Protecting the arctic by MUNYS Brussels

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME Description of the Committee The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was created in 1972 as the voice for the environment.1 The international organization realized that the environment was one topic that forced even opposing states to think about the future together. States began to recognize that peace, security, and the wellbeing of the world requires close attention to our relationship with nature. Kurt Waldheim, Secretary-General of the United Nations during the 1970s, stated, “No crisis before, has underlined to such an extent the interdependence of nations”. And thus the UNEP was created through the Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm, Sweden, from 5-16 June 1972. The topic of protecting the environment had come to light a couple of years earlier in the United Nations General Assembly (GA). The great economic growth of recent years had taken its toll on the environment and pollution began to be a concern. The debate focused on how to create a specialized agency that could instigate investigations, recommend policies and coordinate the work between the nations of the world to ensure a better relationship with nature. 2 All member states of the General Assembly are invited to meet in UNEP, whose decisions take the form of resolutions. Today, UNEP’s work encompasses: 1) Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions 2) Developing international and national instruments, and 3) Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment.3

TOPIC: PROTECTING THE ARCTIC Introduction The protection of the Arctic is a concern for both local and international communities. While at a first glance the icey north looks like a barren wasteland, it actually holds a great diversity and is a unique ecosystem on Earth. Today, the UNEP has begun to debate the role of the world community to care for the Arctic, yet this region has always had a variety of cultures, endemic species, and beautiful landscapes that have attracted explorers and academics worldwide. Indigenous people have been living in the arctic region for over 7000 years.9 The loss of the Arctic as a result of climate change would not only be disastrous for the local populations and countries bordering the Arctic, but to the whole world. According to UNEP studies, “the unforeseen impacts from the climate change causing the melting of the ice cover” are the amongst the greatest global concerns today.10 Arctic conditions determine currents, ocean levels, and wind weather patterns all over the world. Since the 1980s opportunities for Arctic circumpolar cooperarion have emerged. As the world realized that global temperatures affect the Arctic’s ice levels, the pressure to protect it increased. Polar ice caps have been melting in record time since the spike in green house gases in the 19th century, picking up throughout the 20th, and accelerating at incredible levels for several decades. These ice caps are now flowing at a terrifying pace to the ocean, augmenting the sea levels worldwide.

THE ARCTIC MUST BE PROTECTED! “The lives of indigenous and other Arctic peoples are closely linked to local resources, particularly by their dependence on wildlife harvesting. However, a combination of several factors makes the Arctic and its inhabitants among the most exposed populations in the world.”

So far, the international community has been quite slow Regional Seas Programme, UNEP. to respond to this growing crisis. States argue over who http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/Programme s/independent/arctic/default.asp should be involved in decision making, what environmental standards are fair to impose on one another and and even the specific causes, effects, and overall level of urgency of the crisis. The most motivated actors have been littoral states, the eight states whose territory crosses above the Arctic Circle - Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden and the United States. Other actors, such as the European Union, India, and China wish to be part of multilateral discussions such as those at the Arctic Council, but are sometimes blocked from a seat at the negotiating table.

Background Academics have defined the Arctic polar region in the northernmost section of the earth based on different features: the weather conditions, its geographical cualities and the countries that surround it. Geographically, the Arctic covers an area of approximately 13.4 x 106 km2, or approximately one sixth the surfance area of Earth.12 It is known for its low temperatures and extreme weather conditions. Summers are short, and most of this territory is covered in extensive permanent snow or ice covers, known as permafrost. Under these caps of ice scientists have discovered both natural resources such as oil and natural gas in the seabed as well as fresh water and even microscopic forms of life within the ice.13

Inuit Village in 1757 Source: Inuit History – History for Kids

Life in the Arctic Human populations have called the Arctic home for thousands of years. In the year 1000 AD, the Viking cultures of Iceland began to migrate to the northern parts of of Greenland, what is now Canada, and eventually even above the Arctic Circle.15 Discoveries of their instruments show they managed to reach as far as 1,200 miles from the geographic North Pole. The Vikings encountered several native peoples already living around the Arctic, including the Inuits, Sllirmiuts, Salluits, and the Qukartamoiut - all diverse cultures that had taken residence in different regions of the Arctic.16 Today, descendants of these peoples, as well as the Vikings and many Siberian populations, depend on the ecological balance in the region for survival.17 Even though few cities lie above 60ºnorth, one cannot forget that this region is home to human life, as “there are about 130,000 Native people living in the North American Arctic”.18 The Arctic Circle has also been the home to a great diversity of animal and plant wildlife. UNEP has separated the Arctic into three ecosystem regions, each containing a distinct biome and ecological balance: the High Arctic, the Low Arctic and the Subarctic. The first corresponds to the northern polar desert region, which, even in the most extreme weather conditions, holds more than 300 plant species. The Low Arctic is defined by tundra weather and is 80% covered by plants.19 Birds, fish, and mammals, such as the polar bear and the tundra The Arctic is home to many animal and fox, live here. The Subarctic is composed of forest plant species, such as this Arctic Fox. tundra, which is a transition space between the harsh Source: The Guardian tundra-type weather conditions and the typical boreal forests of northern Europe, Canada, Alaska and Siberia.

The Arctic in Danger Human interference has accelerated the processes that degrade the region. Discoveries of oil and other natural resources have increased economic interests, putting the region at further risk as technologies for drilling for those resources enable the exploitation to become economically viable. The Russian Geographical Society asserts, “The region produces about one tenth of the world’s oil and a quarter of its natural gas”.20 While the meltdown of these icecaps has the potential to expand shipping access across the Arctic, cutting travel route distances by as much as a quarter from China to the United States, and the potential to expose a great wealth of resources for the reaping, its impact on local and international levels is on the way to dangerous levels.

CRITICAL THINKING The Arctic environment is changing rapidly in ways that may affect the environment and give rise to greater human access and intervention in the region. Many countries around the world are already at high risk of strong natural phenomena. Typhoons, hurricanes, extreme weather conditions and rising sea levels are some of the aspects that a warmer arctic might produce. Which geographical or weather conditions will affect your country if we do not protect the Arctic?

Ecological balance in the Arctic means local, regional and global benefits. Considering Earth’s proximity to the Sun, the Polar Regions actually moderate temperatures in the planet. The permafrost reflects a significant amount of sunlight and solar radiation back into space in an effect measured by albedo. Another form of temperature moderation comes from currents; ocean and wind currents take heat way from tropical regions to be cooled down in the poles, fostering the livable conditions of the planet. It is therefore important to consider that a warming Arctic may threaten to alter global weather patterns and ocean circulation, causing more extreme storms and disrupting the ecological balance across the planet. As stated in UNEP’s Project on Arctic and Transboundary Issues, “Effective management and protection of the Arctic and its resources is essential to ensure that these benefits continue”.21 Current Situation Today global concern for the Arctic is augmenting in ecological and economic terms. One main concern is environmental. Climate change, the average increase in average global temperatures, caused by natural events and human activities is damaging the Arctic. Resource exploitation, the opening of new commercial lines and the overall effect of climate change has impacts that will take a very long time to reverse, if they can be reversed at all. The UNEP has stressed, “Low temperatures mean slow chemical breakdown of contaminants, whereas populations of

New Potential Arctic Sea Lanes Source: Eating Jellyfish. Arctic Issues Archive. Accessed December 15, 2013.

large mammals can be slow to recover”.24 Another point of interest is that the effects of Arctic degradation are not and will not be of equal severity worldwide, affecting global perspective on the urgency of the issue. Not all nations in the world consider preventing the melting of the polar ice caps a priority, and many do not believe it is a reason for concern. However, without the permafrost, new lines of communication and commerce may be opened in the north. Harvesting of resources could be a rational choice to avoid an energy crisis in the future, but the region could also become a new security concern as ships begin traversing new routes.

Ecological Concerns The UNEP has cautioned, “Driven largely by the combined forces of climate change and globalization, the Arctic environment is changing rapidly”.25 Arctic ice grows thinner almost each year, and is therefore more vulnerable to breakup by storms, circulating currents, and human activities. In fact, in September 2013, “sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean fell to the sixth lowest extent in the satellite record,” which began in 1979. All of the seven lowest extents have occurred since 2000.26 Pressures on the marine environment of the North Pole in the last two decades have come from shipping, dumping, offshore oil and gas development, and the increase of land-based activities.27 Recent studies have confirmed that failure to protect the Arctic may result in global disasters. In 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted that during this century sea might rise anywhere from 15 to 59 centimeters. However, a new study by the World Bank titled “Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4 Degree C Warmer World Must be Avoided” from 2012 projects almost twice as much.28 Cities, food supplies and even countries could disappear entirely. The country of Bangladesh, in a worst-case scenario, could disappear completely, as well as island countries like Tuvalu and Vanuatu. Hundreds of millions of people could be displaced. Coastlines could recede, allowing many cities including Shanghai and New York City to flood. Many migratory species, such as whales and birds, from many regions of the world that depend on summer breeding and feeding grounds in the Arctic and elsewhere will be threatened as their habitats, nesting and feeding grounds are altered as well.

Globalization and the Arctic The population in the Arctic continues to depend on the natural balance in the region. The lives of local populations are closely linked to regional resources such as wildlife harvesting. In addition, many Arctic communities have begun to use globalization in their favor to create another source of income: tourism. The Arctic attracts many people who wish to experience its fantastic wildlife, beautiful landscapes and local cultures. According to the World Wildlife Fund, the last 15 years have experienced unrivaled growth in tourism. Although the number of tourists travelling to the North is

“One issue after another — development, population, the seas and oceans, outer-space, even the monetary issue — reveal to us in close succession the interdependence on our planet… but none of them has had greater effects than the crisis of the environment.” -Kurt Waldheim, Secretary General of the United Nations (1972-1981) Source: Conference on the Human Environment, 1972

still relatively small, some areas are seeing mass tourism development in a fragile environment. The WWF Global Arctic Programme sees tourism as one way to support the protection of the Arctic environment. Responsible arctic tourism allows visitors to “appreciate and respect arctic nature and cultures, and provide additional income to local communities and traditional lifestyles”29. The key word in this statement, however, is “responsible”. Cruise ships are responsible for massive amounts of destruction along all tourist routes, even new, as is evidenced by the immediate damage visible in the Antarctic. Even if the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III, signed in 1982) is supposed to govern resource claims in the region, it is only in the modern era that technology and climate change have allowed access to the polar north. The northern seas now are becoming accessible to shippers, logistics companies and energy transnational firms that see the Arctic Circle as a land of opportunity. This effect is called “the Scramble for the Arctic” by some media outlets, and an oil rush by others. Some reports even confirm that the frozen zone could hold up to 22 % of the world’s undiscovered conventional oil and natural gas in one of many estimates.30 As littoral powers assert claims to the region, more oil drilling, while helping to reduce costs of energy, may result in damage to the lives of indigenous populations through forced migrations, damage of their ecosystems, oil spills, and political conflicts. Already, Russia has reached as far as the Lomonosov Ridge, very close to the geographic pole, and planted a Russian flag on the ocean floor as a symbol of victory for its exploration. Finland is currently the world leader in technology for ice-breaking ships capable of far north exploration. International Action The international community has not ignored the need for protection of the Arctic. The United Nations has worked through UNEP to ensure global collaboration in matters of climate change and its impact in the Arctic. The littoral Arctic Countries have joined together to create the Arctic Council and several programs to avoid conflict while looking for different solutions, such as agreements on a country’s domain to be responsible for Search and Rescue Operations. Finally, people around the world have become conscious of the needs of this region and have created a series of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to continue to spread knowledge of the issue, to check up on governmental policies and to avoid the loss of any life, whether human or otherwise, in the Arctic.

Past UNEP Action Over the years, UNEP has undertaken a series of actions to protect the Arctic. These include calls for scientific assessments, developing initiatives to ensure the sustainability of human activities in the Arctic, and promoting cooperation for green policies. One such example is the Arctic Agenda 2020 Programme. In cooperation with some of the Arctic Council members that hold the greatest amount of territory in the Arctic regions, it has used over US$335 million of its budget “to develop and implement a long-term, multi-purpose program on Sustainable Environmental Management”.31 UNEP knows that it is vital to create alliances with all actors

involved and so to ensure the worth of this program. The program involves partnerships with a variety of intergovernmental organizations, private firms, NGOs and Arctic indigenous peoples. One of the main factors that UNEP is focusing on is reducing the impacts of human activities in the Arctic. The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to reduce short-lived Climate pollutants (CCAC) is an example of this. Established in February 2012, it focuses its global effort on reducing emissions and the impacts of pollutants. UNEP’s work is on many occasions focused on assessment activities. This UN agency posts yearly reviews on emerging environmental issues. In fact, the UNEP Year Book 2013 focuses on investigations about the rapid change in the Arctic.32

The Arctic Council The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum to address many of the common concerns and challenges faced by the eight Arctic states. This Council was created in 1996 with the Ottawa Declaration.33 Its members include the eight littoral states, six permanent participants (indigenous representatives), and six observer states; there are currently six state applicants for observer status. One of the main functions of this Council is to enable sustainable development policies. This organization has working groups to ensure all issues are taken into account: 1. AMAP – the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme: produces reports that document the trends and effects of climate change. 2. ACAP- Arctic Contaminants Action Programme: focuses mostly in on-going contaminant (pollution) challenges. 3. AMSA – Arctic Marine shipping Assessment: provides recommendations and policies in matters of transportation and communication.

The Work of NGOs Non-governmental organizations have each taken different stances to protect the Arctic. The World Wildlife Fund has created tourism programs to raise money to protect the environment and give local populations another source of income. The Circumpolar Conservation Union works to protect the ecological and cultural integrity in the Arctic working area with the diverse populations located in the region. Greenpeace conducts scientific investigations and analysis to provide data for policy makers around the world about the situation in the Arctic Circle.34 The environment, the economy, and the cultures of the Arctic are topics that deeply concern NGOs.

CRITICAL THINKING In todays globalized world it is not only governments who have a responsibility to protect the environment and the Arctic. International organizations, NGOs, companies, and even individuals are all taking a stand to protect the Arctic. However, many people still do not know about these issues and how they affect us all. How can you spread the word?

In 2011, several NGOs created the Arctic NGO Forum. This forum “aims to provide a consistent way for non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerned with Arctic

environmental issues to get together, exchange ideas and perspectives and provide advice to the global community. The creation of this platform will allow NGOs the possibility to strengthen their positions and gain access to policy makers”.35 Workshops for NGOs and civil societies have been done in Sweden, Norway and Belgium to help different organizations to create a common stance and strategy in matters of environmental protection and Arctic policies. Recommendations for Creating a Resolution When formulating resolutions, delegates need to understand not only their own country’s position, but also the many other opinions that will be debated. UNEP’s mandate allows it to help coordinate national efforts, initiate investigations, and recommend actions, but it is not capable of any large independent actions. It is also important to consider the limitations and powers of this program and to remain optimistic, but realistic. A final UNEP document should encompass the largest amount of opinions possible. In the end, a resolution must show a unified stance on the situation. A good resolution needs to be comprehensive, meaning it should address of all the different stages of the issue. As seen in this background guide, the Arctic region has been affected by human interactions throughout the years. These can be either by direct use of Arctic resources and the overall rise in temperatures and pollutants worldwide. Delegates around the world need to consider the protection of local indigenous populations, native species unique to the Polar Regions and the protection of the polar ice caps, which, if they continue melting, would yield vast, disastrous consequences worldwide. Delegates must evaluate how to balance economic interests in the region with its careful preservation. Questions to Consider: 1. Has your country participated in any of the previous conferences or programs regarding the protection of the Arctic? 2. Is your country considered one of the Arctic countries? What is your government’s stance on both economic possibilities of the region and avoiding the dangers they ma pose? 3. How has your country been affected by climate change? What are the measures it has undertaken to fight it? 4. How can these national programs be adapted to policy for international community at large?

5. How can your country help the international community with combatting present and future repercussions of climate change?

Research Aid A great source of information about UNEP, this site holds reports and news on the Arctic, Climate Change and Ecosystems Management. ..  UNEP. http://www.unep.org/ A basic introduction of data about every country in the world, this website can be an initial summary of information and statistics for every delegate.  CIA World Factbook. “Country Profiles.” https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ The BBC’s Country Profile allows delegates to see which news are constantly coming up about each and country.  BBC News. “Country Profiles.” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profiles/ This is the main website for the Arctic Council. Delegates may find information and publications of this organization and its members.  Arctic Council”. http://www.arctic-council.org/ This website will help delegates find about the work of non-governmental organizations and their role in the protection of the Arctic’s cultures and species.  Arctic NGO Forum”. http://arcticngoforum.org/ Terms and Concepts Arctic Circle – The Arctic is geographically defined to be above the 60.5º parallel. When looking at the globe from the “top” this creates a circular image of the Arctic. Circumpolar – Around the pole Endemic species – Any animal or plant life that is native to a specific region and cannot survive by migrating to a different region. Littoral – a region lying along a shore, here relating to the eight countries surrounding the Arctic Ocean: Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden and the United States Geographic North Pole – It is defined as the northern-most point in the northern hemisphere. The axis through which the earth rotates passes directly from this point to the South Pole. Permafrost – A permanent layer of ice and snow located in tundra and arctic environments. It is the home to a wide variety of animal and plant species. Albedo – the proportion of light or radiation reflected by a surface

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Ibid.

UNEP .“The Voice of the Environment”, 2013. United Nations Environmental programme. Last Accessed: November 25 , 2013. http://www.unep.org/About/

Johnson, S. “UNEP: The First 40 years”, 2012. United Nations Environmental Programme. http://www.unep.org/pdf/40thbook.pdf

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UNEP. “Arctic Region Report”, 2013. Regional Seas Programme, UNEP. Last Accessed: November 25 2013. http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/programmes/independent/arctic/instruments/r_profile_pame.pdf 12

Ibid.

Johnson, S. “UNEP: The First 40 years”, 2012. United Nations Environmental Programme. http://www.unep.org/pdf/40thbook.pdf

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Ibid.

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Ibid.