TRENDING NOW: the impact of infostructure Kossman Undergraduate Architectural Thesis . Marjorie Sevilla Dona
MARJORIE SEVILLA DONA KOSSMAN THESIS 2012 - 2013 THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE THESIS ADVISOR: DARLA LINDBERG
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I N F O R M a t i o n r
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C O M M U N I C A T I O Na r c h i t e c t u r e i d e n t i t ye x i s t i n g
N E T W O R KI D E N T I T Y c u l t u r e versus BROOKLYN
DUMBODUMBO versus
MANHATTAN
INFRASTRUCTURE e v e n t C O M M U N I C A T I O Nm e s s a g e s a r c h i t e c t u r eC H A N G E
infrastructure
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01 // Abstract 02 // Thesis Statement 03 // Area Of Focus 3.1 Theoretical Issues 3.2 Architectural Issues 3.3 Architect Review 04 // Case Study And Context Information 4.1 Site History and Development 4.2 Maps and Aerial Views 4.3 Site Documentation 05 // Strategy 06 // Program 6.1 Program Type 6.2 Programmatic Elements 07 // Design Project 7.1 Building Plans 7.2 Building Sections 7.3 Models 08 // Conclusion 09 // Bibliography
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ABSTRACT // THESIS STATEMENT
01// ABSTRACT
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ll cities communicate messages to people, whether functional, symbolic, or persuasive. We understand the city through the articulation of its myriad infrastructure. The city, then, is a complex dynamic system of interacting social elements that opens to and interacts with its environment.
We keep building cities and structures, however, without embracing a city’s identity, culture, and history. Trending Now questions the need to build new architecture versus the opportunity to apply new innovations to an already existing architecture. As in Learning from Las Vegas, “Architects have preferred to change the existing environment rather than enhance what is there.” Using the Brooklyn Tech Triangle as a case study that consists of three neighborhoods: DUMBO, Navy Yard, and Downtown, this thesis studies Brooklyn’s unique identity apart from Manhattan’s. Manhattan is too expensive and too retrofit. Buildings are built to suit a new retailer or tenant with a new method of signage causing the building to disappear, hence making the history and the culture disappear. Unlike Manhattan, Brooklyn is clandestine, industrial, and innovative with a raw aesthetic. Its narrative is of manufacturing and the arts.
Brooklyn is not Manhattan - Manhattan is not Brooklyn. The existing building site of the Empire Stores Building Warehouse lies in a perfect location to give Dumbo its narrative: two bridges, boundaries (East River, Brooklyn Queens Expressway), historical buildings, facing Manhattan, and an entryway into Brooklyn. Beyond the shell is where the magic happens.
VERSUS 01 02
Cities are transformed by the meaning in which people react to the site to create a narrative, making people an essential part of the greater system. If systems are eliminated, the systems would not be a means for people to create the narrative - there would not be a city. A system is characterized by the interactions of its components and the non-linearity of those interactions. It can be defined by their structure as an abstract/analytic pattern system where elements consist of signs and concepts. Unlike the real system that can only exchange information, abstract systems are information. If one creates for only “the whole,” emphasis is not on the parts and the whole has no meaning. The systems serve meaning-making for the building, not the building making the systems. By applying systems of information, meaning is read. The existing site/building becomes the support for the systems of information. Hence, designing the infrastructure that supports meaning systems is making the city. “There is a perversity in the learning process: We look backward at history and tradition to go forward.”
02// THESIS STATEMENT This thesis questions the methods in which the identity of a city is developed, the elements that make up that identity, and the forms architecture takes within that city identity. Architecture does not actually make the spaces, but creates the means of systems placement that holds information to communicate a greater meaning. The city as a backdrop remains in a state of its own integrity. The overlays casted and created contribute to the interpretative ability of message and meaning as systems of architectural conveyance. This is architecture - it’s an infostructure.
AREA OF FOCUS
INFRASTRUCTURE
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IDENTITY
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INFOSTRUCTURE
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SITE RESOURCES
IDEA
BUILD
INFRASTRUCTURE
WORLD MAP
NEW YORK
HIGHWAY
STREET
BRIDGE
SIDEWALK
PARTS
CITY
TOWN
BOROUGH
NEIGHBORHOOD
POPULATION
US MAP
PEOPLE
MANHATTAN VS BROOKLYN
CULTURE IDENTITY
3.1// THEORETICAL ISSUES
The city is a complex dynamic system of interacting social elements that opens to and interacts with its environment. People are the element that allow for these interactions to be created and to occur. As being a part of this complex dynamic system, how can we define our cities today? How can we take what has already been of existence and create a new infrastructure in relation to what previously existed? What role do we play as a part of this complex dynamic system?
3.2// ARCHITECTURAL ISSUES
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How can the architecture we create enhance the existing elements, yet project the new technological implications of today’s society without losing the history of the existing infrastructure? As architects, we continue to build new buildings without taking into account the already existing parts to the whole. What innovations can we apply to allow architecture to thrive but not forget what was there before? Should we keep building new buildings? Is there another way of architecting? In the end, the architecture we create greatly effects every element that interacts with it, most especially its inhabitants. Our architecture we create is only as great as the ability for people to use the architecture created. In the end, architecture creates the means of systems placement that holds information to communicate a greater meaning.
CHARACTERISTICS
INFOSTRUCTURE
ETHNICITY
AGE
LANGUAGE
TRADE
NAME
STRUCTURE
LIGHT
MANUFACTURING COLOR
ARCHITECTUAL METHOD ZONING
CODING
NARRATIVE COMMUNICATION
POLICY
ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS CONSTRUCT
COMPLEX
ANALYSIS
DATA
INFORMATION
METHOD
OLD
WORD OF MOUTH
ELEMENT
EXCHANGE
NEW
TECHNOLOGY
SOCIAL MEDIA LOGO
SIGNAGE
INVITATION
INTERACTION
ART
HISTORY
MATERIAL
EVENT
AD
PROGRAM
BILLBOARD
PROMOTION
COMPANY
SYSTEMS
AREA OF FOCUS
3.3// ARCHITECT REVIEW
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ystems dynamics are at work in the larger way things work [in a city]. A system is characterized by the interactions of its components and the non-linearity of those interactions. It can be defined by their structure as an abstract/analytic pattern system where elements consist of signs and concepts. Unlike the real system that can only exchange information, abstract systems are information.
If one creates for only “the whole,” emphasis is not on the parts and the whole has no meaning. The systems serve meaning-making for the building, not the building making the systems. The city, then, is a complex dynamic system of interacting social elements that opens to and interacts with its environment. Cities are open systems: parts to whole + whole to parts Cities make connections between the various elements as they fit into the whole. These parts include and are not limited to: buildings, highways, bridges, streets, streetlights, street signs, houses, people, language, and sidewalks. Cities are transformed by the meaning in which people react to the site to create a narrative, making people an essential part of the greater system. If systems are eliminated, the systems would not be a means for people to create the narrative - there would not be a city. By applying systems of information, meaning is read. The existing site/building becomes the support for the systems of information. Hence, designing the infrastructure that supports meaning systems is making the city. We keep building cities and structures, however, without embracing a city’s identity, culture, and history.
DENISE SCOTT BROWN ROBERT VENTURI IS A PERVERSITY “ THERE THE LEARNING PROCESS:
Trending Now questions the need to build new architecture versus the opportunity to apply new innovations to an already existing architecture.
IN
thinking is both part-to-whole and whole-to-part, thinking [2] Systems about making connections between the various elements that they fit together in a whole.”
properties through emergence, thus they are a continual evolution.
interacting or interrelating groups of activitites, where [2] Regularly organizations are complex social systems; reducing the parts from
TO REALLY LOOK “ LEARNING AT A PLACE AND QUESTION
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the isolated parts. The characteristics of the complex, therefore, appear as new or emergent...”
SYSTEMS of interacting elements. They are open to and interact [1] Awithcomplex their environment. In addition, they acquire qualitatively new
WE LOOK BACKWARD AT HISTORY AND TRADITION TO GO FORWARD.” HOW WE LOOK, IS A WAY OF BECOMING REVOLUTIONARY. ”
SYSTEMS THINKING THEORY whole is more that the sum of its parts is simply that constitute [1] “The characteristics that are not explainable from the characteristics of
the whole reduces the overall effectiveness of organizations.
“We are not free from the forms of the past, nor from the availability of these forms as typological models, but that if we assume we are free, we have lost control over a very active sector of our imagination and of our power to communicate with others...” Alan Colquhoun
CITIES AS A SYSTEM underlying foundation or basic [1] The organization
framework as a system/
[2] The permanent installations required for military purposes system of public works of a country, state, or region; resources [3] The required for an activity.
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
CASE STUDY:
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Brooklyn Tech Triangle, NY s a case study, the Brooklyn Tech Triangle consists of three neighborhoods: Dumbo, Navy Yard, and Downtown. This thesis studies Brooklyn’s unique identity apart from Manhattan’s. It is not zooming in on a building, but tapping into the way things work in the world. Manhattan is too expensive and too retrofit. Buildings are built to suit a new retailer or tenant with a new method of signage causing the building to disappear, hence making the history and the culture disappear. Unlike Manhattan, Brooklyn is clandestine, industrial, and innovative with a raw aesthetic. Its narrative is of manufacturing and the arts.
MANHATTAN
# DUMBO # NAVY YARD # DOWNTOWN
DUMBO
NAVY YARD
DOWNTOWN
BROOKLYN
Technology and creative sectors have naturally migrated toward the Brooklyn area versus the Manhattan area. BROOKLYN IS DIFFERENT FROM MANHATTAN. Brooklyn has more VALUE ORIENTATION, flexible office space, and unique neighborhoods. People are becoming more accepting of the “Brooklyn lifestyle.”
The Brooklyn Tech Triangle consists of the three neighborhoods: DUMBO, Navy Yard, and Downtown. All three neighborhoods have a UNIQUE IDENTITY, which makes the triangle special. All three neighborhoods have different resources and comparative advantages to form a zone with greater POTENTIAL for economic growth. PROBLEM: These three neighborhoods are disconnected, lacking infrastructure and identity. Identity is what makes a neighborhood different from others - this is its VALUE.
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Manhattan Bridge Williamsburg Bridge Brooklyn Bridge Brooklyn Queens Expressway
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SITE BOUNDARIES:
1 2 3 4
Brooklyn Bridge Manhattan Bridge East River Brooklyn Queens Expressway
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
4.1// SITE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT LAYERS OF INFRASTRUCTURE NEIGHBORHOODS: BROOKLYN TECH TRIANGLE DUMBO NAVY YARD DOWNTOWN
Bus Stop s
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Subway
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Highway
Bridge
Ferry
Jay Street Connecting Railroad
Neighborhoods
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4.1// SITE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
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avy Yard was built in 1801 after the government purchased the land for $40,000. The site was used as a shipyard from 1806 - 1966, controlled by the Navy. The site sits along Wallabout Bay between Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridges. Following the American Revolution, this waterfront site was used to build warships and merchant vessels. After its closing in 1967, it was re-opened as a city-owned industrial park in the country of kings.
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owntown Brooklyn is the third largest business district in New York City and is continously growing due to the re-zoning of Downtown Brooklyn in 2004. Many people flock to Downtown Brooklyn because it welcomes small business and corporate business. The area is looking to capitalize on the growing demand for a certian type of office not typically found on avenues, while also providing a bridge to techies as they begin to mature.
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umbo was given its acroynym name to deter developers with its full name being Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass. Due to gentrification in SOHO, artists flew to the Fulton Ferry District. Dumbo is known for its artistic culture and is a neighborhood true to its history. Dumbo holds an annual arts festival inviting local, national, and international artists. The Dumbo Arts Festival seeks to highlight Brooklyn’s committment to and presence in the arts.
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
4.1// DUMBO NARRATIVE 1970
1977 1978
1998
2006
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The SOHO area was proposed to be the location of two highways, comprising the two branches of the Lower Manhattan Expressway. The community was unhappy about the proposed highway system in the residential areas, stressing the importance of artery to the city. Due to local, civic, and cultural leaders, the project was derailed. Zoning Resolution was ammended, allowing certified artists to reside and work in these spaces, which were valued for their large areas, large windows, and low rents. The Loft Law in 1982, changed zoning in the area causing rent to skyrocket forcing the artists to leave the SOHO area. Artists fled to other areas in New York City, one area being DUMBO, Brooklyn. By the 1990s the SOHO development was underway, transforming the once known industrial area into a home for boutiques and restaurants. Due to gentrification in SOHO, artists flew to the Fulton Ferry Historic District. The neighborhood was named DUMBO to deter developers. It was named by local residents and artists led by writer and producer Crane David, who quoted, “If we were to die (as a community) at least we should be buried under a name of our choosing.” The community appointed a committee: Selby Beebe, Crane Davis, Monte David, and John Donovan to create a name for the neighborhood. These artists gathered in a “loft space” party to devise a name for the community. The committee came up with two alternatives: DUMBO and DANYA (District Around the Navy Yard Complex).
DUMBO holds an annual arts festival inviting local, national, and international artists. The DUMBO Arts Festival seeks to highlight Brooklyn’s commitment to and presence in the arts community amid the backdrop of the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Skyline. The festival attracts over 200,000 visitors over 3 days and 100 programming partners. Art ranges from outdoor and indoor art installations, digital art and large scale projections, murals on the street, musicians, dancers, poets, and performance and circus artists throughout the neighborhood.
As time has passed, deindustrialization of the neighborhood led to its becoming primarily residential. Dumbo has become increasingly gentrified as property has become more expensive in Manhattan. Dumbo is a close subway ride from Manhattan, making it an attractive area for families, artists, and tourists. The waterfront development has also been underway, which has also added to the gentrification of many artists in the area. Although gentrification has happened, art still continues to shape the neighborhood today making it distinct from other neighborhoods.
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
4.1// EMPIRE STORES BUILDING NARRATIVE A BUILDING FORGOTTEN AND ABANDONED FOR OVER 50 YEARS
James Nesmith purchased the land on which the Empire Stores lies today.
1856
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James Nesmith had four story warehouses built on Dock Street [Western Warehouses] and opened as Nesmith and Sons’ Empire Stores.
Henry Nesmit commissioned architect Thomas Stone to build three additional buildings at five stories high [Eastern Warehouses]. He added private loading docks on Waterfront and Plymouth Street, which were used to provide entry for goods from the East River. At this point in time the shipping industry was well underway in Brooklyn.
1870
1885
The warehouses were a storage for raw materials such as: coffee beans, animal hides, raw sugar, and molasses. In particular, the warehouses were used as coffee storages for the Arbuckle Brothers. Originally from Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, John and Charlie Arbuckle moved to Brooklyn in 1881 to become the coffee makers of their generation. They invented a machine that efficiently roasted, grounded, and packaged coffee into small bags for mass distribution throughout the country. Prior to this invention, coffee beans were sold in barrels and would be easily spoiled. The Arbuckle brothers patented this invention and also launched a sugar refinery in 1887 at 10 Jay Street when Meyer Sugar refused to lower their prices for them. When the Arbuckle Coffee was shipped, they added a personal unique twist to their product. The Arbuckle brothers created trading cards, which were packaged with the coffee. These trading cards became a collector’s item. The Arbuckle brothers also built up real estate in the area, which is now the new DUMBO area. Most of the real estate supported their business. Also, instead of donating money to charities, John Arbuckle wanted to find solutions to societal ills. He saw the overcrowding and air pollution in the slums of the city, so he renovated ships and created a floating rec center for the poor.
1887
The Arbuckle brothers built the Jay Street Connecting Railroad, which was used to shuttle cargo from the East River into the warehouse. This railroad operated from 1904 to 1959. The mainline was only a half-mile long and did not connect to other railroads. However, once the shipping industry in Brooklyn diminished, the coffee shipments and railroad ended as well by 1963. There are only remains of the railroad tracks.
1904
The industrial era was coming to an end and the shipping industry left the neighborhood and buildings were abandoned.
1950
Consolidated Edison became the owner of the Empire Stores, but did nothing. The building deteriorated over time, causing structural instability. Scaffolding had to be applied to the building in order for stability.
1963
The State of New York gave developer Shaya Boymelgreen the stores to transform them into a “Chelsea Market Type” of development, but she sat on the property too long, and by 2006, the state took the stores back. The artists culture remains, but the Empire Stores Building has been left untouched.
2002
YN BRID GE
Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as one of Brooklyn’s industrial hubs, Dumbo has transitioned to a mixed-use community through the adaptive reuse of its historic loft and warehouse buildings with new light industrial, arts, commercial and residential uses. Through both private and city initiatives over the last decade, mixed-use zoning regulations were introduced to the section of Dumbo between the Brooklyn and Manhattan Bridges. The Department of City Planning (DCP) seeks to expand on the success of the mixed-use regulations that have fostered the resurgence of Dumbo to the section of the neighborhood east of the Manhattan Bridge. The department has developed a rezoning proposal for the section of Dumbo east of the Manhattan Bridge that would allow residential conversion while providing predictability and height limits that reflect the area’s historic character. There are also zoning incentives for the creation of affordable housing in new construction.
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CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
4.2// SITE MAP
SITE PLAN
CASE STUDY AND CONTEXT INFORMATION
RESIDENTIAL DISTRICT COMMERCIAL DISTRICT MANUFACTURING DISTRICT MIXED USE
ALLOWABLE AREA: 5 - 7 STORIES HIGH NO SET BACK
ZONING:
MX - 2 PARKING REQUIRED
FAR:
2.0 SPECIAL MIXED USE ZONING
143’-0”
93’-0”
52’-0”
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R: C: M: MX:
4.3// SITE DOCUMENTATION
C6-2A MX-2
M1-2 /R8 M1-2 /R8
ZONING/PROJECT PARAMETERS/SITE SECTION
STRATEGY
PROBLEM:
We keep building cities and structures, however, without embracing a city’s identity, culture, and history.
SOLUTION:
This thesis questions the need to build new architecture versus the opportunity to apply new innovations to an already existing architecture.
METHOD: [1] Location Identified = [2] [3]
State: New York City: New York City Borough: Brooklyn Neighborhood: Dumbo, Navy Yard, Downtown Contact Business = Neighborhood: Dumbo, Navy Yard, Downtown Event: Dumbo Arts Festival Event Location: Empire Stores Building Business: Catering Connect: Event + People + Business Outsource = Method: impact Carts for Catering When: For Events Why: Links Neighborhoods through infostructure Systems Applied: Cart Lift Promotes: Business + Event
APPLIED INFRASTRUCTURE:
INVITATION = INFOSTRUCTURE BRINGS TOGETHER CULTURE, HISTORY, METHOD, AND INFORMATION TRADING CARD:
The trading card is printed on “old paper” soaked and baked in coffee. The trading card is an innovative method giving a nostalgic feeling [cereal box prize]. The image on the trading card promotes artists. Every year Impact Design holds a competition for the trading card invite. The photo must be taken in Brooklyn, and the winner will be promoted on the invite and on the website with his or her name and contact information.
BLUE HIGHLIGHT:
The trading card cover is the only color highlight of this invitation package design. The Arbuckle Brothers added trading cards to their packaged coffee. The trading cards became a collector’s item. In the architecture, the new moving systems that are applied to the existing site are highlighted in blue and apply blue lighting
COFFEE GRAIN:
This relates to the site, the Empire Stores. It has been abandoned for over 50 years and its only use in history was a coffee warehouse by the Arbuckle Brothers. The content relates back to the culture and history of the Empire Stores, where packaged coffee was invented
FOIL:
Invitation to DUMBO Arts Festival, an annual event. The imprint is also technology, social media, and self-promotion for the creative union, Impact Design. The invitees use new technology [internet] in order to communicate their reservation to Impact Design
LID:
All black since DUMBO wanted to stay hidden to deter developers
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COVER: All black with the imprint “Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass” to stay hidden
PROGRAM
APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS: 6.1// PROGRAM TYPE
BUSINESS
impact Design, A Creative Union
IMPACT DESIGN A CREATIVE UNION
6.2// PROGRAMMATIC ELEMENTS
SYSTEMS OF MOVEMENT: [1] INTERNAL STAIRS 1065 SQ FT [2] WALKWAYS 7819 SQ FT 236 SQ FT [3] ELEVATORS [4] FIRE STAIRS 3138 SQ FT 31668 SQ FT [5] AUTOMATED PARKING 642 SQ FT [6] COAT RACK [7] IMPACT CARTS 11334 SQ FT [SIZE PER CART
TOTAL:
200 SQ FT]
[3]
55902 SQ FT
OPERATING SPACES: [1] PUBLIC FORUM 2030 SQ FT [2] SOCIAL EVENT 4092 SQ FT 3702 SQ FT [3] BATHROOMS TOTAL:
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9824 SQ FT
[3]
[3] [7]
DESIGN PROJECT
7.1// BUILDING PLANS
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10 3
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20
40
80
BASEMENT 02
BASEMENT 01
LEVEL 1
EGRESS DISTANCE: 102 FT EGRESS DISTANCE: 77 FT
EGRESS DISTANCE: 102 FT EGRESS DISTANCE: 75 FT
EGRESS DISTANCE: 102 FT EGRESS DISTANCE: 114 FT
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DESIGN PROJECT
7.1// BUILDING PLANS
EXISTING WAREHOUSE:
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13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
ELEVATOR IMPACT CART LIFT MECHANICAL FIRE STAIRS IMPACT CARTS AUTOMATED PARKING INTERNAL STAIRS SOCIAL EVENT RESTROOMS WALKWAY COAT RACK BIKE RACK PUBLIC FORUM STREET DISPLAY
TYPE III B CONSTRUCTION OCCUPANCY GROUP: A2, A3, B
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0
20
40
80
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3, 4
EGRESS DISTANCE: 102 FT EGRESS DISTANCE: 114 FT
EGRESS DISTANCE: 102 FT EGRESS DISTANCE: 108 FT
DESIGN PROJECT
7.2// BUILDING SECTIONS
IMPACT CART LIFT IMPACT CART DISTRIBUTION
PUBLIC FORUM
EXTERNAL ELEVATOR
IMPACT CARTS
OPERABLE GLASS LOUVERS
OPERABLE ACOUSTIC/ LIGHTING SYSTEM SUN REFLECTORS
INTERNAL ELEVATOR OPERABLE COAT RACK
OPERABLE PROJECTOR STREET DISPLAYS EXISTING SCAFFOLDING
IMPACT CART CONNECTION SHAFT
07
0
20
40
80
AUTOMATED PARKING SYSTEM INTERNAL STAIRS
SOCIAL EVENT SPACE
RESTROOMS INTERNAL STAIRS
BIKE RACK
07 DESIGN PROJECT
07 DESIGN PROJECT
07 DESIGN PROJECT
07 DESIGN PROJECT
07 DESIGN PROJECT
07
DESIGN PROJECT MODELS:
07 DESIGN PROJECT MODELS:
CONCLUSION // BIBLIOGRAPHY
08// CONCLUSION
09// BIBLIOGRAPHY
ities are transformed by the meaning in which people react to the site to create a narrative, making people an essential part of the greater system. If systems are eliminated, there would not be a means for people to create the narrative - there would not be a city. By applying systems of information, meaning is read. The existing site/building becomes the support for the systems of information. Hence, designing the infrastructure that supports meaning systems is making the city.
Astorino, Christine. “The Promise of Space: Branding and Architecture in Theory and Practice.” (2010): Print.
C
Architecture does not actually make the spaces, but creates the means of systems placement that holds information to communicate a greater meaning. The city as a backdrop remains in a state of its own integrity. The overlays casted and created contribute to the interpretative ability of message and meaning as systems of architectural conveyance.
This is architecture - it’s an infostructure.
Blume, Torsten, and Gregor Langenbrinck. Dot.City: Relationale Urbanismus Und Neue Medien = Relational Urbanism and New Media. Berlin: Jovis, 2004. Print. Chung, Chuihua Judy., Jeffrey Inaba, Rem Koolhaas, Sze Tsung. Leong, and Tae-wook Cha. Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping. Köln: Taschen, 2001. Print. Franke, Simon. City Branding: Image Building & Building Images. Rotterdam: NAi, 2002. Print. Koolhaas, Rem. Content. Köln: Taschen, 2004. Print. Koolhaas, Rem. Delirious New York. N.p.: n.p., 1980. Print. Koolhaas, Rem, and Bruce Mau. S M L XL: OMA. S.l.: S.n., 1993. Print. Twombly, Robert C., and Narciso G. Menocal. Louis Sullivan: The Poetry of Architecture. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. Print. Venturi, Robert. Iconography and Electronics upon a Generic Architecture: A View from the Drafting Room. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1996. Print. Venturi, Robert, Denise Brown, and Stevel Izenour. Learning From Las Vegas. Cambridge : The MIT Press, 1977. Print. White, Norval, and Elliot Willensky. AIA Guide to New York City. New York: Crown, 2000. Print.
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