(1) MODERN HISTORY OF ARABIAN GULF STATE (F16) by Muhammad Amin Samad

MODERN HISTORY OF ARABIAN GULF STATES Dr. A.M. Abu-Hakima

397-727

A REVIEW OF IBN GHANNĀM’S

(vol. 2, Cairo, 1949)

Muhammad A. Samad

INSTITUTE OF ISLAMIC STUDIES MCGILL UNIVERSITY

March, 1974

CONTENTS I. The Significance of this Book ……………………………

II. Later Works based on Ibn Ghannām

………….……...

III. The Wahhābī Doctrine in Ibn Ghannām …………….. …

IV. How Did Ibn Ghannām Illustrate the Development of the Wahhābī Movement …………………………….……

A. From the Early Movement till the Founding of the State in 1159/1746 …………………………………

B. The Struggle with Āl Dahhām b. Dawwās for Central Najd, 1159/1746 …………………………………

C. The Struggle with Banū Khālid, Āl Zāmil, and Consolidation in Najd ………………………………

D. Wahhābī Expansion beyond Najd, from 1200/1786 1212/1797 ………………………………………… Conclusion …………………………………………….

10 14

Endnotes ……………………………………………… Bibliography …………………………………………

15 18

1. The Significance of this Book The author, H.usayn b. Abī Bakr b. Ghannām al-Ih.sā’ī (d. 1225/1810) was a muftī of al-Ih.sā’ and one of the fanatic followers of Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb. He was the first Wahhābī chronicler. He studied theology and philology under ‘ulamā’ at al-Ih.sā’ and then moved to alDir‘iyyah where he learned under Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb. Thereafter he taught Arabic and theology. Among his pupils were: ‘Abd al-Rah.mān and Sulaymān, grand-sons of the Shaykh Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb. He died at al-Dir‘iyyah.1 , the second volume of his book , is so significant that it is the earliest chronicle of Wahhābī movement and expansion in Arabia. This book began with the event of 1159/1746, when Shaykh Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb was driven away from ‘Uyaynah by Sulaymān b. Muh.ammad Āl H.āmid, the chief of Banī Khālid, and sought refuge at al-Dir‘iyyah. Unfortunately, the book seems not to be covering the whole span of the life of the author who died in 1225/1810. It only ends with the events of the year 1212/1797.2 II. Later Works Based on Ibn Ghannām a. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Abd Allāh Ibn Bishr (d. 1288/1871) who wrote (Mecca, 1349/1930-1931). Although he was contemporary with Ibn Ghannām, he used his chronicle as resource of his work without mentioning it. Though it records the Wahhābī movement until 1268/1851, i.e., 54 years later than Ibn Ghyannām’s , yet Ibn Ghannām chronicle is not less important due to the fact that its description is more detailed, although it is more poetic and not straight to the point. Ibn Bishr described very well the struggle between the Wahhābī and Banī Khālid.3 b. Al-‘Abd al-Jānī H.asan b. Jamāl b. Ah.mad al-Rīkī (pseudonym ?), the writer of describes the Wahhābī from the start of its movement until 1233/1817. Unlike Ibn Ghannām and Ibn Bishr, the writer analyses the historical facts; being non Wahhābī he records even when the Wahhābī commits a crime. 3

c. Ibrāhīm Ibn ‘Īsā (1270/1343) wrote (ed. H.amad al-Jāsir, Riyād., 1386/1966). He was born at ‘Ushaykhir, district of al-Washm, Najd. d. Amīn al-Rīh.ānī, (Beirut, 1927). In his writing about Muh.ammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb he used this book of Ibn Ghannām.4 e. H. St. J.B. Philby, Arabia (London, 1930). He referred to in his writing about the Wahhābī campaigns. According to Rentz his account is not complete and accurate as he has not checked and supplemented Ibn Ghannām by reference to Ibn Bishr, 5 because he considers Ibn Bishr is merely rewriting the work of Ibn Ghannām. 6 f. G.S. Rentz Jr., Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703/04-1792) and the Beginnings of Unitarian Empire in Arabia, a dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of California, June 1948 (Microfilm, Islamic Studies Library). g. A.M. Abu-Hakima, History of Eastern Arabia 1750-1800 (Beirut, 1965). h. Encyclopaedia of Islam (N. Ed.) III. The Wahhābī Doctrine in Ibn Ghannām The writer describes to us the condition of the Muslim world in general and Arabia in particular, that people at that time (before the Wahhābī movement) had turned away from the true religion practiced the Prophet and his companions. They turned to bid‘ah, superstitions and shirk, e.g., veneration to the tombs of saints, visiting “sacred” trees, offering to a “sacred” cave, etc.7 In this deteriorated condition of Islam, Muh.ammad ibn ‘Abd alWahhāb started preaching and propagating the pure orthodox Islam. He who followed him became Unitarian, while he who did not follow him was an infidel, an idolater. Asking for shafā‘ah and tawas.s.ul to the saints were forbidden. The erection of small buildings with copulas or vaulted roofs over their tombs were bid‘ah (innovation), and shirk (idolatry), and all of these buildings should be destroyed and leveled to the ground.8

IV.

How Ibn Ghannām Illustrated the Development of the Wahhābī Movement

A. From the Early Movement till the Founding of the State in 1159/1746 Shaykh Muh.ammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb started propagating his creed at H.uraymilah.9 Then he went to al-‘Uyaynah and propagated there. At al-‘Uyaynah he cut down sacred trees and destroyed tombs of the saints. A woman came to him and confessed of committing adultery. As she repeated her confession four separate times and that he was assured of her sanity, he stoned her to death, according to the Sharī‘ah. The terrified people of al-‘Uyaynah complained to Sulaymān Āl H.āmid, the chief of the Banī Khālid tribe and al-H.asā, who in his turn ordered the governor of al‘Uyaynah, ‘Uthmān b. Mu‘ammar, to stop this practice and propagating. Otherwise, the Shaykh had to be killed or sent into exile. 10 There was no choice for the Shaykh; he lef al-‘Uyaynah in 1157/1744 and went to alDir‘iyyah. At al-Dir‘iyyah his teaching was accepted by its amīr, Muh.ammad b. Sa‘ūd. Afterwards the people of al-Dir‘iyyah professed Wahhābism. Many of people from surrounding area came to al-Dir‘iyyah to learn theology and Sharī‘ah under the Shaykh. Al-Dir‘iyyah then became the capital of the Wahhābī State.

B. The Struggle with with Āl Dahhām b. Dawwās for Central Najd, 1159/1756 – 1187/1773 About 1093/1681 Dawwās made himself master of Manfūh.ah by force.11 After his death the people of Manfūh.ah drove his sons away including Dahhām, who fled to al-Riyād.. The ruler of al-Riyād., Zayd b. Mūsā Abū Zar‘ah was killed by his cousin while he was asleep. In revenge Khumayyis, Zayd’s slave killed the assassin and ruled al-Riyād for about 3 years as guardian of Zayd’s son. As people did not like him he fled. Dahhām, being servant of 5

Khumayyis, seized the chance, asserting that he was Zayd’s brother-inlaw, and sent the lawful heir into exile. When the people gather and shut him up in his castle he sent his brother Mishlab to Muh.ammad b. Sa‘ūd, emir of al-Dir‘iyyah. Muh.ammad sent an expedition led by his brother, Mishārī, and the opposition was crushed. When Dahhām was called for Wahhābism he rejected it. With the Bedouins of Zafīr, Dahhām attacked Manfūhah in 1159/1746-1747, but when the Wahhabi force arrived he retreated. 12 Wahhabi called Muhmmad b. Mubārak, amīr of H.uraymilah, Ibrāhīm b. Sulaymān, amīr of Tharmidā and Dahhām to come to al-‘Uyaynah and make confederation against Wahhabism. The Shaykh did not come then they invited him to al-‘Uyaynah, as he had been informed about the plot by the people of al-‘Uyaynah. Afterwards ‘Uthmān himself came to the Shaykh at al-Dir‘iyyah.13 In 1161/1748 ‘Uthmān b. Mu‘ammar led the Wahhābī expeditions against al-Riyād. and Tharmidā. Two years later he was killed by his own people as the result of the weakening tie between ‘Uthmān and the Wahhābī and his seeking for aids from the emirs of Tharmidā and the chief of Zafīr.14 In “the battle of slaves” against Dahhām in 1161/1747 Muh.ammad b. Sa‘ūd set his ambush at Jarf ‘Ubayyān, killed about ten of the enemy’s force, most of them were slaves.15 In 1172/1759 ‘Uray‘ir, the chief of the Banī Khālid, led his forces with artillery and attacked Jubaylah, where he met with 500 Wahhābī men in a fierce battle, which ended with his retreat, leaving 90 of his men killed. The Wahhābī lost ten men.16 The growth of the Wahhābī power and influence in Najd threatened its neighbours. H.asan al-Makramī, the Shī’ite chief of Najrān, attacked the Wahhābīs near al-Dir‘iyyah in 1178/1764, but the hostility between them was ended with peaceful agreement, which disappointed ‘Uray‘ir who failed to attack al-Dir‘iyyah alone.17 In 1179/1765 Muh.ammad b. Sa‘ūd died, succeeded by his son ‘Abd al-‘Azīz. In this year ‘Abd al-‘Azīz attacked al-Riyād. where Dahhām could flee, while his younger brother, ‘Abd Allāh raided Subay‘. 18 In 1181/1767 and expedition led by H.adhlūl b. Fays.al to al-‘Awdah in Sudayr district. He was accompanied by Sa‘ūd b. ‘Abd al-‘Azīz who 6

joined the expedition for the first time.19 In the same year the people of Washm district promised ‘Abd al-‘Azīz to come and profess Wahhābism.20 To spread the Wahhābī tenets in Meccan the Shaykh and ‘Abd al‘Azīz sent ‘Abd al-‘Azīz b. ‘Abd Allāh al-H.āsin, a Wahhābī scholar, to Ah.mad b. Sa‘īd, the sharīf of Mecca in 1185/1789. In his letter to the ‘ulamā’ of Mecca the Shaykh stated that Wahhābism had been based on Ibn H.anbal’s doctrine, and that “if the question concerned ijmā‘ there is no need of discussion, and if it is a question of ijtihād, you know there is naught to be condemned in question of ijtihād, and whoever proceeds according to his own school in the region of his authority is not to be condemned.”21 In 1187/1773 ‘Abd al-‘Azīz set out for an attack on al-Riyād.. At ‘Arqah he met messengers bringing news of Dahhām’s flight with his followers to Dilam. ‘Abd al-‘Azīz entered al-Riyād. peacefully. The supporters of Dahām were pardoned, and those who fled were called to return back and would be pardoned. There were only four persons killed, but about four hundred of Dahhām’s followers perished by lack of food and water, and by the burning mid-summer sun.22 With this subjugation of al-Riyād., the whole Najd territory from alQasīm district in the north to al-Kharj district in the south had fallen into the hands of Wahhābism. The Wahhābīs turned their attention to their bitter enemy, ‘Uray‘ir, the chief of Banī Khālid.23 During this thirty years24 of hostility between the Wahhābīs and Dahhām b. Dawwās, the casualties were four thousand men killed, one thousand and seven hundred Wahhābīs and two thousand and three hundred25 of Dahhām’s followers.

C. The Struggle with Banī Khālid, Āl Zāmil and Consolidation in Najd, 1187/1173 – 1199/1785 1. Banī Khālid In 1135 Sa‘dūn b. Muh.ammad b. Ghurayr Āl H.āmid, the chief of Banī Khālid, died and rivalry for his succession raised between his 7

brothers ‘Alī and Sulaymān in one side, and his sons Duwayhis and Dujayn in the other side. Sa‘dūn’s sons were defeated, even with the help of al-Zafīr and al-Muntafiq tribes.26 After the death of ‘Ali in 17336 he was succeeded by Sulaymān who ruled Banī Khālid until 1752 where he was expelled to al-Kharj district where he died.27 He was succeeded by ‘Uray‘ir b. Dujayn. In 1188’1774 ‘Uray‘ir captured Buraydah and arrested its governor, ‘Abd Allāh Āl H.asan b. ‘Ulayyān; Rāshid al-Duraybī was placed as governor of Buraydah. On his way to al-Dir‘iyyah he died at al-Khābiyah, and he was succeeded by his son, But.ayn and led the army. On his return home he was strangled by his brothers, Dujayn and Sa‘dūn. Afterwards Sa‘dūn poisoned Dujayn and he became the chief of Banī Khālid; ‘Abd Allāh Āl H.asan fled to al-Dir‘iyyah.28 In 1189/1775 the Wahhābī forces led by Sa‘ūd, accompanied by ‘Abd Allāh Āl H.asan attacked Buraydah, seized Rāshid al-Duraybī, built a fort opposite the town and left some of their men and placed ‘Abd Allāh Āl H.asan in command of the garrison. At last Rāshid surrendered and left the town. ‘Abd Allāh entered Buraydah and the people submitted to the Wahhābīs.29 The people of al-Qas.īm district (except Buraydah, al-Rass and alTannūmah) rebelled and conspired to slay the loyalists to Wahhābī on a certain Friday in 1196/1782; Sa‘dūn, at the invitation of the conspirators, came with a large force of Banī Khālid and ‘Anazah. When they approached al-Qas.īm the people of the towns assassinated the loyalists and the imāms; at al-Khabrah, south of ‘Uyaynah, they killed their imāms, Mans.ur Abū al-Khayl and Thinān Abū al-Khayl; Āl Janah crucified the blind Āl Bakrī; the people of al-Shimmās slew their governor, ‘Alī b. H.awshān; the people of ‘Unayzah sent ‘Abd Allāh al-Qādī and Nās.ir alShiblī to Sa‘dūn to be murdered. Sa‘dūn besieged Buraydah. After five months of fighting and besiege Sa‘dūn retreated. ‘Ulayyān, the governor of Buraydah, seized the opportunity, captured al-Shimmās and killed its inhabitants. Those who could flee were chased and defeated in the Mustawā plain, and their belongings were captured. 30

2. Āl Zāmil Zayd b. Mishārī b Zāmil was the emir of Daylam when Sa‘ūd raided it in 1181/1774; ten of its inhabitants were killed.31 A year later ‘Abd al‘Azīz besieged Dilam, destroyed palm-groves and collected booty which was given to the ‘Ulayyān family who had taken refuge in al-Dir‘iyyah. Zayd surrendered and submitted to the Wahhābīs. 32 In a quarrel between Zayd and Fawwāz b. Muh.ammad al-Hawt.ah, Zayd killed Fawwāz and fled with his sons. Then Sulaymān b. ‘Ufays.ān was appointed to be governor of Dilam.33 With several hundred men Zayd raided the Bedouins of Subay‘ in 1197/1783. Sulaymān b. ‘Ufays.ān happened to be near. In the battle of H.unayyān, West of T.uwayq Zayd was killed.34 Barrāk b. Zayd b. Zāmil was killed by his cousins in 1199/1785 in the hope to make themselves rulers. When they were driven out by their people, they tried to ally themselves with the Wahhābīs. When they were also rejected, they fled to al-Hasā. Rubay‘and Badan, sons of Zayd submitted to the Wahhābīs.35 Afterwards an expedition was led by Sa‘ūd against Dilam. He besieged the town, captured the palm-groves and built a stronghold. More than twenty people of the enemy were killed. At last the town fell into the Wahhābīs.36

3. The Wahhābī Consolidation The people of Sudayr district (H.armah and Majma‘ah) submitted to Wahhābism in 1188/1774 and were exempted from jihād obligation for two years to rebuild their economic condition. This example was followed by the people of H.arīq.37 Three years later, Juwaysir al-H.usaynī, governor of H.armah, rebelled and attacked Majma‘ah. He was defeated and banished.38 Some men from H.armah disguised as women were sent by the rebels to seize the strongholds of Majma‘ah in 1193/1779-80. Forces were sent by H.asan b. Mishārī b. Sa‘ūd, the governor of Jalājil, and at the same time ‘Abd Allāh b. Muh.ammad with his force on his way from al-Dir‘iyyah. The enemy was besieged at H.armah and their palm-groves were cut. At

last they surrendered to Sa‘ūd who came up with strong reinforcement. The rebel leaders were banished.39 Hearing the presence of Zafīr force near Sudayr district, Sa‘ūd with his force came to meet the enemy. Seeing that they were so numerous he withdrew to Tumayr, called the people to join him, then attacked the enemy. The enemy was defeated, more than one hundred of them were killed. About 17 000 sheep and goats, 5000 camels, 15 horses and weapons fell in their hands.40

D. The Wahhābī Expansion beyond Najd, 1200/1786 – 1212/1797 1. Al-Muntafiq and Banī Khālid In 1201/1787 the Mahāsīr and S.ubayh. of Banī Khālid tribe rebelled against Sa‘dūn in favour of ‘Abd al-Muh.sin, and seek alliance with Thuwaynī of al-Muntafiq tribe. Sa‘dūn being unable to defend himself fled to ‘Abd al-‘Azīz at al-Dir‘iyyah. Although ‘Abd al-‘Azīz asked him not to enter his territory until he had consulted with him, Sa‘dūn approached ‘Abd al-‘Azīz who was on his way to the mosque. Sa‘dūn was received, and a letter with soft words was sent to Thuwaynī. But Thuwaynī could not tolerate it. He marched with his large army, including artillery, towards Najd. At al-Tannūmah in the Qas.īm frontier he received heavy resistance from the villagers. By pretending to look for peace, he and his force were admitted to the village, whereupon he killed the inhabitants. Then he marched towards Buraydah. While he was besieging it news came to him that Sulaymān Pasha of Baghdad appointed H.ammūd b. Thāmir (Thuwaynī’s nephew) to be the governor of Muntafiq. Thuwaynī returned and returned and tried to besiege Bas.rah from the Ottoman, but his force was crushed by the Pasha’s force at S.afwān. Then he fled to Kuwayt. While the Pasha’s force retuned to Baghdad, Thuwaynī collected his force and raided H.ammūd b. Thāmir. When his force was defeated at the battle at Burjasiyyah near al-Zubayr, he retreated to al-Dir‘iyyah and made peace with ‘Abd al-‘Azīz. 10

Afterwards he broke the truce and went to him tribesman, built his army and marched towards Najd. He ordered his followers to bring their family with them to settle down at Najd. He asked assistance from Banī Khālid. In the battle with Sa‘ūd, Thuwaynī was defeated and retreated. The Pasha troops not knowing the withdrawal of Thuwaynī came up under ‘Abd al-Muh.sin and Duwayhis, and learned Thuwaynī’s retreat. They also retreated immediately through waterless desert, and many of their men died of thirst.41 Thuwaynī went to Baghdad and made peace with Sulaymān Pasha. 42 H.ammūd b. Thāmir was dismissed and replaced by Thuwaynī as the governor of Muntafiq. This post enabled him to build his army. With his great force consisted of four or five thousand Turkish soldiers equipped with artillery, shells and other necessaries, and joined by twice that number tribes of Zafīr, Banī Shammār and Muntafiq, Thuwaynī marched towards al-H.asā to destroy the Wahhābīs. Sa‘ūd went out to meet the enemy camped at H.afar al-‘Ataqa, and sent Muh.ammad b. Mu‘ayqal to form a concentration in the Summān, while H.asan b. Mishārī was sent down to the wells of Umm Rabī‘ah to trap Thuwaynī, and because it was a wide place for fighting. This trick was successful. 43 Barrāk being frightened made term with Thuwaynī and went to meet him, but Thuwaynī had been killed by T.u’ays before he arrived. Thuwaynī was succeeded by his brother, Nās.ir who ordered his army to retreat, leaving their weapons behind. Most of the Bedouins returned safely, but the Turkish soldiers, not knowing the road had to return to the well of S.ubayh.iyyah on the following night to obtain water and passed unnoticed or to be taken prisoners. Ibn Mishārī pursued and engaged them at Jahrah and S.ubayh.iyyah. Sa‘ūd followed his troops to S.ubayh.iyyah where he camped for some weeks, ordered to kill all the prisoners which were several thousands, distributed the booty: 3000 camels and 100 thousand sheep.44 In Iraq, having the news of Thuwaynī’s death, the Pasha reappointed H.ammūd b. b. Thāmir to be the governor of the Muntafiq.45 As for the Wahhābī campaigns against H.asā in this period, Sa‘ūd was engaged in the battle with ‘Abd al-Muh.sin at Ghuraymil in 1204/1789-1790. ‘Abd al-Muh.sin was defeated and fled with his family to Zubarah at Qatar, while the tribesmen decided to stay and accept 11

Wahhābism. With this event the power of Banī Khālid was destroyed, and the way was open to the Wahhābīs to conquer the Gulf area. 46 Al-Qat.īf was raided by Sa‘ūd, and it submitted in 1206/1792. In the same year the Shaykh Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb died after a short illness in his 89 th year.47 In 1207/1793, at al-Shayt. near Wabrah, Sa‘ūd killed about six hundred of Banī Khālid and took two hundred horses. 48 2. The Sharīfs of Mecca The hostility between the Wahhābīs and the Sharīfs of Mecca resulted with the occupation of Mecca in 1803. Sharīf Ghālif marched with his troops towards Najd to destroy al-Dir‘iyyah in 12205/1791, besieged al-Sha‘ra and Burūd in vain. Then he returned to Mecca. The remnants of his army were pursued by Muh.ammad b. Mu‘ayqal. At the same time Sa‘ūd marched and attacked Shammar and Mut.ayr. At the battle of ‘Adwah six thousand camels and one hundred thousand sheep fell into his hands.49 In 1210/1795-1796 Sharīf Ghālib sent a strong force under Sharīf Fuhayd and raided Ibn Qarmalah who was encamped at the well of Masal. Ibn Qarmalah was outnumbered, but he could escape. 50 When another force was sent by Sharīf Ghālib led by Sharīf Nās.ir b. Yah.yā and approached Hādī b. Qarmalah, Sa‘ūd sent a force led by Rubay‘, governor of Wādī al-Dawāsir district, engaged in the battle and defeated the enemy in the second day where the enemy abandoned seventy-thousand camels, two hundred thousand sheep and artillery.51 3. Other Areas Qat.ar was raided by Sulaymān b. ‘Ufays.ān in 1201/1707 where Āl Abū Rumayh. was forced to submission after suffering loss of fifty men, cattle and goods. Afterwards he raided ‘Uqayr.52 Shaqrah was raided by Sa‘ūd in 1206/1792; thirty horses and three thousand camels fell into his hands.53 Dūmat al-Jandal (Jawf) in the Great North Nufūd was raided by Muh.ammad ibn Mu‘ayqal in 1208/1794. The two and its villages submitted to the Wahhābī faith, except Sīrah, which was attacked and plundered.54 12

Kuwayt was raided by Sulaymān b. ‘Ufays.ān in the same year. About thirty men of the enemy were killed and “valuable weapons” and booty were brought.55 Qat.ar was raided by Ibrāhīm b. ‘Ufays.ān in 1209/1745. The booty he took was sold at al-H.asā.56 Zafīr was raided by Sa‘ūd in the same year, where much booty was collected.57 Shahrān tribe of the ‘Asīr border was raided by Rubay‘ b. Zayd, the emir of Wādī al-Dawāsir in 1211/1796; fifty of its inhabitants were killed and camels and sheep were taken. Afterwards he besieged Bīshah for some days, ended with its submission. Then he raided Rāniyah, where he built a fort. This raid also ended with the submission of the inhabitants. Meanwhile, Muh.ammad b. Mu‘ayqal led an expedition to the island of ‘Amā’ir. The inhabitants fled and much booty was collected including six pedigree mares, forty female slaves, tents and arms.58

CONCLUSION After studying the contents of Ibn Ghannām’s chronicles, examining the critics of writers about it and how far they are indebted to it, we could draw the following conclusions: a. Its Peculiarities 1. It is the earliest Wahhābī chronicle; it is indispensable for the students of the history of Arabia in general and the Wahhābī movement in particular. Many writers of Arabia referred to it in their researches, either contemporary with Ibn Ghannām, like Ibn Bishr, or writers of later generation, like Philby, Rentz, etc. 2. Its description is given in details. In some battles, the names of the dead of both sides are mentioned. b. Its Defects 1. Instead of going straightly to the point, it goes in roundabout way with its poetic narration. 2. Instead of being written in the classical Arabic local Najdi slang is obvious. 3. Its accuracy should be checked by comparing it with Ibn Bishr’s work. 4. As the second volume should contain only the Wahhabi campaigns and not its doctrines, the chapter in which some questions answered by the Shaykh in the second volume should be put in the first volume. 5. Being a pro-Wahhābī, the writer never mentions crimes committed by the Wahhābīs. Instead, he praises so much Wahhābism, its leaders, the Shykh and the emirs of al-Dir‘iyyah. While narrating the process of the battle the writer used to cite some verses of the Qur’ān to justify the Wahhābī cause. 6. It covers only about 51/53 years of the Wahhābī movement, i.e. from 1159/1746 till 1212/1797, twenty-one years before the destruction of the Wahhābī power and the destruction of the capital al-Dir‘iyyah by Muh.ammad ‘Alī in 1818. 14

ENDNOTES 1

A.M. Abu-Hakima, “Ibn Ghannām”, Encyclopedia of Islam, N. Ed., III. Idem. History of Eastern Arabia 1750-1800 (Beirut, 1965), pp. 2-3. 3 Ibid., pp. 4-5. 4 Amīn al-Rīh.ānī, (Beirut, 1927), pp. 11 and 17. 5 Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1702/3) and the Beginnings of Unitarian Empire in Arabia, (Dissertation, University of California, 1948), pp. 30910. 6 H. St. J.B. Philby, Arabia (London, 1930), p. x; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 307. 7 Ibn Ghannām, (vol. 1, Cairo, 1949), pp. 5-14; Philby, Arabia, p. 5; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 10-13. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibn Ghannām, (vol. 1), p. 30; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al2

Wahhab, pp. 39-41. According to he started propagating his creed at alYamamah, where he stayed for one year until he was banished due to his strict doctrine, that anyone who did not follow his creed was an infidel, an idolater, and should be put to death. , pp. 28-29 and 32. 10

Ibn Ghannām,

(vol. 2, Cairo, 1949), p. 2; Philby, Arabia, pp.

10-12; al-Rīh.ānī, , pp. 38-40; , pp. 33-34; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 43-45. According to Ibn Bishsr the order was simply to kill him. Ibn Bishr, , (Mecca, 1930), vol. 1, p. 10. 11 12

Ibn Bishr,

, pp. 80 and 82.

Ibn Ghannām,

Ibn Ghannām, Wahhab, pp. 63-64. 14 Ibn Ghannām, 68. 15 Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 56. Ibn Bishr,

, pp. 9-10; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al, p. 14; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. , p. 9; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp.

61-62; Philby, Arabia, p. 15; and 16

Ibn Ghannām,

, vol. 1, p. 17.

, p. 36. , p. 55. According to

there were 600

men of ‘Uray‘ir killed. , p. 39. 17 Abu-Hakima, History, p. 132. 18 Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 74-75; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd alWahhab, p. 172; Philby, Arabia, p. 22. 15

Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 76; Philby, Arabia, p. 22.

Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 76.

Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 80; Philby, Arabia, p. 50; Rentz, Muhammad

ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 282. 22 Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 84-85; Philby, Arabia, p. 25; Rentz,

Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 168; Ibn ‘Īsā , A..D. (ed. H.amad al-Jāsir, al-Riyād., 1386/1966), p. 114. 23 Philby, Arabia, p. 25 24 Ibn Ghannām , p. 86. According to the hostility lasted 28 years, which is true, as the hostility really began in 1159 and ended in 1187. See , p. 86. 25 According to Ibn ‘Īsā the casualties of Dahhām were 1300 men, see Ibn ‘Īsā, , p. 114. 26

Ibn Bishr,

, vol.; 1, p. 218; Abu-Hakima, History, p. 129.

Ibn Bishr,

, vol. 1, p. 27; Abu-Hakima, History, p. 31.

Abu-Hakima, History, p. 132; .Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 85;

, vol. 1, pp. 61-62; Philby, Arabia, pp. 29-30; Ibn ‘Īsā,

67; Ibn Bishr,

, pp. 115-116; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 188-190. 29

.Ibn Ghannām,

Rīhānī, 30

, pp. 93-94; Ibn ‘Īsā,

, p. 116; al-

, p. 65. Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 196-197. Ibn Ghannām,

‘Īsā,

, pp. 112-113; Philby, Arabia, pp. 35-37; Ibn

, pp. 119-120; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 225-

230. According to Ibn Bishr the siege lasted four months, see Ibn Bishr, 1, p. 76. 31 Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 89-90. 32

Ibn Ghannām,

ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 192 33 Ibn Ghannām, ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 199. 34 Ibn Ghannām,

, vol.

, p. 94; Philby, Arabia, p. 30 ; Rentz, Muhammad , p. 95; Philby, Arabia, p. 32 ; Rentz, Muhammad , p. 119; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab,

pp. 235-6; according to Ibn ‘Īsā, this event happened in 1196, see Ibn ‘Īsā, , p. 120. 16

Ibn Ghannām,

Wahhab, pp. 243-244. 36 Ibn Ghannām, Wahhab, p. 246. 37 Ibn Ghannām, 38

Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 121-122; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al, pp. 122-123; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al, p. 90; Philby, Arabia, p. 30. , p. 105; Philby, Arabia, p. 34

Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 103-105; Philby, Arabia, pp. 34-35 ; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 213-216. 40 Ibn Ghannām, , p. 111; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 224-225. 41 Ibn Ghannām, pp. 126-130; Philby, Arabia, pp. 41-44 ; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 250-260. 42 Ibn ‘Īsā, , pp. 122-123. 43 Ibn Ghannām cited the poems of al-Mutanabbī stressing the importance of tricks in the battle, see Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 195-196; Philby, Arabia, pp. 68-69; Ibn ‘Īsā, , p. 70. 44 Philby, Arabia, pp. 69-70; Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahhabys (London, 1830), p. 325. Ibn Ghannām wrote 118 lines of poem praising Sa‘ūd and ‘Abd al-‘Azīz after the death of Thuwaynī, see Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 69-70. 45

Ibn Ghannām,

p. 243.

Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 138-141; Philby, Arabia, pp. 49 ; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 276-277. 47 Ibn Ghannām wrote a poem of 39 lines condoling and praising Shaykh Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, see Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 152-177; Philby, Arabia, p. 54. According to Ibn ‘Īsā the Shaykh died in his 92nd year which is also correct in Hijri Year; see Ibn ‘Īsā, , p. 126; see also Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 298-299. 48 Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 158-159. 49

Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 145-152; Philby, Arabia, p. 53 ; Ibn ‘Īsā,

, p. 125; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, pp. 292-296. 50

Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 171; Philby, Arabia, p. 64.

Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 173; Philby, Arabia, pp. 64-65.

Ibn Ghannām,

, p. 157;

Philby, Arabia, p. 47; Rentz,

Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 270. 53 Ibn Ghannām, , p. 157; Rentz, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, p. 270. 54 Ibn Ghannām, , pp. 168-9; Philby, Arabia, p. 63. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibn Ghannām, pp. 170-171; Philby, Arabia, p. 63. 57 58

Ibid. Ibn Ghannām,

, pp. 199-200; Philby, Arabia, p. 70.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abu-Hakima, A.M. History of Eastern Arabia 1750-1800. Beirut, 1965. Burckhardt, J.L. Notes of the Bedouins and Wahhabys. London, 1830. Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition). Ibn Bishr, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Abd Allah,

Mecca, 1930

Ibn Ghannān, H.usayn, vol. 1, Cairo, 1949. ________. Cairo, 1949. Ibn Īsā, Ibrāhīm b. S.ālih., 1386/1966.

vol. 2,

Riyadh,

. Ed A.M. Abu-Hakima. Beirut, 1961. Philby, H. St. J.B. Arabia. London, 1930. Rentz,G.S. Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (1702/1703) and the Beginning of Unitarian Empire in Arabia. A Dissertation, University of California, Islamic Studies Library. Rīh.ānī, Amīn al-.

. Beirut, 1927.

Winder, B. Saudi Arabia in the 19th Century. London, 1965.