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727. •!

Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press.

ISBN 0791408191. •!

Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press.

ISBN 978-0813304533. •!Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam.

Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114. •!

Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 978-0521779333. •!Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0. •! Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2. •! Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807.

Islam 75 •!

Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.).

Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182.

•!

Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055.

•!

Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852.

•!

Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.

•!

Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087. •!

Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593. •!Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion (Journal of Law and Religion, Inc.) 3 (2): 381–397. doi:10.2307/1051182. JSTOR 1051182. •!Momen, Moojan (1987).

An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300035315. •! Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7. •!

Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press. •!

Novak, David (February 1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things. •! Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. •!Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân".

The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures (Brill Academic Publishers) 16 (3): 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 9004103147. •!

Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. •! Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2. •!

Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam.

Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5. •! Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge.

ISBN 978-0415217811. •!Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 01-92-80606-8. •! Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers.

ISBN 978-9004034952. •!Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150. •! Seibert, Robert F.; Daniel, Norman (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research (Religious Research Association, Inc.) 36 (1): 88–89. doi:10.2307/3511655. JSTOR 3511655. •! Sells, Michael Anthony; Emran Qureshi (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670. •!Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 978-0195156492. •!Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book.

Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1. •! Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press.

ISBN 0-87395-272-3. •! Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; R. Campbell (translator) (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6.

Islam 76 •!

Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964. •!Tolan, John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press.

ISBN 0231123329. •!

Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582. •!

Tritton, Arthur S. (1970) [1930]. The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5. •! Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics.

Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X. •!Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN

0415174589. •!

Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064. •!

Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh.

ISBN 0-85-224245-X. •! Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.).

Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-881078-4. •! Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers.

ISBN 9004120661. •!

Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press.

ISBN 0-292-79076-7. •! Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331.

Encyclopedias •!

William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101.

•!

Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. •! Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.).

Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369. •!

Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. •!Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.).

Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5. •! John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. •!George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, ed. (1995). Encyclopedia of the Future. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028972053. •!

P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. •!

Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books.

ISBN 978-0028656038. •!Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. •! Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books.

ISBN 978-0028657332. •!Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge.

ISBN 9780415941808. •! Peter N. Stearns, ed. (2000). The Encyclopedia of World History Online (6th ed.). Bartleby. •! Josef W. Meri, ed. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.

ISBN 041-5966906. •! Wendy Doniger, ed. (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster.

ISBN 0877790442. •!

Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam.

AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906. •! Edward Craig, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415073103.

Islam 77

Further reading •!

Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393070866. •!Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076. •!

Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999).

Noble Quran (1st ed.).

Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799. •! Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408. •! Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132. •! Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611. •!

Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833. •! Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications.

ISBN 978-1591440710. •!Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications.

ISBN 978-1591440345. •!Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.).

Indiana University Press.

ISBN 978-0253216274. •!Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2. •! Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.). Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam.

ISBN 978-9051709957. •!Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. •!Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers.

ISBN 978-0720610383.

Minorities in Islam: •!

A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006).

External links Academic resources •!

Patheos Library – Islam (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html) •!

University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA) •! Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions) (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam) •!

Ethical Democracy Journal (http://www.ethicaldemocracy.org/) views on Islam, other ethical systems and democracy Online resources •!

Islam (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam), article at Encyclopædia Britannica •!

Islam (http://www.friesian.com/islam.htm), article at Friesian.com •! Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies (http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459. html), article at Repec/Ideas, University of Connecticut and IZA, Bonn, on Islam and global value change •!

Islam (http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Islam), article at Citizendium Directories •!

Islam (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam//) at the Open Directory Project •!

Islam (Bookshelf) (http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_(Bookshelf)) at Project Gutenberg •!Islam (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs Islam 78 •!

Islam and Islamic Studies Resources (http://www.uga.edu/islam/) from Dr. Alan Godlas, Professor, University of Georgia

Afterlife in Islam Akhirah Ákhirah (Arabic: ‫ة‬9F%‫ )اآ‬is an Islamic term referring to the after life.[1] It is repeatedly referenced in chapters of the Qur'an concerning Yaum al Qiyamah, the Islamic Day of Judgment, an important part of Islamic eschatology. Life is temporary on the earth. Traditionally, it is considered to be one of the six main beliefs of Muslims, the others including: Belief in One God, Belief in God's Angels, Belief in the Revealed Books (The Suhuf of Ibrahim, Torah, Psalms Gospel, Qur'an), Belief in the Prophets of God, and Belief in Predestination/Decree.

Much like many other monotheistic religions, Muslims have the similar belief of the three-tiered cosmos .

This is the belief that there are three cosmos, being heaven and hell, with Earth or humanity in between .

According to the Islamic beliefs, Allah will play the role of the qadi, weighing the deeds of each individual.

He will decide whether that person's Ákhirah lies in Jahannam (hell) or Jannah (heaven).[2] This belief has been previously referred to as the Islamic Day of Judgment.

References [1]!

World Faiths, teach yourself - Islam by Ruqaiyyah Maqsood. ISBN 0-340-60901-X page 38/39 [2]! yourself - Islam by Ruqaiyyah Maqsood. ISBN 0-340-60901-X page 38/39

World Faiths, teach

External links •!

(Indonesian) Reward for woman in Akhirat. (http://www.indonesiaindonesia.com/f/ 5873-pahalakaum-hawa-akhirat/) •!

AKHIRAT -Shaykh Ul Islam Dr Muhammad Tahir Ul Qadri (http://www.minhajtv.org/all-videos. html? task=videodirectlink&id=452) 79 Jannah 80

Jannah Jannah (Arabic: 5ّ IJK Jannah), is the Islamic conception of paradise. The Arabic word Jannah is a shortened version meaning simply "Garden". According to Islamic eschatology, after death, one will reside in the grave until the appointed resurrection on Yawm al-Qiyāmah. Muslims believe that the treatment of the individual in the life of the grave will be according to his or her deeds in the worldly life. Jannah is often compared to Christian concepts of Heaven. According to Muslim belief, everything one longs for in this world, will be there in Paradise.[1] Paradise itself is commonly described in the Qur'an. The highest level of Paradise is Firdaws (‫دوس‬9O), which is where the prophets, the martyrs and the most truthful and pious people will dwell. In contrast to Jannah, the words Ǧahannam and Nār are used to refer to the concept of hell.

Descriptions of Paradise The descriptions of paradise are mentioned in significant detail in the Qur'an, hadiths and traditional tafsīr (exegesis). Paradise is described as surrounded by eight principal gates, each level generally being divided into a hundred degrees. The highest level is known as firdaws (sometimes called Eden). It will be entered first by Muhammad, then those who lived in poverty, and then the most pious. Entrants will be greeted by angels with salutations of peace or As-Salamu Alaykum.[2] Gardens of perpetual bliss: they shall enter there, as well as the righteous among their fathers, their spouses, and their offspring: and angels shall enter unto them from every gate (with the salutation): "Peace unto you for that ye persevered in patience! Now how excellent is the final home!"

—Qur'an, sura 13 (a-Raʾd), ayat 23-24[3] The Islamic texts describes life for its immortal inhabitants as: one that is happy — without hurt, sorrow, fear or shame — where every wish is fulfilled. Traditions relate that inhabitants will be of the same age (33 years), and of the same standing/equal. Their life is one of bliss including: wearing fancy robes, bracelets, perfumes as they partake in exquisite banquets, served in priceless vessels by immortal youths, as they recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Other foods mentioned include meats, scented wine and clear drinks bringing neither drunkenness nor rousing quarrelling. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children (provided they were admitted to paradise) — conversing and recalling the past.

The food in Jannah is reported by the companions of the Prophet as never rotting and so sweet it will make any person on earth live without feeling hunger forever.

The dwellings for inhabitants will be pleasant, with lofty gardens, shady valleys, fountains scented with camphor or ginger; rivers of water, milk, honey and wines; delicious fruits of all seasons without thorns; One day in paradise is considered equal to a thousand years on earth. Palaces are made from bricks of gold, silver, pearls, among other things. Traditions also note the presence of horses and camels of "dazzling whiteness", along with other creatures. Large trees are described, mountains made of musk, between which rivers flow in valleys of pearl and ruby.[2] The names of four rivers are Saihan (Syr Darya), Jaihan (Amu Darya), Furat (Euphrates) and Nil (Nile).[4] Salsabil is the name of a spring that is the source of the rivers of Rahma (mercy) and Al-Kawthar (abundance).[5] Sidrat al-Muntaha is a lotus tree that marks the end of the seventh heaven, the boundary where no creation can pass.

In spite of the goodly dwellings given to the inhabitants of paradise, the approval of God and nearness to him is considered greater. According to the Qur'an, God will bring the elect near to his throne (ʿarš), a day on which "some faces shall be shining in contemplating their Lord." The vision of God is regarded as the greatest of all rewards, surpassing all other joys.[2] Jannah 81

Conditions of going to Paradise According to the Qur'an, the basic criteria for salvation in afterlife is the belief in one God (Tawḥīd), Last Judgment, good deeds, and in all the messengers of God, as well as believing that Muhammad is the final prophet of God.

Though one must do good deeds and believe in God, salvation can only be attained through God's judgement.[6] Conditions of going to Paradise according to the Qur'an: Those who spend (freely), whether in prosperity, or in adversity; who restrain anger, and pardon (all) men;- for Allah loves those who do good;- And those who, having done something to be ashamed of, or wronged their own souls, earnestly bring Allah to mind, and ask for forgiveness for their sins,- and who can forgive sins except Allah?- and are never obstinate in persisting knowingly in (the wrong) they have done.

For such the reward is forgiveness from their Lord, and Gardens with rivers flowing underneath,- an eternal dwelling: How excellent a recompense for those who work (and strive)!

—Qur'an, sura 3 (Al-i-Imran), ayat 134 - 136[7] Allah did aforetime take a covenant from the Children of Israel, and we appointed twelve captains among them. And Allah said: "I am with you: if ye (but) establish regular prayers, practise regular charity, believe in my messengers, honour and assist them, and loan to Allah a beautiful loan, verily I will wipe out from you your evils, and admit you to gardens with rivers flowing beneath; but if any of you, after this, resisteth faith, he hath truly wandered from the path or rectitude."

—Qur'an, sura 5 (al-Māʾidah) ayah 12[8] As in life there are many trials which one must face. This is also a condition individuals must encounter in order to enter Jannah.

Or do ye think that ye shall enter the Garden (of bliss) without such (trials) as came to those who passed away before you? they encountered suffering and adversity, and were so shaken in spirit that even the Messenger and those of faith who were with him cried: "When (will come) the help of Allah?" Ah! Verily, the help of Allah is (always) near!

—Qur'an, sura 2 (al-Baqarah), ayah 214[9] Did ye think that ye would enter Heaven without Allah testing those of you who fought hard (In His Cause) and remained steadfast?

—Qur'an, sura 3 (Al-i-Imran), ayah 142[10] The Qur'an also asserts that those who reject the Prophets of God with their best knowledge are damned in afterlife[6] and if they reject in front of the Messenger of God, then they also face dreadful fate in this world and in afterlife (see Itmam al-hujjah). Conversely, a person who discovers monotheism not having been reached by a messenger is called Hanif.

Qur'anic names of Paradise •!

Firdaws — The Highest Gardens of the Paradise (al-Kahf,[11] Al-Muʼminoon[12]) •! Dār almaqāmah — The Home (Fāṭir[13]) •! Dār as-salām — Home of Peace (Yūnus[14]) •!

Dār al-ʾĀḫirah — The Home in the Hereafter (al-ʿAnkabūt[15]) •! al-Ǧannah — This is the most commonly used term in the Qur'an and Hadith. (al-Baqarah,[16] Al-iImran,[17][10] al-Maʾidah[18]) •! Ǧannat al-ʿadn — Gardens of Everlasting Bliss (at-Tawbah[19]:72, ar-Raʾd[20]) •! Ǧannat al-Ḫuld — The Eternal Gardens (al-Furqān[21]) •! Ǧannat al-Maʾwā — Garden of Abode (an-Naǧm[22]) Jannah 82 •! Ǧannat an-Naʿīm — The Gardens of Delight (al-Māʾidah,[23] Yūnus,[24] al-Ḥaǧǧ[25]) •!

Maqʿad aṣ-Ṣidq — Assembly of Truth (al-Qamar[26]) •! al-Maqām al-ʾAmīn — The House of Security (adDuḫḫān[27])

How many will enter heaven A few hadith, for example those narrated by Sahl bin Sad, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas, and Abu Hurairah, suggest that some who were born before Islam, during the "Period of Ignorance", but who then believed in God in the Islamic period, would be allowed into heaven without a full reckoning of their behavior.[28]

Doors of Jannah According to hadith, there are eight doors of Jannah. Their names are as following:[29] 1.!

Bāb uṣ-Ṣalāh: For those who were punctual in prayer. 2.!Bāb ul-Ǧihād: For those who took part in jihad. 3.!

Bāb uṣ-Ṣadaqah: For those who gave charity more often. 4.! Bāb ur-Rayyān: For those who fasted (sawm). 5.! Bāb ul-Ḥaǧǧ: For those participated in the annual pilgrimage. 6.!Bāb ul-Kāẓimīn

al-Ġayz w-al-ʿĀfīn ʿan in-Nās}}: For those who forgave others and withheld their anger. 7.!Bāb ul-ʾAymān: For those who by virtue of their faith are saved from reckoning and chastisement. 8.!

Bāb uḏ-Ḏikr: For those who showed zeal in remembering God.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Annemarie Schimmel. Islam and The Wonders of Creation: The Animal Kingdom. Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 2003.

Page 46 "Jannah", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online Qur'an 13:23–24 Hughes, Patrick (1995). "EDEN" (http://books.google.co.uk/ books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA106#v=onepage&q=&f=false). A Dictionary of Islam. New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Services. p. 106. ISBN 8120606728.. . Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi (2004). Divine sayings (Mishkat al-Anwar) (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dC0WiC__jtoC&pg=PA105).

Oxford, UK: Anqa Publishing. pp. 105, note 7. ISBN 0953451356. . Moiz Amjad. " Will Christians enter Paradise or go to Hell? (http://renaissance.com.pk/juntitl2y1.html)". Renaissance - Monthly Islamic journal 11(6), June, 2001. Qur'an 3:134–136 Qur'an 5:12 Qur'an 2:214 Qur'an 3:142 Qur'an 18:107 Qur'an 23:11 Qur'an 35:35 Qur'an 10:25 Qur'an 29:64 Qur'an 2:35 Qur'an 3:133 Qur'an 5:72 Qur'an 3:72 Qur'an 13:23 Qur'an 25:15 Qur'an 53:15 Qur'an 5:65 Qur'an 10:9 Qur'an 22:56 Qur'an 54:55 Qur'an 44:51 [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]

Jannah 83 [28]!

Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:54:470 (http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/054-sbt.php#004.054.470), Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:71:605 (http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/071-sbt.php#007.071.605), Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:71:648 (http://www. cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/071-sbt.php#007.071.648), Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:702 (http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/ hadith/bukhari/072-sbt.php#007.072.702) [29]!

The Eight Doors of Jannah (http://www.mahmoodiyah.org.za/faq494.htm)

Barzakh In Islamic eschatology, Barzakh (Arabic: ‫زخ‬9Q) is the intermediate state in which the soul of the deceased is transferred across the boundaries of the mortal realm into a kind of "cold sleep" where the soul will rest until the Qiyamah (Judgement Day). The term appears in the Qur'an Surah 23, Ayat 100.

Barzakh is a sequence that happens after death, in which the soul will separate from the body. Three events make up Barzakh: •!

The separation of the soul and the body, in which the soul separates and hovers over the body.

•!

Self-review of one's actions and deeds in one's life. •!

The soul rests in an interspace in which one will experience a manifestation of one's soul resulting in a cold sleep state, awaiting the Day of Judgement.

Please note that in Islam all human beings go through four steps of age: •!

The age in the womb is where the body acquires its soul. The fetus is imbued with a soul from God. The soul however, is completely innocent and totally lacking of any worldly knowledge, which is reflected by a baby's helplessness.

•!

The age in the mortal world is the stage of life from the moment of birth from the womb to the moment of death. •!

The age of the grave is the stage after death in the mortal world, where the soul is stored in Barzakh (midst?) which results in a cold sleep state, awaiting the Day of Judgement. •! The age of the hereafter or rest of eternity is the final stage commencing after the Day of Judgement and all of humanity has received their judgement from God. If they were righteous and did good deeds based on their own circumstances, and were faithful Muslims, then they go to Heaven by The Grace and Mercy of Allah and if they have attained little in life, and were unrighteous in their actions—or were despite all evidence shown to them, bent on denying the truth of life once it was presented to them based on their own circumstances they shall go to Hell. This stage of life commences officially after the embodiment of Death is brought up and is slain, thus Death dies literally again and again, and no one will ever experience or behold the concept of Death everafter. Based on the verdict received which is brought upon by each person's individual deeds, actions, and circumstances in life, the Day of Judgement on which everyone is judged with the utmost sense of justice, each human will spend this stage of life in heaven or hell (which will be a place for purification of the soul so that one realizes the wrongs committed in life).

However, those in hell are eligible to go to the state of heaven after being purified by that state described as hell if they "had an atom's worth of faith in them" and the soul is repentful.

Islamic view of the Last Judgment 84

Islamic view of the Last Judgment In Islam, Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: 51&,6%‫"م ا‬8 "the Day of Resurrection") or Yawm ad-Din (Arabic: <8+%‫"م ا‬8 "the Day of Judgment") is believed to be God's final assessment of humanity as it exists. The sequence of events (according to the most commonly held belief) is the annihilation of all creatures allowable, resurrection of the body, and the judgement of all sentient creatures/beings.

The exact time when these events are to occur is not specified, however there are said to be major[1] and minor signs[2] which are to occur near the time of Qiyamah (End time). Many Qur'anic verses, especially the earlier ones, are dominated by the idea of the nearing of the day of resurrection.[3][4] "al-Qiyama" is the name of the 75th Sura of the Qur'an, whose subject is the resurrection.

Importance and terminology Belief in al-Qiyāmah is considered a fundamental tenet of faith by all Muslims.[4]. Belief in the day of Judgement is one of the six articles of faith. The trials and tribulations associated with it are detailed in both the Qur'an and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of the Islamic expositors and scholarly authorities such as Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah who explain them in detail. Every human, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, is believed to be held accountable for their deeds and are believed to be judged by God accordingly.[5] The importance of the 'last judgment' in the Islamic belief system is underlined by the many references to it in the Qur'an and its many names. For example, it is also called "the Day of Reckoning",[6] "the Hour",[7] [8] "the Last Day",[9] "Day of Judgment".

Qur'an Muslims believe that the Qur'an provides the framework for understanding the Day of Judgment. Ideas such as the return of Jesus to Earth and the second kingdom before the occurrence are believed to be indirectly mentioned in the Qur'an.

There are a wide variety of views and interpretations of the verses in the Qur'an referring to the Day of Judgment.

•!

The timing of the day of judgment is not known to people - only God knows when it will occur.[10] •!

Muhammad cannot bring it forward.[11] •!

The people will believe that a short time has passed between their birth on earth and death.[12] •! Nothing will remain except God.[13] •!

God will resurrect people even if they turned to stone or iron.[14] •!

The Trumpet will be blown twice: the first time all creatures will swoon and the second time the resurrection will come to pass. This is based on the verse of Qur'an in which God says (interpretation of the meaning): The Trumpet will (just) be sounded, when all that are in the heavens and on earth will swoon, except such as it will please Allah (to exempt). Then will a second one be sounded, when, behold, they will be standing and looking on!

—Sura 39 (Az-Zumar), ayah 68[15] •!

The Qur'an declares that the belief in God and the belief in the last prophet Muhammad (including the belief in all the prophets of Islam) and the last Day of Judgment and the doing of good works on earth is the requirement for salvation, provided that Shirk is not committed. Believing in and observing in the five pillars of Islam: tawheed, salat, fasting, Zakat and Hajj are necessary to secure heaven. [16] •!

No injustice shall be done Islamic view of the Last Judgment 85 Surely God does not do injustice to the weight of an atom, and if it is a good deed He multiplies it and gives from Himself a great reward.

—Qur'an, sura 4 An-Nisa, ayah 40[17] •!

Non-Muslims, apart from People of the Book (Christian and Jews), will go to hell forever.[18]

Events described as taking place on the day of judgment Many chapters/surah of the Qur'an describe proposed events to occur on the day of judgement: •!

Destruction/flattening of the earth •! Creation of a new earth •!Resurrection of people • !

Gathering of the people

•!

Books of records of the deed accounts of the people shall be given to them in their right hands if they are judged to be good on earth and in their left hands if they are judged to be evil on earth •!

Separation of the people who are hellbound and heaven bound

Hadith The hadith give the view that the day of the judgment will be foreshadowed by events classified as the minor and major signs of the day. Nonetheless, Muslims debate over signs from Hadith as none of them are considered authoritative in the manner that the Qur'an is and thus various interpretations applied to some signs, with some scholars interpreting them allegorically and others literally. The signs mentioned above, as described in the Qur'an, are those believed by all Muslims as they are considered authoritative.

Supposed major signs The major signs are the seven which are thought to occur closer to the supposed day of judgment.

1.!

The appearance of Masih ad-Dajjal (Antichrist) 2.! The appearance of Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj (Gog and Magog)[19] 3.!

The appearance of the Dabbat al-ard (the strange beast)[20] 4.!Three huge earthquakes 5.!

The smoke[21] 6.! The rise (Sunni view) or the return from occlusion (Shia view) of the Mahdi to restore Islam 7.!The return of Isa from heaven to assist the Mahdi in restoring Islam

Other supposed signs 1.!

Fire from the west of what is now Yemen 2.! People fighting over gold revealed by the river Euphrates 3.!

Inanimate objects speaking 4.! When the mother will give birth to her master

Barzakh In Islamic eschatology, barzakh (Arabic: ‫زخ‬9Q) is the intermediate state in which the soul (Nafs) of the deceased is believed to be transferred across the boundaries of the mortal realm into a kind of "sleep" in which the soul would supposedly rest until the Qiyamah.

From the Qur'an itself, barzakh is described as the intermediate state; interface or barrier between two states.[22][23][23][24][25] Islamic view of the Last Judgment 86

Classical views Sunni • Ghazali •! Ibn Taymiyyah • Sufi

Modern views Sunni •!

Tariq Ramadan •! Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz •! Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen

Shia •!

Ruhollah Khomeini Judgment During Divine judgment, it is believed that each person's Book of Deeds, in which "every small and great thing is recorded",[27] will be opened. (Actions taken before puberty are not judged.) Throughout the judgment, the underlying principle is complete and perfect justice administered by God. Accounts of the judgment are also replete with the emphasis that God is merciful and forgiving, and that mercy and forgiveness will be granted on that day.

The Qur'an states that even the smallest acts of the believers will not be wasted.

Then shall anyone who has done an atom's weight of good, see it! And anyone who has done an atom's weight of evil, shall see it.

—Qur'an, sura 99 Az-Zalzala, ayat 7-8[28] Lo! Those who believe (in that which is revealed unto thee, Muhammad), and those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabians - whoever believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doeth right - surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve.

—Qur'an, sura 2 Al-Baqara, ayah 62[29] The supposed age of the hereafter or rest of eternity is the final stage believed to commence after the Day of Judgment, when all of humanity is believed to have received their judgment from God, if one were righteous and did good deeds based on their own circumstances, one would go to Jannah (Paradise), and if one had attained little in life and were unrighteous in their actions, or were, despite all evidence shown to one, bent on denying the truth of life once it was presented to one, one would go to Jahannam (Hell).

Diagram of "Plain of Assembly"(Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya by Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi, ca. 1238. Shown are the 'Arsh (Throne of God), pulpits for the righteous (al-Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al-Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Hauzu'l-Kausar (Fountain of Abundance), al-Maqam al-Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where the prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As-Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell) and Marj al-Jannat (Meadow of Paradise).[26]

Islamic view of the Last Judgment 87

Comparison with Christianity While appearing similar to certain parts of the Bible (Ezekiel,[30] James,[31] 1 Peter,[32] Revelation[33]) this is dissimilar to some Protestant branches of Christianity, where salvation comes by faith in Jesus alone.

Catholics, however cite James 2:24[34] as evidence that judgment is not based on faith alone. Islam emphasizes that grace does not conflict with perfect justice.

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [17] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] Major Signs before the Day of Judgment by Shaykh Ahmad Ali (http://www.inter-islam.org/faith/Majorsigns.html) Signs of Qiyaamah (http://www.inter-islam.org/faith/Signs-Of-Qiyaamah.htm) Isaac Hasson, Last Judgment, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an L. Gardet, Qiyama, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Qur'an 74:38 Qur'an 71:18 Qur'an 31:34 Qur'an 74:47 Qur'an 2:8 Qur'an 33:63 Qur'an 6:57 Qur'an 10:45 Qur'an 28:88 Qur'an 17:49 Qur'an 39:68 Qur'an 4:40 (Translated by Shakir) Qur'an 21:96 Qur'an 27:82 Qur'an 44:10 "Saudi Arabia Ministry of religious affairs" (http://quran.al-islam.com/Loader.aspx? pageid=738&BookID=15&page=348). . "Tafseer Ibn Katheer (23-100)" (http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=23&tid=35341). .

"Tafseer Ibn Katheer (25:53)" (http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=25&tid=36918). . "Tafseer Ibn Katheer (25:53)(55:19)" (http:// www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=55&tid=51616). . Begley, Wayne E. The Garden of the Taj Mahal: A Case Study of Mughal Architectural Planning and Symbolism, in: Wescoat, James L.; [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] QQur'an 54:52–53 Qur'an 99:7–8 Qur'an 2:62 Ezekiel 18:27 James 2:14-2:17 Peter 1 2:23 Revelation 2:23 James 2:24 Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim (1996). Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects (http://books.google.com/ books?id=96ec98LieGsC) Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C., ISBN 0884022358. pp. 229-231.

References •!

The Qur'an •!Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari (hadith collection) •! fath al-bârî fî sharh sahîh al-bukhârî (hadith collection) •! Al-Ghazali, Ihya' ulum al-din (revival of religious sciences) • !

Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. •! Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038.

Article Sources and Contributors 88

Belief in Life after Death Everyone is scared of dying and rightly so. The uncertainty of what lies beyond is frightening. It may be that of all religions, Islam, provides the most graphic details of what comes after death and lies beyond. Islam views death to be a natural threshold to the next stage of existence.

Islamic doctrine holds that human existence continues after the death of the human body in the form of spiritual and physical resurrection. There is a direct relation between conduct on earth and the life beyond. The afterlife will be one of rewards and punishments which is commensurate with earthily conduct. A Day will come when God will resurrect and gather the first and the last of His creation and judge everyone justly. People will enter their final abode, Hell or Paradise. Faith in life after death urges us to do right and to stay away from sin. In this life we sometimes see the pious suffer and the impious enjoy. All shall be judged one day and justice will be served.

Faith in life after death is one of the six fundamental beliefs required of a Muslim to complete his faith. Rejecting it renders all other beliefs meaningless. Think of a child who does not put his hand in fire. He does not do so because he is sure it will burn. When it comes to doing school work, the same child may feel lazy because he does not quite understand what a sound education will do for his future. Now, think of a man who does not believe in the Day of Judgment. Would he consider belief in God and a life driven by his belief in God to be of any consequence? To him, neither obedience to God is of use, nor is disobedience of any harm. How, then, can he live a God-conscious life? What incentive would he have to suffer the trials of life with patience and avoid overindulgence in worldly pleasures? And if a man does not follow the way of God, then what use is his belief in God, if he has any? The acceptance or http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/38/ Page 1 of 4Belief in Life after Death - The Religion of Islam

2/23/12 1:36 PM

rejection of life after death is perhaps the greatest factor in determining the course of an individual’s life.

The dead have a continued and conscious existence of a kind in the grave. Muslims believe that, upon dieing, a person enters an intermediate phase of life between death and resurrection. Many events take place in this new “world”, such as the “trial” of the grave, where everyone will be questioned by angels about their religion, prophet, and Lord. The grave is a garden of paradise or a pit of hell; angels of mercy visit the souls of believers and angels of punishment come for the unbelievers.

Resurrection will be preceded by the end of the world. God will command a magnificent angel to blow the Horn. At its first blowing, all the inhabitants of the heavens and the earth will fall unconscious, except those spared by God. The earth will be flattened, the mountains turned into dust, the sky will crack, planets will be dispersed, and the graves overturned.

People will be resurrected into their original physical bodies from their graves, thereby entering the third and final phase of life. The Horn will blow again upon which people will rise up from their graves, resurrected!

God will gather all humans, believers and the impious, jinns, demons, even wild animals. It will be a universal gathering. The angels will drive all human beings naked, uncircumcised, and bare-footed to the Great Plain of Gathering. People will stand in wait for judgment and humanity will sweat in agony. The righteous will be sheltered under the shade of God’s Magnificent Throne.

When the condition becomes unbearable, people will request the prophets and the messengers to intercede with God on their behalf to save them from distress.

The balances will be set and the deeds of men will be weighed. Disclosure of the Records of the deeds performed in this life will follow. The one who will receive his record in his right hand will have an easy reckoning. He will happily return to his family. However, the person who will receive his record in his left hand would wish he were dead as he will be thrown into the Fire. He will be full of regrets and will wish that he were not handed his Record or he had not known it.

Then God will judge His creation. They will be reminded and informed of their good deeds and sins. The faithful will acknowledge their failings and be forgiven. The disbelievers will have no good deeds to declare because an unbeliever is rewarded for them in this life. Some scholars are of the opinion that the punishment of an unbeliever may be reduced in lieu of his good deeds, except the punishment of the great sin of disbelief.

The Siraat is a bridge that will be established over Hell extending to Paradise. Anyone who is steadfast on God’s religion in this life will find it easy to pass it.

Paradise and Hell will be the final dwelling places for the faithful and the damned after the Last Judgment. They are real and eternal. The bliss of the people of Paradise shall never end and the punishment of unbelievers condemned to Hell shall never cease. Unlike a pass-fail system in some other belief-systems, the Islamic view is more sophisticated and conveys a higher level of divine justice. This can be seen in two ways. First, some believers may suffer in Hell for unrepented, cardinal sins. Second, both Paradise and Hell have levels.

Paradise is the eternal garden of physical pleasures and spiritual delights. Suffering will be absent and bodily desires will be satisfied. All wishes will be met. Palaces, servants, riches, streams of wine, milk and honey, pleasant fragrances, soothing voices, pure partners for intimacy; a person will never get bored or have enough!

The greatest bliss, though, will be the vision of their Lord of which the unbelievers will be deprived. using the article tools.

Your History Your history list is empty.

Disable recording my history http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/38/ Page 2 of 4 Belief in Life after Death - The Religion of Islam 2/23/12 1:36 PM

Article Tools Other Articles in the Same Category

Hell is an infernal place of punishment for unbelievers and purification for sinful believers. Torture and punishment: for the body and the soul: burning by fire, boiling water to drink, scalding food to eat, chains, and choking columns of fire. Unbelievers will be eternally damned to it, whereas sinful believers will eventually be taken out of Hell and enter Paradise.

Paradise is for those who worshipped God alone, believed and followed their prophet, and lived moral lives according to the teachings of scripture.

Hell will be the final dwelling place of those who denied God, worshipped other beings besides God, rejected the call of the prophets, and lead sinful, unrepentant lives.

Islam Afterlife and Salvation Islam Afterlife and Salvation Muslims believe in the Day of Judgment and heaven and hell. Each person is responsible for the judgment he or she will receive. People are judged based on their intentions and their deeds.

Muslims believe in the Day of Judgment and heaven and hell.A person's ultimate destiny, whether it is heaven or hell, depends on the degree to which that person intended and acted as God desires, with justice and mercy toward others.While it is impossible to know with certainty who will go to heaven and hell, believers, who had faith in the revelations that God sent through his prophets and lived according to those revelations, may hope for heaven.There is some evidence that nonbelievers can attain paradise, and even those who do evil but who are met at the end with God's grace and mercy may attain paradise.

All of creation is journeying toward God, and the world will end on some unknown day.The Last Day has many names in the Quran, including the Day of Reckoning, the Day of Distress, the Day of the Gathering, the Great Announcement, and quite simply, The Hour.At the end of time, all people will be rewarded or punished according to how well they followed the instructions contained in God's revelations to his prophets.God will resurrect the http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Afterlife-and-Salvation.html 1:35 PM

Page 1 of 3Islam Afterlife and Salvation

2/23/12

dead, and each person will be judged directly by Allah according to his or her intentions and deeds. Islam teaches that God is more merciful than He is wrathful.Each person's deeds will be weighed in a balance, and if the evil deeds outweigh the good deeds, the person will be condemned to the eternal flame.If the good deeds outweigh the evil deeds, then the person will be rewarded with paradise.The Quran says that each person receives a book that contains an account of all of his or her deeds.If the book is placed in your right hand, you are destined for eternal bliss.If the book is placed in your left hand, you are destined for eternal flame.

Islam does not teach that we are in need of intercession, although some traditions have allowed that Muhammad might intercede with God on our behalf.No one can know God, but at the same time, no one stands between the individual Muslim and God.If we find that we have sinned, we may sincerely apologize, and through our remorse, receive forgiveness.The slate is clean, and we may begin again.This will likely happen to us many times in our lives, because we are not perfect.But on the Last Day, there are no excuses.God has sent many prophets to remind us of our duty and to wake us up when we forget our dependence on God.As a result, the punishment on the Last Day is just.

The Quran tells us that terrible events will proclaim that the end is near.The people will gather at the bridge called Sirat.Sirat spans the fires of hell.Those bound for paradise will find the crossing easy.But for those bound for hell, the bridge will be

as thin as a razor, and the condemned will fall into the flames.Hell, called Jahannam, is a horrifying inferno.The flames roar, scorching hot winds blow, and black smoke chokes the air.The skin of the suffering sinners is continually refreshed so that they will feel the pain of burning, with no relief.Their thirst is unquenchable, and yet they drink disgusting fluids in an effort to alleviate their suffering.Boiling water is poured over their heads.If they try to flee, iron hooks drag them back.

In contrast, paradise is a blissful garden where the blessed are at peace and are content.The conversation is pleasant, the wine has no ill- effects, and the food is endlessly abundant.The faithful, dressed in silk robes, relax on beautiful couches while servants tend to their every need.Men and women are attended by beautiful and handsome young members of the opposite sex.Choirs of angels sing in Arabic and all the bounties of heaven are enjoyed endlessly.No one is ever full.There are http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Afterlife-and-Salvation.html Islam Afterlife and Salvation 2/23/12 1:35 PM

Page 2 of 3

many descriptions of paradise in Islamic literature.The Quran describes it this way: And God will guard them from the evil of that day and will cast on them brightness and joy; and their reward for their patience shall be Paradise and silk! reclining therein upon couches they shall neither see therein sun nor piercing cold 1; and close down upon them shall be its shadows; and lowered over them its fruits to cull; [15] and they shall be served round with vessels of silver and goblets that are as flagons--flagons of silver which they shall mete out! and they shall drink therein a cup tempered with ZingabĂŽl 2, a spring therein named SilsabĂŽl! and there shall go round about them eternal boys; when thou seest them thou wilt think them scattered pearls; [20] and when thou seest them thou shalt see pleasure and a great estate! On them shall be garments of green embroidered satin and brocade; and they shall be adorned with bracelets of silver; and their Lord shall give them to drink pure drink! Verily, this is a reward for you, and your efforts are thanked. (surah 76.11-22)

Islamic Beliefs about the Afterlife Like Christianity, Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Muslims believe there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.

Resurrection and the Day of Judgment A central doctrine of the Qur'an is the Last Day, on which the world will be destroyed and Allah will raise all people and jinn from the dead to be judged.

The Last Day is also called the Day of Standing Up, Day of Separation, Day of Reckoning, Day of Awakening, Day of Judgment, The Encompassing Day or The Hour.

Until the Day of Judgment, deceased souls remain in their graves awaiting the resurrection. However, they begin to feel immediately a taste of their destiny to come. Those bound for hell will suffer in their graves, while those bound for heaven will be in peace until that time.

The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re- create the decayed body (17:100: "Could they not see that God who created the heavens and the earth is able to create the like of them"?).

On the Last Day, resurrected humans and jinn will be judged by Allah according to their deeds. One's eternal destination depends on balance of good to bad deeds in life. They are either granted admission to Paradise,

where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity. The day of judgment is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge in order to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will remain in Hell forever.

The Qur'an specifies two exceptions to this general rule: 1. Warriors who die fighting in the cause of God are ushered immediately to God's presence (2:159 and 3:169); and 2. "Enemies of Islam" are sentenced immediately to Hell upon death.

Paradise "O soul who is at rest, return to thy Lord, well-pleased with Him, well-pleasing Him. So enter among My servants, and enter My garden." (89:27-30) Paradise (firdaws), also called "The Garden" (Janna), is a place of physical and spiritual pleasure, with lofty mansions (39:20, 29:58-59), delicious food and drink (52:22, 52:19, 38:51), and virgin companions called houris (56:17-19, 52:24-25, 76:19, 56:35-38, 37:48-49, 38:52-54, 44:51-56, 52:20-21). There are seven heavens (17:46, 23:88, 41:11, 65:12).

Hell Hell, or Jahannam (Greek gehenna), is mentioned frequently in the Qur'an and the Sunnah using a variety of imagery. It has seven doors (Qur'an 39:71; 15:43) leading to a fiery crater of various levels, the

lowest of which contains the tree Zaqqum and a cauldron of boiling pitch. The level of hell depends on the degree of offenses. Suffering is both physical and spiritual.

Being a Muslim does not keep one out of Hell, but it is not clear whether Muslims remain in Hell forever. NonMuslims (kafir), however, will be punished eternally. A Muslim author on IslamOnline.net explains it this way: "Ultimately, God will remove from Hell those believers whose sins were not forgiven nor atoned for by good deeds in their lifetimes, and they will then enter Paradise. The remaining inhabitants of Hell will stay there eternally." (Islam Online) Other Muslim commentators, noting that Allah can rescue people from hell as he chooses, and that he is merciful and compassionate, have hypothesized that eventually hell will be empty. Alternatively, Hell can be seen as a place of progress where souls are instructed until they are fit to go to heaven: "Life after death is actually the starting-point of further progress for man. Those in paradise are advancing to higher and higher stages in knowledge and perfection of faith. Hell is meant to purify those in it of the effects of their bad deeds, and so make them fit for further advancement. Its punishment is, therefore, not everlasting." (Muslim.org, an Ahmadiyya website

Article Sources and Contributors History of Islam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478051404 Contributors: 1812ahill, 1exec1, 66.153.24.xxx, A little insignificant, A. Parrot, ABF, ACSE, ALM scientist, ATIYAH, Aaboelela, Aamirc, Aankhan, Abdelmu3min, AbdulBasit, Academic Challenger, Achowat, Adc069975, AdultSwim, Aeon17x, Afghana, Afrojim, Aghniyya, Agüeybaná, Ahmadomar, Ahoerstemeier, Aircorn, Aksi great, Al Ameer son, Al-Andalusi, Alansohn, Alfirin, Altetendekrabbe, Amalthea, Ammar shaker, Ammziadh, AndreNatas, Andrew c, Andrewpmk, AngelOfSadness, Anjouli, Anonymous editor, Antonrojo, Aquib American Muslim, Arabist, Arafath.riyath, Aranherunar, Aratak80, Ariasne, Ariesta0404, Arnab, Asim Led, Askahrc, Askild, Astronautics, Atb129, Athkalani, Atif.t2, Avoided, Aymatth2, AzureFury, Bad Gopher Gear, Badanedwa, Bakhsm0a, Balagh, Bantman, Barastert, Baristarim, Barjeconiah, Basawala, Belligero, Ben Ben, Bhadani, Bihco, Binabik80, Bkonrad, Blair Bonnett, Blanchardb, Bless sins, Blindguardian89, Bmusician, Bobaobao, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, BokicaK, Bongwarrior, BrainyBabe, Branden, BrandonYusufToropov, Brenda1118, Brianga, Buddy212, Bug in a nutcase, By ram, CJLL Wright, Cabolitae, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, Canley, Capricorn42, Carlaude, Catchqayyum, Cattus, Ceyockey, Charmii, Che829, Chrisdab, Christian75, Christofurio, Christopher Parham, Chzz, Cjrutz, Ckatz, ClamDip, Clicketyclack, Colonies Chris, Connormah, Conversion script, Ctbolt, Culture editor, DMacks, DVdm, Daduzi, Dan6hell66, Danieliness, Dark Tichondrias, David1776, Davidelah, Dawn Bard, Dbabbitt, Dbachmann, DeCausa, DeadEyeArrow, Delirium, Delta1989, Denizz, Deviathan, Dgrrr, Dialecticas, Discospinster, Djsasso, Dmitri Yuriev, Dominic, Donmike10, Dorothée, Download, Draabroo, Drmies, Drpickem, Drriad, Dumelow, Dwo, Dycedarg, E Wing, Edgar181, Eeekster, El C, ElRoberto4, Eleassar777, Elian, Eliyahu S, Endlessmike 888, EoGuy, Epbr123, Erik Zachte, Errabee, Eumolpo, Evawen, Everyking, Ewen, Face, Faisal shahzad183, Fang Aili, Faradayplank, Farah99, Farsad, Favonian, FayssalF, Feinoha, Fetchcomms, FetchcommsAWB, Filippusson, Flyboy Will, Foregone conclusion, Fox Mccloud, FromanylanD, Func, Funky Monkey, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fxer, GCarty, GDonato, GLGerman, Gdr, Geniac, Geodyde, Geoffg, Germen, Ghewgill, Ghostexorcist, Gibmetal77, Giftiger wunsch, Gilliam, Gogo Dodo, Goodnightmush, Gozar, GraemeL, Grenavitar, HJ Mitchell, Halaqah, Happysailor, Happywaffle, Hasankn1, Hassonj, Hede2000, Heraclius, Historygypsy, Historyofjihad, Hmains, Hollyo, Hotspur95, Howcheng, Humus sapiens, Hut 8.5, I'm not Marty McFly, IZAK, Ian Pitchford, IdahoEv, Igiffin, Igoldste, Igorwindsor, Imran12, Irishpunktom, Ishikawa Minoru, Islami, Itaqallah, Ixfd64, J M Rice, J.delanoy, J04n, JASpencer, JCarriker, JForget, JNW, JaGa, Jabreau, Jackelfive, Jacobolus, Jagged, Jagged 85, Jamiewatterson87, Javierfv1212, Jayjg, JediLofty, Jeff3000, Jelajahislam, Jeremy Banks, Jevansen, Jgrischow1, Jguk 2, Jimbo Wales, Jk54, Jmabel, JoanneB, JoaoRicardo, Joe Kress, John of Reading, Johnbod, Johnhenry22, Johnrosen23, Jonathanvirtue, Jonecc, Joolz, Joshinda26, Jrdioko, Juliancolton, Jwojie, KPH2293, KazakhPol, Keilana, Khalid hassani, Khin2718, Kimiko, Kirbytime, Kkrystian, Koavf, Kober, Konman72, Kotjze, Krogren, Kubigula, Kwamikagami, Lacrimosus, Lambiam, Lamoonia, LarryJeff, Le Anh-Huy, LeadSongDog, LeaveSleaves, Leemat17, Leesonma, Lenoxus, Leontios, Lev, Lfstevens, LibLord, Lightmouse, Livajo, Lkinkade, Logan, Looxix, Lunarbunny, M2k41, MARVEL, MER-C, MJ94, Madhero88, Maelwys, Magister Mathematicae, Mahmagin, Makawity, Mani1, Marek69, MarkS, Masrawygaamed, Matthew Yeager, Matěj Suchánek, Mauler90, Mav, Mboverload, Mcorazao, Mctaviix, Mechanical digger, Merbabu, Merlinme, Merzbow, Messir, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minikfg, Minna Sora no Shita, Minoutesq, Mirv, Mkmajeed, Mncstriker, Mohsin73, Mojska, Movementarian, Mpondopondo, Mr. Billion, MrH, Mudassirahmed, Mukadderat, Munirod13, Mursel, Mushroom, Musica, Mustafaa, Mutamarrid, Mwanner, Mysdaao, Nasiruddinalbani, Nat Krause, Nature 1, NawlinWiki, Nazgul02, Neda Reza Azad, Neddyseagoon, NetRolller 3D, Netmonger, Netscott, Neutrality, Neutron Jack, NewEnglandYankee, Niceguyedc, Nick125, Nour ala, NuclearWarfare, Ohnoitsjamie, OneGuy, OneVoice, OrbitOne, Orphan Wiki, Os1974, OttomanReference, PFHLai, Pahari Sahib, Pakaran, PatGallacher, Paul August, Paul Lewison, Pcu123456789, Peaceinourtime, Pecher, PedroPVZ, Pepsidrinka, Perceval, Peripitus, Perspicacite, Phearson, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhnomPencil, Piggy222, Pineflint, PlatinumSigma, PleaseStand, Prashanthns, Pubber, Qasamaan, Quincy2010, R'n'B, RK, RUL3R, RadioFan, Rama's Arrow, Rambo forever, Rana72bd, Recurring dreams, Red Director, Reddi, Redfarmer, Reedy, Rejax, RepublicanJacobite, RexNL, Rhobite, Rholton, Rhysn, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, RickScott, Rickyrab, Riskable, Rjwilmsi, Robost, Robth, S.davis001, SJP, SNIyer12, Sa.vakilian, Salim Dherai, Sam Hocevar, SamuelTheGhost, Sanfoor, Sango123, Sciurinæ, Scope creep, Scythian1, Seraphim, Shaad lko, Shahab, Shanes, ShayanAnwer, Shervink, Shinjiman, Siddhant, Sijo Ripa, Silver Maple, Simhedges, SimonP, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Skizzik, Sl, Slackerlawstudent, Slon02, SoWhy, South Bay, Souvik.arko, Spartaz, Spiritual777, Squiddy, Squids and Chips, StaticGull, Staxringold, Stephenw32768, SteveMcCluskey, Steven Weston, Stevensons88, Stewpot77, Striver, Sturm55, Stwalkerster, Sunkissedlotus, Supertouch, Syed Atif Nazir, Syedson, THF, Tadpole9, Tahmasp, TeaDrinker, Tellyaddict, Templar Hugues de Payens (pbuh), Tfine80, The Anome, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, TheGreenEditor, TheTrojanHought, Tickle me, Tide rolls, Tigeroo, TimBentley, Timothy Usher, Tiptoety, Tmopkisn, Tomeyn, Tregoweth, Trusilver, Truthspeaks11, Tvaughn05, Tyw7, Ucanlookitup, Umare umare, Umarindia, Uncle Dick, Unre4L, Uriah923, Usedbook, Usrnme h8er, Utcursch, Utermohlen, Van helsing, Vanished user 03, Veinor, Vice regent, WWGB, Waqas1987, Ward3001, WashingtonWizards, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Weedwhacker128, Wereldburger758, Weyes, Wikidudeman, Wikieditor06, Wikipelli, William M. Connolley, Willking1979, Wolfman, Woohookitty, Worthawholebean, Wprlh, Wtmitchell, Xinjao, Yahel Guhan, Yahia.barie, YellowMonkey, Zaf159, Zeeshanhasan, Zeno of Elea, Zereshk, Zfr, Zginder, Zigger, Zinkz, Zoohouse, Zora, Zqacdbtgjmulopkihnvfrxsw, Zunaid, ТимофейЛееСуда, 1292 ,RS6= TU&V anonymous edits Spread of Islam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=477579137 Contributors: 1812ahill, 192.129K, A=-0987654321z, ABDUL KHALIQ TAJGUL, ARdhan, Adoniscik, Alansohn, Altetendekrabbe, Aman Zaidi, Anaxial, AraLink, Arjun024, Arrow740, Arthena, Atwarwiththem, Auric, Avelardo, Azmondeo, Barticus88, Basel15, Bless sins, Bookbrad, Bped1985, Brian Wiseman, C777, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Carl.bunderson, Carnby, Centrx, Chrono1084, Cloud02, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dayewalker, Dbssengar, Deeptrivia, DerHexer, Derpish, Dialectric, Diannaa, DiiCinta, Dizzledorf, Download, Drsexlove, Dungbeetle, Emmetfahy, Epbr123, Eumolpo, Ev, Excirial, Exiled999, Felix505, Fig wright, Forever Dusk, GLGerman, Gary King, Giraffedata, Gogo Dodo, Goon Noot, Guy Adler, Hamster X, Harland1, Hmains, Hokiematt10, Ian Pitchford, IndulgentReader, J.delanoy, J04n, JHunterJ, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jayjg, Jmz9466, John of Reading, JorgeGG, Joyson Prabhu, JumboJetty, Karl Meier, Kim-Zhang-Hong, Krashlandon, Kukini, L Kensington, Lambiam, LarryJeff, Lendorien, Leonxlin, Lerdthenerd, LilHelpa, Lipsio, LukeSurl, MacsBug, Materialscientist, Megaman en m, Merbabu, Mhassan369, Middayexpress, Moloch09, Morgis, Mughal Lohar, Munci, Nakhoda84, Natesgate, Nick Number, Ninja247, NittyG, Nizarsh, Noctibus, NorthernPashtun, Nozdref, Nwatson, OreL.D, Oxymoron83, Padishah5000, Paxse, Petiatil, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phearson, PhnomPencil, PigFlu Oink, Pigman, Plasticup, Quincy2010, RA0808, RadioFan, Radwquer, Riba, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rune Kock, RyanQuinlan, Saimkayadibi, Saros136, Sciurinæ, Scythian1, Sethton, Shaad lko, Sharkface217, SkyWalker, Slon02, Sohaid265, Some jerk on the Internet, SpacemanSpiff, Spike monotheist, Spondoolicks, Stevertigo, Sugarbull, Tcncv, Tex, TheoloJ, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tigeroo, Tom Morris, Trusilver, Twas Now, Untifler, Versus22, Vishnu2011, Vrenator, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Weetoddid, Wheatsing, WikiFlier, William Avery, Woohookitty, Ynhockey, Zntrip, 360 anonymous edits Islam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478272253 Contributors: (, *Kat*, *drew, -- April, .c, 0, 05dalesteyn, 09.arif, 130.182.125.xxx, 151.170.240.xxx, 172.147.65.xxx, 1Chunk, 1pezguy, 213.131.76.xxx, 24.12.199.xxx, 24.93.53.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 334a, 4r2emi, 63.109.248.xxx, 64.105.112.xxx, 928s4, 99DBSIMLR, @, A Doon, A Kaffir, A. Parrot, A.Khalil, A3RO, AA, AAA765, AAhmed, ACSE, AJR, ALM scientist, ATIYAH, AYousefzai, Aaaxlp, Aaboelela, AadaamS, Aadamh, Aaliyah Stevens, Aamkhanmd, Aaron Schulz, Abc.agga, Abd r Raheem al Haq, Abdousi, Abdul Omar, Abdul Rasheed, Abdullah Geelah, Abdullah Omar, Abdullah Tahir, Abdullah-Omar, Abdullah@xtra.co.nz, Abe.nizam, Abexy, Abhisham, Abid6814, Absar, AbsolutDan, Abtract, Abu Mahdhoorah, Abu adam, Ace Mobius 1, ActiveSelective, Adam Bishop, AdamJacobMuller, AdamReed, AdamSommerton, Adamcaliph, Adamrce, Adashiel, Adatoo, Admit-the-truth, Adriaan, Adrian, Aenea666, Aeon1006, Aeymon, Afghan Historian, Afghana, Afireinside244, Agari, Agoras, Ahmad Ammar, Ahmad2099, AhmadH, Ahmadalehossein, Ahmadi, Ahmed Ghazi, Aho aho, Ahoerstemeier, Aidfarh, Aitias, Ajcheema, Akamad, Akazif, Al Ameer son, Al-Andalus, Al-Andalusi, Al-Mansur, Al-Zaidi, Al-minar, Alai, Alanscottwalker, Alansohn, Alberuni, Aldowi, Ale jrb, AlefZet, Alek2407, Alex S, Alex011, Alex3917, Alex756, AlexWelens, Alexander.Hainy, Alexander47, AlexanderKaras, Alexfusco5, AlexiusHoratius, Algorythm13, Alhambrapro, Alhidaaya, Ali Ansari, Ali K, Ali1986, Alientraveller, Alimustafakhan, Alirobe, All People Unite, All wikipedia's base, Allah is great, AllahLovesYou, Allstarecho, AlonCoret, AlphaEta, Alphax, Alrasheedan, Alsandro, Alt f in, Altenmann, Alwad7, Amandajm, Amatulic, Amilsum, Aminullah, Amir beckham, Amirkhan011, Amity150, Ammar shaker, Ammusharraf, Amren, An Siarach, Anabbie, Anable, AnalBumCover, Anananda, Anas chaaban, Anastrophe, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrewa, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Android79, Andy Marchbanks, Andy98726, Angela, Angelo De La Paz, Animum, Anjouli, Annoynmous, Anonymous editor, Answar, Antaeus Feldspar, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthony Appleyard, Anton Hein, Anupam, Anwar saadat, Apocalogy, Apollo 11, Aponar Kestrel, Aquib American Muslim, Arabist, Aratak80, ArcticFrog, Ardonik, Argooya, Ari89, Arichnad, Ariedartin, Aris Katsaris, Arjun01, Ark1993, Ark30inf, Armanone, Armordoll, Armyrifle9, Arrow740, Art LaPella, Artaxiad, Arthur Warrington Thomas, AscendedAnathema, Asdf169, Aseeel, Aseer22, Asenai, Ash sydney, Ashariamo, Ashcroftgm, Ashenai, Ashley Y, Ashmoo, Asimk29, Asimmhd1990, Asmah01, Asmgx, Aspectacle, Aspriolioni, Asrefaei, Aster77, Astronautics, Astrosa, Atitarev, Atlant, Atletiker, Atomsprengja, Atoric, Atorpen, Aude, Auntof6, Aurelius One, AustinKnight, Avengerx, Awais rauf, Awesome444a444, AxelBoldt, Ayrton Prost, AzaToth, Azaidi, Azdiyy, Azkhiri, Azza1990, BB Hibou, BD2412, BDS2006, BEAST1234, BL999, BRTR, Baabi 99, Babajobu, Backin72, Badanedwa, Bahador, Balloonguy, Bambuway, Barek, Baristarim, BaronLarf, Baronnet, Bart133, Basilbrushleo, Bassem18, Bayerischermann, Bazonka, Bbatsell, Bcorr, Bddrey, Beatles1138, Beatnik Party, Beit Or, Ben10withapen, Benanhalt, Bennylin, Bepa, Berthold Werner, Best Friend, Betacommand, Bhadani, BhaiSaab, Bhattach s, Biblios, BigCoolGuyy, BigHaz, Bigweeboy, Bill37212, Billal, Billow, Billposer, Bird is the word, Bjones, Bkessler23, Black Falcon, Black Kite, Blah3, Blanchardb, Bless sins, Blightsoot, Blondlieut, BloodAdo, Bloodmerchant, Bloodofox, Bloodshedder, Blubberbrein2, BlueDevil, BlueEyedCat, Bluerain, Blueturtle01, Blumpus, Bmbende, Bobaa904, Bobaobao, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Boberama, Bobet, Bobo The Ninja, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Boing! said Zebedee, Bombshell, Bonbonita, Bone1234, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BorgQueen, BostonMA, BoyinUK, Bradeos Graphon, BrainyBabe, Brandmeister (old), BrandonYusufToropov, Brasker, Brendan Moody, Brendanconway, Brettz9, Brian0918, Briangotts, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, BrokenSegue, Brookie, Brucio, BryanG, Bubbleboy987, Buchanan-Hermit, Bucketsofg, Buddhipriya, Bulbosaurus, Bull Market, Bullytr, Bunzil, Burningview, Butros, Buxbaum666, Buyoof, Bvc2000, Bwilkins, C12H22O11, C6541, CFC walkley, CIS, CPMcE, Cabbage101, Cactus.man, Cadiomals, Cagadasss, Calliopejen1, Callmeau, Calton, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Cameronlad, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanDo, Canadia, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, CandyGirl, Captn Caz, Carbonite, Card, Carl.bunderson, Carlossuarez46, Carlwev, Carnildo, Caroline Sanford, Casper2k3, Catherine96, Cbulls23, Ccnwashdc, Cd-maker, Cdc, Ced121, CedrusLibani, Centrx, Ceorl, CeresVesta, Cesar Tort, Cgmusselman, Chaldo gangsta, Chanting Fox, Chaosfeary, Chensiyuan, Cherylyoung, ChessPlayer, Chickenlover, Chodorkovskiy, Choopius, Chris 73, Chris Roy, Chris Strolia-Davis, Christadelphianeditor, Christian75, Christians, Christofurio, Christoperpharham, Christopher Parham, Christusrex, Chronic19, Chrono1084, Chsbcgs, Chzz, Ciaran a-c, Ciceronl, Cihan, Citizen Premier, Ckatz, Ckujau, Claban, Clamster5, Closedmouth, CltFn, Cmmmm, Cohesion, ColdFire, Colincbn, Collabi, Color probe, Coltstrojans8892, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, Comradesandalio, Conversion script, Cooliopop, Corailrouge-eng, Cordless Larry, Coreosa, Corporaljohnny, Courcelles, Cracker017, Craftypants, Crapface21, Creidieki, Crot buer, CryptoDerk, CryptoDerk on Wheels, Crystallina, Crzrussian, Cubs Fan, Cuchullain, Cumbuj, Cunado19, Curps, Cutler, CynicalMe, DARKFLIGHTER100, DAde, DBaba, DCGeist, DGJM, DHooke1973, DJ Clayworth, DKalkin, DKqwerty,

DRosenbach, DSGruss, DVD R W, DVdm, DaGizza, DaGrob, Daballa9385, Dahab, Dahveed323, Dalaaa, Damicatz, Damo uk, Dan100, DanKeshet, Dancanm, Danello87, Danger, DanieIT, Daniel, Daniel Pritchard, DanielCD, Danny-w, Dannydayus, Dark Tea, Dark Tichondrias, DarkFalls, Darkwind6000, Darnsosneaky, Darth Anne Jaclyn Sincoff, Darth mhaw, Dashes, Davewild, Daveymanj, David Trochos, David cage, David matthews, DavidA, DavidCary, Davidelah,

Article Sources and Contributors 89 Davidme, Davidshq, Davril2020, Dawood82, Dawud, Dawud77, Dazzle Green, Dbachmann, Dbtfz, Dcandeto, Dcfleck, Dck7777, Dcoetzee, Dcowper, Dcsohl, DeadEyeArrow, DeadLlamaWalking, Deadbass72, Deadcorpse, Deadlyfish, Deb24, Debravation, Deconstructhis, Dedwinhedon, DeepSpace, Deeptrivia, Delirium, Deltabeignet, Denny, Dentren, Deobandi, Deprifry, Deutschgirl, Dev920, Deviathan, Dewan357, Dharmabum420, DiN, Dianaliu, DigiBullet, Digitalme, Dimitrakopulos, Dina, DinajGao, Diogenes zosimus, Dipset1991, Disavian, Discospinster, Discover rahul61, Distal24, Djames, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmalveaux, Dman727, Dmerrill, Dmiranda, Dmyersturnbull, Doc glasgow, DocWatson42, Dockingman, DoctorEric, Doctorbigtime, Dodobbins, Doggy master, Domharrison, Dominic, Donald Robinson, DonovanHawkins, Donreed, Dori, Doron, Dostmohamad, Dougweller, Dppowell, Dr.Kimpstein 101, DrWorm, Drawat123, Drawn Some, Dreadnought9, Dreadstar, Dreamyshade, Drewrau, Drmies, Drn8, Drogo Underburrow, Drrngrvy, Drstrangeluv25, Drugsbunny, Drumguy8800, Dunkenud, Dustimagic, Dustpan95, Dycedarg, Dylanlip, Dyslexic agnostic, EKindig, ESkog, Eagleamn, Ecolatur, Edgarde, Edip Yuksel, Editor10101101, Editor2020, Eduardo Sellan III, Edward, Edwards, EdwinHJ, Edwy, Eequor, Efghij, Efram, Egoiste79, Eik Corell, EinB567, Eitoki, Ejc87, Ejstone, El C, ElKevbo, ElTyrant, Elazeez, Elbasan101, Elfguy, Elian, EliasAlucard, Eliyak, Elizabeth199, Elkduds, Ella Plantagenet, Embarkedaxis, Emiellaiendiay, Emptymountains, Emrrans, Enchanter, Energyfreezer, Engrmhkhan, Epa101, Epeefleche, Ephilei, Ericwong, Erik the Red 2, ErrantX, Eshopna, Eslamdemize, Esmehwp, Essexmutant, Essjay, Estevanmunguia, Etr52, Euchiasmus, EugeneZ, Evanluxzenburg, Evercat, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, EvocativeIntrigue, EvolveBuster, Ewan G Keenowe, Ewpfpod, Existentializer, Exmuslim, Exor674, Extransit, Extraordinary Machine, Eye Are Ess, Eyrryds, Ezeu, Ezra Wax, Ezra haSofer, F. Simon Grant, FAH1223, FCYTravis, FF2010, FUCK OFF, Fabricationary, FaerieInGrey, Faigl.ladislav, Fainites, FairNBalanced, Faith hope4peace, Faizhaq, Falconleaf, Fan-1967, Fantastic4boy, Faraazs, Faradayplank, Farhansher, Farzon Lotfi, Fattdoggy, Fawcett5, FayssalF, Faz90, Fdp, Feer, Feitclub, Fellytone, Fences and windows, Fennec, Ferkelparade, Fethi, Fgleb, Finell, Firebug, First blood, Flamgirlant, Flamingspinach, Flatterworld, Flockmeal, Flubbit, Fluxorz, Following specific instructions whispered by a mysterious cat, Fotomatt, Fram, Francs2000, Frankfurt56, Franz weber, Franz.87, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fred Baudor, Fred J, Fredrik, Fredwlerr, Free JoeM, Free them, Freedom Fan, Freestylefrappe, Freiheit94, FreplySpang, Frescard, Freyr, Frice, Friedonc, Frinkus, Frogg11, Frosticex, Frosty0814snowman, FrummerThanThou, Fsotrain09, Fuggle, Func, Fundamental metric tensor, Fundamentaldan, Funnypop12, Fusionmix, Fuzheado, Fuzzbuzz, Fuzzform, Fvw, Fyorine, Fyver528, GCarty, GHe, GWatson, Gabbe, Gabi S., Gabr-el, GabrielF, Gadfium, Gaerece, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Galati, GamesSmash, Gandolf, Gaogier, Garkbit, Gary D, Gauravsundar, Gbaltzelle, Geertjuh, Geneb1955, General Veers, Geologik, Geotheone101, Germen, Ghingo, Ghostintheshell, Gilabrand, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Giovanni33, Giraffedata, Glen, Glenjenvey, Gnoitall, Godsquad18, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Gokhandiler, Golbez, Goldsweig, Good day to you my neighbor, Googoie, GopherQ, Gorgeousgeorge92, Govertp, Grace Note, GraemeL, Graft, Graham87, GrahamN, Granpuff, Graytiger111, Greatgavini, Greatmuslim10, Greebo the Cat, Greek2, GreekWarrior, Green Giant, GregAsche, Gregbard, GregorB, Gregory Shantz, Grenavitar, Grendel931, Greyghost1982, Grizzlymambo, Grm wnr, Grusl, Guaka, Guanaco, Gulmammad, Gunkarta, Gurch, Gurm, Gurubrahma, Gusiom, Guy M, Guy smiley, Gvpggt, Gwernol, H, H ahsan, Hadal, Hadj, Haeleth, Hahahihihoho, HaireDunya, Hairouna, Haisook, Hajor, HalfShadow, Halimahbintdavid, Halo3geekgeorge, Hamadeha, Hanacy, Hanliang, Hanna Bell, HappyCamper, Hapsiainen, Harej, HarisM, Harisnajam, Harro5, Harryboyles, Hashim.i.mohamed, Hassan Khalid, Hasseniqbal192, Hatemghani, Hattar393, Haukurth, Hawstom, Hayaaltd, Haydor, Hbackman, Hcfwesker, HeBhagawan, Headbomb, Heaven,Ali Bahrani's wife, Heenan73, Hemanshu, Hephaestos, Heraclius, HereToHelp, Heron, Heronius, Hetar, Heygofish, Hfarmer, Hi.ahsan, Hiddekel, Hiimluke, Hippietrail, His excellency, Historygypsy, Historyofjihad, Historyreviewer, Histrion, Hiwamy, Hjonjon, Hkettani, Hkrclu, Hmains, Hof1187, Hoffryan, Hollowed Ground, Holy Ganga, HolyMuslimWarrior, Homestarmy, Hottentot, Hourglass321, Hoziron, Hr oskar, Hu, Huma1509, Humaliwalay, HumbleGod, Hurmata, Husond, Hvn0413, I b pip, I elliot, ICheetah, IFaqeer, IMWeazel, ISubmit786, IZAK, Iamunknown, Ian Pitchford, Ian.thomson, Iapetus, IbIis, Ibnra, Ibrahim92, Ibrahim999, Ibrahimunderwood, Icehat, Idamlaj, Ideogram, Idmkhizar, Ieatscones, Iftekhar25, Iggster, Ikid23, Ikiroid, Ilkali, Imad007, Imadjafar, Immanuel, ImmortalYawn, Imoeng, InShaneee, Indscribe, Infrogmation, Inkstersco, Intelligentsium, Intelligentsock, Inter, Interwiki gl, Ipigott, Ipso2, Iqbalhussian29, Irfan5, Irishguy, Irishpunktom, Isa ibn Maryam, Isfahan, Ishoy, Islamablad, Islami, Islamicresearch, Islamicwriter, Islamuslim, Isopropyl, Itaqallah, Itsalif, Itsmejudith, Iwanttoeditthissh, Ixfd64, Izehar, J Di, J'raxis, J.delanoy, J1muckw1, JDoorjam, JForget, JHMM13, JHunterJ, JJJJust, JLCA, JTBX, JYolkowski, Jaakobou, Jabra, Jabrannoor, Jacek Kendysz, Jackfitz2248, Jackfrondas74, Jacobhenrytucker, Jacobolus, Jacoplane, Jadid, Jaez, Jaffer, Jaganjac, Jagged 85, Jahiegel, Jake Nelson, Janejellyroll, Janviermichelle, Jaranda, Jarble, JarlaxleArtemis, Jason M, Jason Quinn, Jatlas, Javed Ali, JavierMC, Javizzle, Jaxl, Jayjg, Jazjaz92, Jboyler, Jbull, JeMa, Jedi Master MIK, Jeeves, Jeff3000, JeffBobFrank, Jefffire, Jelajahislam, Jenks1987, Jenny MacKinnon, JeremyA, Jeremygbyrne, JesseGarrett, Jez, Jfiling, Jfvjgkvblib, Jgeortsis, Jgritz, Jguk, Jguk 2, Jh51681, Jhbeck23, Jibbajabba, Jibran1, Jigglyfidders, Jimbob10045, Jimjamjim, JinJian, Jj137, Jj182bass, Jjamezz, Jkesler, Jklin, Jleon, Jleybov, Jmcc150, Jni, Jnothman, Jo3sampl, JoanneB, JoeM, JoeXX, Joebeone, Johann Wolfgang, John Quincy Adding Machine, John of Reading, John1838, John254, JohnAlabama33, JohnBlackburne, JohnCD, JohnOwens, Johnleemk, Johnmeister229, JohnsAr, Jojit fb, Jon Cates, JonHarder, JonasRH, Jonashart, Jonaswardingse, Jonathunder, Jordymcnab, Jorvik, Jose77, Joseph Robert Neil James, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephcunningham, Josh Grosse, Joshbuddy, Joshdboz, Jossi, Joyonicity, Joyous!, Jrdioko, Jrkso, Jserphos, Jtkiefer, JuJube, Juliancolton, Junathans, Juniper55, Jusdafax, Jusjih, Just nigel, Jwissick, K8bigelow, KINGOFTH3CASTLE, KMF, Ka34, Kaaveh Ahangar, Kadaveri, Kahraman, Kaldari, Kalemguzeli, Kalintor, Kander, Kansan, Kansas Bear, Kara Umi, Karada, Karl Meier, Karmosin, Kartheeque, Kartik Agaram, Kasreyn, KathrynLybarger, Kaylor, KazakhPol, Kazvorpal, Kbh3rd, Kcordina, KelIy Matthews, Kelisi, Kelly Martin, Kembali, Kendai, Kentcurtis, Kevin B12, Khalid, Khaliliqasmi, Khamel83, Khanfarhan96, Kharelt, Khawer, Khendon, Khoikhoi, Khorshid, Khublai, Khym Chanur, Kibiusa, Kieff, Kiftaan, Killer10, King of Hearts, Kingturtle, Kinkyturnip, Kinneyboy90, Kinu, Kirbytime, KissL, Kitrus, Kizor, Kkrystian, Klonimus, Kneiphof, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knucmo2, Knutux, Koal4e, Koavf, Kokot.kokotisko, Kotjze, Kowey, Kozuch, Kralizec!, Krazyrocko, Krich, Kricxjo, Kristos248, Kshatriyaaz, Ksweith, Kukini, Kums, Kungfuadam, Kurtilein, Kurtle, Kuru, Kvan1st, Kwamikagami, Kwnd, Kyle Barbour, Kyodai, Kyorosuke, KyraVixen, L33t 3lit3, LAAFan, LFajardo, LOTRrules, LUbunkerman, LaMenta3, Labrynthia9856, Lacrimosus, Lahaun, Lalo22, Lambgina, Lance6Wins, Langdell, Lapinmies, Lapisphil, Lapsus Linguae, Laraib12, Larry laptop, LatinoMuslim, Laurascudder, Laurence Boyce, Laurent Van Winckel, Le savoir et le savoir-faire, LebanonChild, Lectonar, Legend II, Legionas, Len 1993, Lendorien, Leon1948, Leopold Stotch, Leoshad, Lephti, LesleyW, Lestrade, Letsjoy, Levineps, Lewien, Lexi Marie, Lexicon, Lfh, Li2l misstrouble, Liberal 185, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, Lightlowemon, Lightmouse, LinkTiger, Linuxbeak, Lir, Little sawyer, Livajo, Live Light, Live STSS, Livna-Maor, Lkmen, Llywrch, Local yokel, Lolcookies, Lonelytj, Longhair, Longlivepalestine, Loopter, Lord Cornholio, Lord Ferdinand, LordRahl, LordSimonofShropshire, Lotje, Lou.weird, Lovechaz, Lucas Richards, Lucent474, Luigi30, Luis Dantas, LukeFF, Luna Santin, Lundse, Lupin, Lupo, Luuva, M a razvi, M.Imran, M.O.X, M2k41, MAGI-01, MC10, MECU, MER-C, MFHEagle123, MFlet1, MINDBOMB, MJO, MJVmusic, MK Emaster, MKoltnow, MONGO, MPA, MZMcBride, Maalaaa1, Macai, Macellarius, Macgyver, Macrakis, Mad Bill, Madkangaroo, Madman 0014, Madyasiwi, Maebmij, Maerin, Maf939, Magicalsaumy, Magicxcian, Magister Mathematicae, Mahanga, Mahmagin, Mahmood, Mahmudmasri, Mahsoon, Mailer diablo, Majestiq, Mak82hyd, Maksim L., Malcolm Farmer, Malhonen, Malik Shabazz, Malo, Malrak dossta, Mannafredo, Manos, Mantis747, Manuel Bermudez, Marhadiasa, Mariiax, Mark Zinthefer, Markovich292, Markus Kuhn, Marlinb, Marriex, MarsRover, Marskell, MartinHarper, Martinp23, Marwan123, Marwanks, Marx Gomes, MaryBerry, Mashford, Masterpiece2000, Matarael, Matchups, Mateuszica, Mathaytace, Matt Crypto, Matt57, MattJones1512, Matteh, MatthewVanitas, Mattisse, Mattworld, Mav, Mawkish1983, Max543, Maxamegalon2000, Maxim, Maximillion Pegasus, Maximo Decimo, Maximus Rex, Maxkbennett, Maxwell2199, Mayooresan, Mbahrami, McKhan, Mcorazao, MechBrowman, MediaMangler, Megadeth186, Mego'brien, Mehnazhyder, Mel Etitis, Melchoir, Mementodoji, Menchi, Menj, Meno25, Meokha, Mercury, Merillupin, Merzbow, Metadigital, Metahacker, MezzoMezzo, Mfupa, Mian ssg, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Michael Voytinsky, Midnightblueowl, Midnite Critic, MikailMoolla, Mike 7, Mike Rosoft, Mike Young, Mike0001, Mikenorton, Mikesdad, Mikhailov Kusserow, Mikzoj, Millwright31, Miltonzs, Mindspillage, Mira, Mirak, Mirfan2, Miro100, Mirv, Misaw, Misconceptions2, Miskin, Misortie, Mister Five, Mister Universe, Mister doodi, Mjangle, Mjhashma, Mjr162006, Mjsabby, Mjw65, Mkamensek, Mkdw, Mkmcconn, Mlenoirh, Mmm, Mnadi, Mo0, Mod1101, Modemac, Modulatum, Moe Epsilon, Mohamed Elhadidi, Mohammad Akram R, Mohammad salim khan swati, Mohammadkidwai, Mohmd, Moizkhanmalik, Molerat, Moncrief, Monkeyblue, Monkeyboy612, Monkeyman, Moopiefoof, Moral Clarity, Mordur, MoreThings, Moreschi, Moriori, Morrowind, Morwen, Mostafameraji, Mottenen, Moviemaker86, Mpatel, Mpradeep, Mr Adequate, Mr yasirsiddiqui, Mr. Lefty, Mr. Military, Mr.Hilter, Mr.Ranger, Mr.Slade, Mr.Zman, Mr100percent, Mranderson56, Mrtea, Ms2ger, Mschel, Mschiffler, Msikma, Mslatif, Mszahrat, Muhammad Mukhriz, Muhammadponce, Muhammaduddeen, Muhammet.alp, Murderbike, Musa as-Salafi, Mushoo, Mushroom, Mushtanda, Music Sorter, Musical Linguist, Muslim sunni, Muslim55, Muslimmah, Muslimpride009, MuslimsofUmreka, Mustaafaa, Mustafaa, Mutazilite, Muttaqoon, Muzaffar ahmad bajwa, MuzikJunky, Muzzammil9, Myxamea, N-edits, NEWUSER, NThurston, Naaads, Nabuchadnessar, Naddy, Nadia Philips, Najamuddin, Nakon, Nanshu, NapoleansSword, Narcissus14, Narsil, Nassim, Nathanl1192, Nautical Mongoose, Navarro, Nawazdaud, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Ndsg, Necure, Neelix, Nehpetskenawi, NeilN, Neilbeach, Neonumbers, Neqitan, Nerd911, Netesq, Netlover, Netmonger, Netscott, Neutrality, Neutron Jack, Nevit, NewEnglandYankee, Nicetomeetyou, Nick, Nick C, Nick125, Nickbee, Nickshanks, Nicolae Coman, Nielswik, Nig Nog, Nikkul, Ninjutsu, Ninly, Niqolaj, Nirvana2013, Nitchell, Nite-Sirk, Nivix, Niz1vir, Nlu, NoPity2, Nobleeagle, Nodollarsandsense, Nomanrehmani, Nonenone4, Noor Aalam, Noorrovers, Northern Aurora, NorthernPashtun, Northumbrian, Nosefornews, Notatroll, Notcarlos, Notedgrant, Notheruser, Nourah, Ntsimp, Nub2xx2, Numbo3, Nv8200p, O rly?, OOODDD, Objectivesea, Ocean57, Off2riorob, Oh the wo, Ohconfucius, Ohms law, Ohnoitsjamie, Oiqbal, Okasha, OlEnglish, Old port, Oldwindybear, Olivemountain, Oliver Pereira, Olivier, Olorin28, OmairParacha, Omar 180, Omarlegend1, Omerlives, Omicronpersei8, Omnieiunium, Omphaloscope, Ondewelle, OneGuy, OneVoice, OneWeirdDude, Oniongas, Oobflyer, Oore, OpTioNiGhT, Opiner, Oppgyz123, Optimist on the run, OrbitOne, Oren.tal, Oreo Priest, Ori, Oromo111, Orphadeus, Osagasu, OsĐ°ma bin Laden, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Outdaback, Outsider2810, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Ozemc, Ozypyro, Ozzykhan, PDH, PJM, Pablo-flores, Padishah5000, Pakaran, Pakhistory1, Paki.tv, Pakismine, Paktype, Pallab1234, Panaster, Panoptical, Papep, Parhamr, Parksand, Pars.dextrum, Pass a Method, Pat Payne, Patrick, Patrick poloney, Patrick0Moran, Patstuart, Patton123, Paul August, Paul Stansifer, Pde, PeaceThroughStrength, Peacedove, Peaceworld111, Pearle, Pecher, Pedantic of Purley, Pedro, PelleSmith, Pepsidrinka, Perceval, Persia2099, Persian Poet Gal, Perspective16, Peruvianllama, Peter Agga, Peter Deer, Petercorless, Peterlin, Petesm, Pevarnj, Pfortuny, Pgan002, Pgk, Phaedriel, Phaedrus86, Phanerozoic, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pharos, Phil Boswell, Phil Sandifer, PhilKnight, Philgp, Picachu, Picaroon, Picus viridis, PierreAbbat, PiersOffshore, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pilip, Pillowsrsoft, Pilotguy, Pinkadelica, Pjoef, Plain jack, Plastikspork, Plyhmrp, PlzNLies, Poetaris, Politepunk, Pollinator, Pomthe, Poor Yorick, Popplewick, Populus, Portillo, Pouya, PovertyToRiches, Power2084, Powpow 13, Poytpo, Prikryl, Primal400, Proabivouac, Profundae, PseudoSudo, Pseudothyrum, Psy guy, Puceron, Pureaswater, Pyrrhon8, Python eggs, Q8biker90, QVanillaQ, Qarhaad, Qasamaan, Qasim666, Qaz, Qjuad, Qtoktok, Quadel, Quadell, QuantumEleven, QuartierLatin1968, Quincy2010, Quodlibetarian, Quttai, Quylob, Qwerty sega, R'n'B, RJASE1, RK, RSpeeter, RTC, RVLTNR, RaCha'ar, Rachel13479, Raef fanous, Rafik mohamed, Rafterman, RaiIer 505, RaiUmair, RaiderAspect, Ralloz, Ramazan!, Rameenj, Ran, Random832, RandomP, Rangerwave, Raqaaiq, Rasmus Faber, Rat144, Raul654, RavShimon, Ravi Verma, Ray harris1989,

Raymond Hill, Razzsic, Rdsmith4, Real19, Realm of Shadows, Reaverdrop, Recurring dreams, RedWordSmith, Reddi, Redsunrising, Redvers, Regulus, Reid, Remiel, Renamed user 1752, Renice, ResistnetStDirWI, Retired username, Rettetast, Reuben, RexNL, Rholton, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rich jj, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard75, RichardF, Richardjames444, RickK, Ricky81682, Rickyrab, Rifzter, Rishartha, Riversider2008, Riwnodennyk, Rizvirizvi, Rje, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rlquall, Rmisiak, Rmky87, Rnofsky, Robdurbar, Robek, RobertG, Robertsussell, Robinrhysjones, Robth, Roccomalone, RockMFR, Rockfan1, Rodhullandemu, Rohanidoc, Romamia, Romanm, RonCram, Ronark, Ronhjones, Rooostishaw, Ropers, Rory096, Rorypory, Rosywounds, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Rst20xx, Rubaaa, RubberBandit, Ruchik tbhatt, Rudi Dierick, RunOrDie, RunningAway, Rursus, Russell Dovey, RussianBoy, RxS, Ryan4, RyanGFilm, Ryanmartel6, Ryann24, Ryulong, Rzf3, S inchley, SBKT, SC.XV, SEMTEX85, SHTON, SJM222, SJP, SNIyer12, SPUI, ST47, SUP.TRO., Sa.vakilian, Sacbutteredtoast, Sadfasffasdsdfga, Saeed.Bak, Sagaciousuk, Sahaban, Saidketchman, Sajidkayum, Sajjadkhalid, Sakimonk, Sakmac, Saladinsaed, Salafi, Salahudin, Salikk, Salmanmdkhan, Salsa Shark, Salsb, Saluton, Saluyot, Sambazzi, Sameer14, Samuel, Samuel Blanning, SamuelTheGhost, Sand-American, Sandb, Sandstein, SandyGeorgia, Sango123, Sannse, Saravask, Sardanaphalus, Sargonious, Sarosh Alamgir, Sarvinox, Savant1984, Savidan, Sayanvala, Sayyed al afghani, Sayyid Abbud ibn Haider Ar Radawi, Scaife, ScaldingHotSoup, Scapula250, Scartol, Sceptre, Schnauf, Scientizzle, Scifiintel, Scooteristi, Scorpionman, Scott stapp, Scott3, Scythian1, Sdornan, Sean.hoyland, SeanMack, Seanr451, Search4Lancer, Seblini, Selfworm, Semmler, Sennen goroshi, Seqsea, Seraph Moon, Seraphimblade, Serlin, Severa, SexyKick,

Article Sources and Contributors 90 SgtSchumann, Sh4rkb1t3, Shaad lko, Shabbirally, Shadedwhite, Shafiq.ahmed, Shahab, Shahid12, Shaitan Al Mahdi, Shanel, Shanes, Sharik Purkar, Sharru Kinnu III, ShaunES, Shawtyrockmi, Shenme, Sheu-sheu, Shimgray, Shirik, Shiva's Trident, Shizane, Shizhao, Shlhu, Shoab, Shoeofdeath, Shqiptar nga Kosova, Shramor, Shuffdog, Shushruth, Shyam, Sibtain, Sicamous, Siddiqui, Sidhiqkp, Signalhead, Sikosm, Silence, Silver Maple, Silversmith, Simeon H, SimonP, Simpsons contributor, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sirbaconburger, SirenDrake, Sirius85, Siriusgray, Sjakkalle, Sjorford, Sjsitler92, SkeeloBob, Skysmith, Skywalker, Slackerlawstudent, Slave poet, SlaveToTheWage, SlimVirgin, Slippy Jenkins, Smart Viral, SmartWiz1982, Smmurphy, Snarius, Snaxe920, Snowolf, Snoyes, Soa1924, Soarhead77, Sobreira, Soccercamp1991, Socrates42, Sodicadl, Sohailstyle, Sokolesq, Solatota, Soleado, Solitude, Soman, SomeDudeWithAUserName, Someboddy, Someone65, Sonjaaa, Sony465, Sophia, Sophs87, Soporaeternus, Soulstice, Soumyasch, Spacepotato, Spamsara, Spangineer, Spartaz, Spearhead, Splette, SpookyMulder, Srikeit, St.Trond, Stallions2010, Starionwolf, Starwarp2k2, Statros, Stbalbach, Steel, Stella blue 1966, Stephan Schulz, Stephen Bowers, Stephen Compall, Stephen G. Brown, Stephen Gilbert, Stephenb, Stereotek, Sterio, Stevensons88, Stevertigo, SteveyRob, Stickee, Stifle, Stoa, Str1977, Street Scholar, Striver, Strongbadsings!!, Studge, Stwalkerster, Suffusion of Yellow, Sufian, Sunborn, SuperJumbo, Superinfiniti, Supersaiyan474, Supershake9595, Supertouch, Surlyduff50, Suruena, SuspendedSky, Susurrus, Sverdrup, SwanSZ, Swatjester, Swb1991, Swooningdisaster, Sword, Sxenko, Syed Atif Nazir, Syndicate, Syvanen, Szajci, T3gah, THDju, TKM625, TShilo12, TUF-KAT, Ta bu shi da yu, Taaoo, Tabletkami, Tahabi, Tahmasp, Takatakatak, Talib 72, Talmage, Tamsier, Tangotango, Tanna, Tanvirchowdhury, Taptee, Tarikur, Tariqabjotu, Tariqhaashmi, Tarquin, Tarzan014, Tasc, Tassedethe, Tatarian, Tauphon, Tawker, Taxman, Tayyab Tufail, Tbhotch, Teddyboy ben, Tedweird, Tegel, Tehmasp, Teiladnam, Tekana, Teleszczupak, Tellyaddict, TelusFielder, Temmujin, TenPoundHammer, TenaciousT, Terence, Termabunny, Tesla225, Tettnang, Tetty2, Tewfik, TexasAndroid, Th3B3stSist3r, Thakurji, TharkunColl, The Anome, The Brain, The Emirr, The Epopt, The Halo, The Kings Of Cleverness, The Moustache, The Ogre, The Transhumanist, The pube muppet, TheFinalFraek, TheGreenEditor, TheGrza, TheKMan, TheProphet1993, TheRanger, Thebogusman, Thecarrotdude, Thecut, Theda, Thehelpfulone, Themfromspace, TheoloJ, Theone00, There's Been a Kill, Thereal100, Therefore, Theresa knott, Thermalimage, Thestick, Theterrific, This user has left wikipedia, Thiseye, Thomas Ludwig, Thqwk, Thue, Tickle me, Tidaress, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tigeroo, Tijuana Brass, Tim Starling, TimBentley, TimVickers, Timemutt, Timir2, Timothy Usher, Timothy Usherr, Tinpac, Titoxd, Tjsquirrelmaster, Tobby72, Todd unt, Todd661, Tom harrison, Tom49, TomGreen, Tommy2010, Tompaine, Tomr711, Tonomo24, Tonusperegrinus, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, TonySt, Tonyle, Toobrainy414, Tool, Topherkersting, Totamanussdf, Totient, Towsonu2003, Tpbradbury, TrainTC, Trasman, Travelbird, Traxinet, Treisijs, Trevor MacInnis, Triplespy, TrixR4me, Trogg, Trueblood, Truth777, Truthspreader, Trypa, Tschild, Turaab84, Turbinator, Turbol, Turnstep, TutterMouse, Twas Now, Twice25, Tyciol, Tyomitch, Tyrer UK1, Ufwuct, UltraTroll, Unbleevable, Ungtss, UnicornTapestry, Unify, Untifler, Unweasel, Urchid, Urduboy, Usedbook, Usergreatpower, Usmausma, Ussakli, UtherSRG, VDK, VDQ, VKokielov, Valajbeg, Vancouverguy, Vanden, Vanderdecken, Vanished User 0001, Vanished user 03, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Varanwal, Vary, VashiDonsk, VegaDark, Vegaswikian, Veinor, Velho, Velrith106, Velvetron, Vengeful Cynic, Ventur, Venu62, Vexorg, Veyklevar, Vhann, Vice regent, Vikramkr, Vincenzoworm, Violetriga, Vipinhari, VirJenia, Viscious81, Viv sf, Vldavis, VolatileChemical, Voyagerfan5761, Vscan, Vu2lid, WGee, WJetChao, WKTU, WadeSimMiser, Waffer, Wafulz, Walkie, Wandering Minstrel, War on Terror, Wasell, Wash77ls, Wavelength, Wayward, Webber105, Welsh, WereSpielChequers, Weregerbil, Wereon, Wesley, West Brom 4ever, Wetman, Weyes, WhisperToMe, Whkoh, Whugotit22, Wibidabi, Wienerish, Wik, Wiki alf, WikiFlier, WikiSSMN, Wikiguru2000, WikipediaClock, Wikipediapimia.com, Wikipediarules2221, Wikipelli, Wikipidian, William M. Connolley, Willow4, Willp4139, Willsmith, Willypie, Wilson4645, Wilt, Wimt, Winhunter, Wiqi55, Wisamzaqoot, Wisco, Wisesabre, Wishminister, Wislam, Wiwaxia, Wknight94, Wmax, Woer $, Woggly, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Wordsmith30, WormNut, Wtmitchell, Wynler, X BSC x, Xammay, Xaosflux, Xdr56tfc, Xe Cahzytr Ryz, Xevi, Xezbeth, Xiaopo, Xlabla22, Xufanc, Y2H, Yahel Guhan, Yahussaina, Yahya01, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yanks726, Yanksox, Yarnalgo, Yas121, Yaw pakhtoon, YellowMonkey, Yessou El Maseekh, Yhasan, Yodakii, Yosri, Yousufn, Yozer1, Ypacaraí, Yuber, Yusuf891, ZIA-UL-HAQ MUHAMMAD, ZZyXx, Zachary, ZacharyStisser, Zahidulla, Zain engineer, Zains, Zazaban, Zeeshan7, Zeeshanhasan, Zehii, Zeno of Elea, Zero0000, Zero2001, Zeroone, Zfr, Zhinker, Zikrullah, Zipperfly, Ziprock, Zizzybaluba, Zoe, Zondor, Zora, Zsinj, Zubair71, Zyqwux, Zytroft, Zzuuzz, Δζ, Вasil, +W-‫أ‬, ‫ل‬Y=, Z[\‫ و‬Z]=, とある白い猫, 达伟, 4094 anonymous edits Akhirah Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462730896 Contributors: Alastair Haines, Ali Muratovic, ArglebargleIV, Aurangzeb-Yousaf, B, Babajobu, CambridgeBayWeather, Clark89, DiiCinta, Doc glasgow, DopefishJustin, Ebu Katada, Fabrictramp, Freestylefrappe, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, GorgeCustersSabre, Heshamdiab116, JaGa, Jason.benjabutr, Jgeortsis, Krawi, LatinoMuslim, Louis de m, Marquez, Mpatel, Nixeagle, Paalappoo, Pepsidrinka, Quadell, RJASE1, Rjwilmsi, SKULLSPLITTER, Sasquatch, Sorna Doon, Test2007, TheoloJ, Wikipelli, Wmahan, 36 anonymous edits Jannah Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=477653300 Contributors: AA, AAA765, Ahlasunna, Allenwalla, AlmostDone, AlphaGamma1991, Altenmann, Aminullah, AnokhaRahi, Arne List, Arrow740, Ashmoo, Auc, Aurangzeb-Yousaf, Birdie2000, Bobo The Ninja, Bollywoodhungama, CambridgeBayWeather, Carlossuarez46, Cloj, Cmmmm, DocWatson42, Drilnoth, Drmies, Dumaka, Ecjmartin, Elazeez, Euryalus, Fahhad, Freestylefrappe, Fæ, Greatmuslim10, Grenavitar, Hotbosscool, Iranway, Itaqallah, J.delanoy, JForget, JHunterJ, Jacobolus, Jaffer, Jeepday, Johanna-Hypatia, Judgesurreal777, JulesVerne, Kkrystian, Krawi, Kubi KZ, Mahmudmasri, Marcica, MartinRe, Marwatt, Matt57, Mirv, Mohamedisna, Muslim11, Nafsadh, Natcase, Nimavojdani, Otashiro, Overmoral98, PPrincess752, Palmiro, Pepsidrinka, Piano non troppo, Pictureuploader, Pigman, Prostagma, Pyaara Dil, Rjwilmsi, Rosywounds, SKULLSPLITTER, Satyadasa, ShelfSkewed, Sinus, Steven X, Striver, Surv1v4l1st, Svick, Tara Ireland, The wub, Theonlykman, Tom harrison, Travelbird, Truthspreader, Vassyana, Velanthis, Vice regent, Wahabijaz, Wifione, Wiki-uk, Xp54321, Yardcock, Zerokitsune, Zfr, 153 anonymous edits Barzakh Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=476403866 Contributors: Aminullah, Armyrifle9, Avocado, BD2412, Cheese1125, FarfromHvar, Freestylefrappe, Imadjafar, JoniFili, Khadijiah, Khalid hassani, KureCewlik81, Ladsgroup, Leadwind, LilHelpa, Makerowner, Miffy900, Milkiestsheikh1, Mion, NW036, RobJ1981, SKULLSPLITTER, Shanedidona, Signalhead, Space beta07, Struway, Tanbircdq, Tariqabjotu, Theelf29, Tyomitch, Yonderboy, 46 ,^49Q ‫دارك‬, RS6= TU&V anonymous edits Islamic view of the Last Judgment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478399787 Contributors: 12Ektabar, A elalaily, A7a8a, AAA765, ABCD, Abdurrahman.meda, Adamcaliph, Aec is away, Ajh16, AmeerM, Amillar, Aminullah, Andy Marchbanks, Anonymous editor, Apollo1758, ArglebargleIV, Atif.t2, Aurangzeb-Yousaf, Ave Caesar, B, Bbuda, Bddmagic, Bihco, Bkwillwm, Bless sins, Bushra09, C.Logan, CambridgeBayWeather, Cdecoro, Cherylyoung, Choco skhan, Chris the speller, Christopher Kraus, Ciphers, Cloj, Cocytus, Coolsafe, Cpl Syx, CultureDrone, Cunado19, DVdm, Dancinginblood, Darklilac, Darth Panda, Dave souza, Dbachmann, DiiCinta, Discospinster, Diverman, Docu, DopefishJustin, Dougweller, Drbreznjev, Drivelhead, Dycedarg, Eagleamn, Eatcacti, Ebu Katada, Editor2020, Eewild, ElectricEye, Eliz81, Etr52, Feezo, Firsfron, Freestylefrappe, Func, GTBacchus, Galo1969X, Gldren, Gmessy30, Goblins77, Gobonobo, GoingBatty, Goldenbeehive, GorillaWarfare, Gotyear, Grafen, Green Giant, Gregbard, Grenavitar, Gtrmp, Hercule, Heshamdiab116, HisSpaceResearch, Hmrox, HunterZone, Hwangroman, Hylian pirate, IanManka, Imadjafar, Irteza110, J heisenberg, J.delanoy, Jackfork, JayZ, Jeremygbyrne, Jim1138, Jmnmic27, Jonathunder, Jredmond, JuJube, KI, Kaldosh, Kashkhan, KathrynLybarger, Katneya, KazakhPol, KazekageTR, Kbh3rd, Kingmo1990, Ksalokranjan, Larry11565, LatinoMuslim, LeeHunter, Lexw, Liempt, Lilhardy7, Lord Anubis, LostAccount, Lotje, MK8, Maha Odeh, Mbinebri, Mdw0, Merzbow, Mewasul, Mewmj123, Miguel de Servet, Mike Rosoft, Mpatel, Mr. Billion, MrOllie, Mrmz88, Mustafaa, Mystìc, N5iln, Netsnipe, Neutron Jack, NickBush24, Niteowlneils, Ogress, One Leaf Knows Autumn, Otterathome, Papajohnin, PaperTruths, Passionhunter, Paul A, Pepsidrinka, Perfectchiz, Peter Deer, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Prester John, Qs34, Ramabdel12, Ramrom95, Ranveig, Raoulduke25, Raphael1, Reaper Eternal, Reduxx, Rgfx, Rjwilmsi, Robchurch, Roozbeh, Rror, Rumrunner2009, SKULLSPLITTER, Sa.vakilian, Saldhana, ScottyBerg, Sct72, Seaphoto, Sebsen11, Severking, Shahadur, Shi Hou, Signalhead, Skoosh, Skullnboner, Slippage, Smalljim, Snakeeater330, Snowolf, SouthernComfort, SpookyMulder, Sssprkrao, Stavia, Stbalbach, Striver, Suomichris, Syed Atif Nazir, Syed Azaharul Asriq, Szfski, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tchadienne, TechPurism, Tehe474855, Tek1, The Epopt, The Master of Mayhem, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGWO, TheGrimerReaper, TimBentley, Tommy2010, TruHeir, True.identity, Txrazy, Ubaid773, Ubxer, UncleDouggie, Universaliss, Waggers, Wasell, Whizmd, Wiikipedian, Wiki-uk, Wikipelli, Windchaser, Winnow, Wiqi55, Ya ya ya ya ya ya, Yelyos, Yousou, Zahab, Zeeair, Zeno of Elea, Zntrip, Zora, Île flottante, Шизомби, 621 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 91

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors file:Siyer-i Nebi 151b.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Igiveup File:Califate 750.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Califate_750.png License: Public Domain Contributors: see above File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Paolo Massa from Trento, Italy

Image:Omayyad mosque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Omayyad_mosque.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Isam at en.wikipedia File:47-manasses-chronicle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:47-manasses-chronicle.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original: Constantine Manasses File:Old World 820.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_World_820.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Carlaude File:EditedStattering.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EditedStattering.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Busterof666 File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Danieliness at en.wikipedia.

File:Great Mosque of Samarra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Mosque_of_Samarra.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Izzedine File:The Byzantine Empire, c.1180.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Byzantine_Empire,_c.1180.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Bigdaddy1204 (talk) Original uploader was Bigdaddy1204 at en.wikipedia File:Page 99.Strange.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Page_99.Strange.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Netanel h, TheRealHuldra File:The Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Dome_of_Al_Aqsa_Mousque.jpg License: Creative Commons AttributionShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Producer (talk) File:Mosquee al-akim le caire 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mosquee_al-akim_le_caire_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Michel Benoist Mbenoist at fr.wikipedia File:Adolf Seel Innenhof der Alhambra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adolf_Seel_Innenhof_der_Alhambra.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Balbo, Bukk, FA2010, Goldfritha, JMCC1, Olivier2, Wst, 1 anonymous edits File:Lamezquitacordoba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lamezquitacordoba.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Jnordmar File:Saladin and Guy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saladin_and_Guy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Said Tahsine (1904-1985 Syria) Image:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown / (of the reproduction) Staatsbibliothek Berlin/Schacht File:Eastern Mediterranean 1450 .svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eastern_Mediterranean_1450_.svg License: Creative Commons AttributionSharealike 2.5 Contributors: Elonka, G.dallorto, JMCC1, Kimdime, Kuara, Lizrael, Lokiseinchef, MARKELLOS, MapMaster, Odedee, Stegop, Takabeg, Warburg, Xander89, Yodaspirine, 4 anonymous edits File:Kairouan's Great Mosque courtyard.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan's_Great_Mosque_courtyard.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Alexandre Moreau Image:Taj1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jankit (Talk File:Humanyu.JPG Source: http:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Humanyu.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Deepak File:Shah soleiman safavi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ali Qoli Jabbador (ალი-ყული ჯაბადარი) Uploaded by: Zereshk File:Suleiman Mosque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suleiman_Mosque.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: The Phoenix File:Islam by country.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Islam_by_country.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Baba66, Bjarki S, Dbachmann, Denisutku, Denniss, Koavf, MacedonianBoy, Maphobbyist, Sercan.ergün, Timeshifter, 1 anonymous edits Image:Silver Dirham.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silver_Dirham.png License: Public Domain Contributors: ZeroFiveZerome (talk). Original uploader was ZeroFiveZerome at en.wikipedia File:Mustansiriya University CPT.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: CPT photo Image:Age-of-caliphs.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Age-of-caliphs.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Brian Szymanski File:Bayasanghori Shahnameh 5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bayasanghori_Shahnameh_5.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: The Shâhnâmeh (Book of Kings) is major epic work of persian poetry "Ferdowsi Tousi". “Bayasanghori Shâhnâmeh” was made in 1430 for Prince Bayasanghor (1399-1433), the grandson of the legendary Central Asian leader Timur (1336-1405).

File:A panorama in 12 folds showing the procession of the Emperor Bahadur Shah to celebrate the feast of the 'Id., 1843.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:A_panorama_in_12_folds_showing_the_procession_of_the_Emperor_Bahadur_Shah_to_celebrate_the_feast_of_the_'Id.,_1843.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe (1795-1853) File:Mir Sayyid Ali - Portrait of a Young Indian Scholar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Mir_Sayyid_Ali_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Indian_Scholar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ecummenic, Johnbod, Jungpionier, Shakko, Zolo File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De minaret bij de moskee van Koedoes TMnr 10016672.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_minaret_bij_de_moskee_van_Koedoes_TMnr_10016672.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Docu, Humboldt File:Kairouan Mosque Courtyard.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan_Mosque_Courtyard.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Colin Hepburn File:Cordoba mihrab.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cordoba_mihrab.jpg License: Creative Commons AttributionShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: LooiNL File:Mošeja-Log pod Mangartom4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mošeja-Log_pod_Mangartom4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Janezdrilc, Yerpo File:Kaaba at night.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaaba_at_night.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Medineli at en.wikipedia File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 18 anonymous edits File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski Camii Allah green3.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dcp7323-Edirne-Eski_Camii_Allah_green3.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Nevit Dilmen File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Baba66, Bestiasonica, Calliopejen1, Cirt, Dbachmann, Denniss, FordPrefect42, Grenavitar, Izehar, Johnbod, Kintetsubuffalo, Matanya, Meno25, Neukoln, Ras67, Wouterhagens, 14 anonymous edits Image:Mosque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mosque.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Antonio Melina/ABr (Original uploader was Hajor at en.wikipedia) File:Nikah 003.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/ index.php?title=File:Nikah_003.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Zainubrazvi at en.wikipedia File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madina_Haram_at_evening_.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ahmed Medineli File:Age of Caliphs.png Source: http:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Age_of_Caliphs.png License: Public Domain Contributors: United States of America federal government File:Herat Masjidi Jami courtyard.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herat_Masjidi_Jami_courtyard.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Sven Dirks, Wien File:The Surrender of Kandahar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Surrender_of_Kandahar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 92 File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque Istanbul Turkey retouched.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque_Istanbul_Turkey_retouched.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Dersaadet File:Мечеть Кул Шариф, 2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Мечеть_Кул_Шариф,_2009.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Yuriy75 File:National Mosque KL 2007 pano.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:National_Mosque_KL_2007_pano.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Gryffindor File:AbujaNationalMosque.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AbujaNationalMosque.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Shiraz Chakera File:RoxburyMosque2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RoxburyMosque2.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Biruitorul File:Madhhab Map2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madhhab_Map2.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ghibar File:Divisions of Islam.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Divisions_of_Islam.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: BenAveling File:Whirling Dervishes 2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whirling_Dervishes_2.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: shioshvili File:World Muslim Population Pew Forum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Muslim_Population_Pew_Forum.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: HaireDunya File:Mosque of Cordoba Spain.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=File:Mosque_of_Cordoba_Spain.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Steven J. Dunlop, Nerstrand, MN File:Celebrating Eid in Tajikistan 10-13-2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Celebrating_Eid_in_Tajikistan_10-13-2007.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Evans File:Ibn-al-Arabi-Plain-of-Assembly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ibn-al-Arabi-Plain-of-Assembly.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Wiki-uk

License

93

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/