Chapter 6 Work Motivation
Michael A. Hitt C. Chet Miller Adrienne Colella Slides by R. Dennis Middlemist
Knowledge Objectives 1. 2. 3.
4.
Define work motivation and explain why it is important to organizational success. Discuss how managers can use Maslow’s need hierarchy and ERG theory to motivate associates. Explain how Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation has influenced current management practice. Describe how need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power relate to work performance and motivation.
Knowledge Objectives 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Discuss the application of expectancy theory to motivation. Understand equity theory and procedural justice, and discuss how fairness judgments influence work motivation. Explain how goal-setting theory can be used to motivate associates. Describe how to enrich jobs and how job enrichment can enhance motivation. Based on all theories of work motivation, describe specific actions that can be taken to increase and sustain employee motivation.
Motivation
Motivation – – –
Forces within a person Willful direction, intensity, and persistence of the person’s efforts Achieving specific goals not due to Ability Environmental
demands
Motivation
Person’s level of performance is a function (f) of both ability and motivation: Performance = f (Ability x Motivation) Theories of Motivation – –
Content theories Process theories
Content Theories: Need Hierarchy People motivated by desire Needs to Unsatisfied satisfy specific needs, arranged in a hierarchical order of SelfActualization prepotency*
Or de
ro
fP r ep
ote nc
y
Satisfied Needs
Esteem Needs Social and Belongingness Needs
*Lower level needs must be Safety Needs satisfied before a person can be motivated by Physiological Needs higher level needs Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
ord e
ro
fp
r ep
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nc
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Content Theories: ERG Theory
SelfActualization
Growth Needs
Esteem Needs Relatedness Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs Safety Needs
Existence Needs Physiological Needs
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Adapted from: Exhibit 6-1 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Compared
Content Theories: ERG Theory
Two differences between Maslow’s and Alderfer’s theories –
Notion of prepotency is not fixed in ERG theory
–
May become concerned about a higher order need before lower order need is satisfied May still have strong desire to satisfy lower order need, even when the higher order need seems most important
Even when a need is satisfied, it may remain as the dominant motivator if the next need in the hierarchy cannot be satisfied (frustration-regression process)
Content Theories: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
People with a high need for achievement – – – – – – –
Prefer to set their own goals Set goals of moderate difficulty, but that are achievable Like to solve problems rather than leave the results to chance Are more interested in achieving the goal than in the associated rewards Prefer situations in which they receive regular, concrete feedback on their performance Are positive thinkers who find workable solutions to life’s hurdles and challenges Take a strong personal responsibility for their work
Content Theories: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
People with a high need for affiliation – –
–
Have a strong desire to be liked and to stay on good terms with most other people. Tend not to make good managers because they often treat different people in different ways (for example, may apply inconsistent rules) Are more concerned with initiating and maintaining personal relationships than with focusing on the task at hand
Content Theories: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
People with a high need for institutional power – –
Are concerned about the functioning of the organization and have a desire to serve others Are controlled in their exercise of power
People with a high need for personal power – – – –
Desire to influence others for their own personal gain Are more impulsive in exercising power Show little concern for other people Are focused on obtaining symbols of prestige and status (such as big offices)
Content Theories: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power Conclusion
People with a high need for institutional power are particularly good at – – –
People high in need for achievement – –
Increasing morale Creating clear expectations Getting others to work for the good of the organization Take responsibility for their own work and require short-term feedback Are reluctant to delegate work to others and to be patient in working toward long-term objectives
Effective managers have both a high need for achievement and a high need for institutional power
Two-Factor Theory
Focuses on the rewards or outcomes of performance that satisfy individuals’ needs Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites ends of the same continuum but are independent states Job factors leading to satisfaction are different from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice versa
Two-Factor Theory When increased, lead to greater satisfaction
When deficient, lead to greater dissatisfaction
Motivators
Hygienes
Achievement
Salary
Recognition
Technical supervision
Responsibility
Working conditions
Opportunity for advancement or promotion
Company policies, administration, and procedures
The work itself
Interpersonal relationships with peers, supervisors, and subordinates
Potential for personal growth
Status Security
Process Theories: Expectancy Theory
Three factors affect decision to exert effort –
Expectancy
–
Instrumentality
–
Subjective probability that effort will lead to performance Subjective probability that a given level of performance will lead to certain outcomes
Valence
An Individual’s expected satisfaction associated with each outcome resulting from performance
Expectancy Theory
Motivational Force = Effort E
Performance
E = Subjective probability that effort will lead to performance I = Subjective probability that performance will lead to various outcomes V = Valence = Expected satisfaction with each outcome Motivational Force = E Χ Σ(I Χ V) Adapted from Exhibit 6-2 Expectancy Theory
I1
Outcome 1
V1
I3 Outcome 2 Outcome 3
V2
I2
V3
Process Theories: Expectancy Theory
To increase motivation –
– –
Heighten expectancy by increasing associates’ beliefs that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of performance (training, support) Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high performance to outcomes (pay for performance) Increase valence by providing outcomes that are highly valued (provide rewards employees desire)
Process Theories: Equity Theory
Motivation is based on a person’s assessment of the ratio of the outcomes or rewards (pay, status) he receives for input on the job (effort, skills) compared with the same ratio for a comparison other My Outcomes vs. Other’s Outcomes My inputs Other’s Inputs
Process Theories: Equity Theory IF
My Outcomes My inputs
=\
Other’s Outcomes Other’s Inputs
Employees may – – – – – –
Increase or decrease inputs Change their outcomes Distort their perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes Distort perceptions of other’s inputs and/or outcomes Change the referent others Leave the organization
Procedural Justice Based on accurate information
Formal grievance procedures
Procedures free from bias Procedures applied consistently Voice in the decision process
Ethical code
Procedural Justice
Treated with respect Given reasons for decisions
Goal-Setting Theory
Goal-setting theory –
Difficult and specific goals increase human performance because the affect effort, persistence, and direction of behavior
Goal difficulty Goal specificity Goal commitment Participation in setting goals Feedback
Factors Affecting Goal Commitment Exhibit 6-3
Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
The goal is set by an appropriate authority figure. Rewards and punishments are tied to goal attainment (or failure). The goal fosters a sense of self-achievement and potential for development. The goal assigner is perceived as trustworthy. The goal assigner is supportive and promotes self-efficacy. Peer models are committed to the goal. The goal assigner provides a rationale for the goal. The goal provides a challenge to prove oneself and meets ego needs. The goal is public.
Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
There is high self-efficacy on the task. There are successful role models The task is not impossibly difficult Expectancy for success is high. There is competition with others.
Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory Exhibit 6-4
Motivation Practices Resulting from Motivation Theories
Motivation Practices Motivation Theories Need Hierarchies Maslow ERG
Find Meaningful Tie Rewards Redesign Provide Clarify Individual to Jobs Feedback Expectations Rewards Performance and Goals X X X
McClelland’s Needs X
X
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
X
X
X
X
Expectancy Theory X
X
X
X
Equity Theory
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Goal-Setting Theory Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory
Tie individual rewards to individual needs – – –
Individuals differ on what they find “rewarding” Tailor individual rewards to individual needs Do not overemphasize extrinsic rewards
Tie rewards to performance – – –
Performance is difficult to measure Managers may lack flexibility in determining rewards Intrinsic rewards may work when extrinsic rewards are unavailable
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory
Redesign jobs – –
Job enlargement: add tasks of equal complexity to increase variety and use of skills Job enrichment: make jobs more motivating by increasing responsibility
Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory
Provide feedback – – – – –
In conjunction with goals Repeat at regular intervals Provide information as to how performance can be improved Come from a credible source Focus on the performance, not the person
Clarify Expectations and Goals
Motivating potential of goals Align individual goals with organizational goals Management by Objectives – – – –
Together, the supervisor and associate establish the associate’s short-term performance goals Regular meetings are held to discuss the associate’s progress in meeting the goals Checkpoints and benchmarks are established to measure the associate’s progress A discussion is held at the end of some time period to evaluate the associate’s accomplishment of the goals