MUSE Magazine (September 2014) by MUSE Magazine

MUSE

September 2014

A Century On 1848 Revolutions King’s Wall of Fame London’s Historical Gems

Revealing historic hues in black and white news

Magazine

MUSE Editors Louis Mignot & Xenia Rakovshik Follow us on Twitter: @MagazineMuse Like us on Facebook:: www.facebook.com/MagazineMuse

Letters from the editors Welcome to King’s College London! You have all I believe a hearty salutations and congratulations worked hard to get here and I wish you a fantastic experience at university. This, our special short issue of Muse Magazine, is designed for you. We hope you find this useful in guiding you through the first few weeks in the department. I am a second year student in War Studies and History. Feel free to contact me, or indeed anybody involved in the history society, if you have any queries regarding life at university.

Many thanks to this year’s new contributors (in order of appearance)... Magha Harrish, Barney Hagan, George Clough, Tom Golding , and to previous contributors for their reprinted work from our previous issue (in order of appearance)... Sam Higson, Cleo Pollard, Indigo Ellis and Oscar Davies

- Louis Mignot

Contents Introductions Letters from the Editors .................................................................................................................................................03 About our devoted contributors ...................................................................................................................................04

are in order! Despite the redundancy, I, like my co-editor Louis, extend a comradely welcome from the history community at Kings. This issue, though much shorter than our full magazine, is our way of welcoming you into the fold. Here you will discover a community of unabashedly enthusiastic people who, in the face of general scrutiny of distaste for history, have realized that the narrative of our world is perhaps the most fascinating aspect of our cultural capital. The ability to record, pass down and re-interpret the events and decisions, perspectives and scandals that have led to where we are now never ceases to pique my interest, and hopefully yours. A tad about me, for those who are interested. I’m going into my second year as a History undergraduate. That’s all you need to know. Nothing brings me more pleasure than learning, listening and writing. Like Louis, please do not hesitate to contact me with any questions concerns or confessions you may have. Without further ado, we present an issue dedicated to you and you alone. Good luck!

Meet the History Society................................................................................................................................................05 Opinion

- Xenia Rakovshik

Remembering Conflict...................................................................................................................................................06 One Hundred Years On..................................................................................................................................................08

A Call to Pens

Essay 1848 Revolutions - Legacy of Indefinite Conclusions................................................................................................10 Kings

Want to write for us? We always welcome writers, both regular and periodic, to contribute on any historic subject that takes their fancy. Forced to remove a fascinating but irrelevant argument from your essay? Never fear. Air your grievances (provided they’ve been fact-checked) between the covers of MUSE. Every perspective adds to the spectrum of values here.

In Conversation with Peter Heater................................................................................................................................13 King’s Wall of Fame........................................................................................................................................................16 London Calling

London’s Historical Gems..............................................................................................................................................18 Culture Light’s, Camera History: Twelve Years a Slave................................................................................................................19

About our new contributors Megha Harish

Meet the History Society

Barney Hagan

I'm a second year BA Liberal Arts student and stu- Hey I’m Barney, I’m nineteen years old and currentdent representative, majoring in Politics, minoring in History and dabbling in poetry. In trying to grow out of Harry Potter and children's fantasy, I have discovered a burgeoning interest in colonial and postcolonial studies. George Clough

I study History Here at Kings College London. My

modules last year were: Medieval European History from 400-1500; British politics and society from 1790-1950 and Worlds of the British Empire. I thoroughly enjoyed all of these but unfortunately I had to leave in January due to unforeseen medical circumstances. I am re-starting my first year in September unlike my colleagues who will all be Second years. I will most likely choose the same modules again as I really did enjoy studying them and the topics were always intriguing. My areas of historical interest are the Crusades and the period between 1060 and 1500 in general. A more recent field that I have found both intriguing and fascinating has been British political history, which forms the backbone of a love of contemporary UK and US politics that I also write about separately. I look forward immensely to contributing and getting back into Studying generally after a period out of University life.

ly in my second year of studying history at King’s. My chief interests lie in the “short twentieth century” of 1914-45 and the British Empire, especially within this period. (Coincidentally, I urge you to take the British Empire module on offer to freshers this year.) My module choices somewhat reflect this interest, as I am studying “Britain: Church, State and Nation 17501950”, “British Electoral Politics 1867-1945”, “Foreign Policy in the Age of Palmerston 1815-55” and “Ideas of Nationalism.” The First World War is in my opinion the most pivotal event of the twentieth century – although that is something I am always willing to debate! – and I look forward to discussing this and other issues concerning Europe in the first half of the twentieth century and the British Empire within the cover of Muse magazine.

Cameron Spencer - Vice-President

A bit about me... I'm in my second year at King's reading history and the new History Society President for the incoming academic year. My three favourite things are baking, sports and film. This summer I cycled across Europe from London to Albania for charity, which was the both the scariest but most exciting adventure I've been on. My advice to freshers is to be bold, jump head first into the university life, join sports teams and societies, go to different events and discover London. As Ovid wrote, the bold adventurer succeeds the best.

Hey, my name is Cameron and I’m the Vice-President. I do a little bit of everything and work with the other committee members to ensure you guys have the best possible year. Feel free to approach me with any questions or thoughts - have a smashing Freshers! Safiya Islam - Treasurer

Hi, I’m KCL Hist Soc’s Treasurer this year so am pretty much in charge of the money. Not surprisingly, I’m also studying History and am doing a variety of modules ranging from Medieval Europe to Modern China in my second year. I ran for this position at the end Neha Ravail Khaliq - Marketing Officer of my first year because I felt I needed to get more As Marketing Officer for KCL History Society, I make involved with societies so my advice to freshers would sure everyone gets to hear as much about History Soc be to make the most of what the societies at King’s events and information as possible, spreading the have to offer. Please feel free to bring us any questions word! The observant amongst you may have noticed, or suggestions you may have about the society and I too read History. I’m currently reading Russia in the best of luck for the year ahead! Age of Anna Karenina, the History of Western Political Ideas and Latin Christendom as the First Europe- Surya Elango - Social Event Officer an Union. Aside from History, I’m crazy about music, singing and long walks on the beach. My advice to Hi I’m Surya, a second year historian. I’m British Indifreshers: enjoy this year, it’s going to be amazing and an. I’m from the north of England and went to school on the south coast for a bit too. So best of both worlds it’ll go by so quickly! and all that. I’m your Social events officer with Sophie Leseburg Smith. I am also KCL radio’s station managSophie Leseberg Smith - Social Event Officer er which will be holding some sound parties this year with some top DJs and big names hosting. UndoubtHey there, it’s Sophie Leseberg Smith, I am a second edly we will be merging some events between the two year historian and kings. Alongside Surya, I am a So- intersociety mingling and more money to spend cial secretary for the History Society. We are in charge so bigger and better parties will be coming your way, of the social events, which you should all be attending! guys! (yay). This year we’ve got loads of sweet gathAdvice for freshers - try and meet people outside of erings, talks and parties lined up for you! Stay tuned your course too, go to the events and talk to as many on the History Society Facebook page! And enjoy people as possible! the best academic year yet with the best society yet. Email me: at suryakala.thennavan_elango@kcl.ac.uk or catch me on FB! Or hit me up on station.manager@kclradio.com with any queries, ideas for events or Igor Musienko - Academic Officer even just a chat!

Tom Golding

I’m reading War Studies and History. When it comes

to History my main interests lie, fairly unsurprisingly, in the military realm, more specifically the history of Britain’s wars during the 1700s and the history of naval warfare. Martial pursuits permeate most of my hobbies; rugby, archery, shooting and fencing. As well as the occasional war-game. The conflict between Humans and our ideas and desires is fascinating as it reveals a lot about our culture and the inherent societal implications. Most of my modules have thus been focused around the British Empire and military history, with my second year taking me into more study of naval warfare and the history of early modern european warfare.

King’s College History Society Website http://kclhistory.wordpress.com/Facebook com/HistorySociety Twitter https://twitter.com/HistoryKcl

Kristjana Çaka - President

https://www.facebook.

- Louis Mignot

War

as a phenomenon hangs in the public consciousness. This is something that will be all the more apparent as we approach the centenary commemoration of the First World War. All wars are characterised by violence and loss of life; the First World War came to represent the sacrifice of soldiers worldwide. This is something that is evinced in the poppy; the flower that grew in Flanders has now come to symbolise remembrance for soldiers who have fought in all wars. It is significant, however, that the public do not seem to commemorate conflicts from before the First World War to the same extent. For example, the Napoleonic Wars - the original “Great War” have, apart from ongoing academic interest, faded from public consciousness. So, the obvious question will no doubt be asked; will the First World War’s impact on the public consciousness fade in the face of later conflicts? “The Great War” There can be no doubt that the First World War was horrific, bloody and, indeed, global in its profound impact on society. With approximately nine million deaths throughout the four year con-

Candor, Oise, France. Soldiers and a dog outside a ruined house in 1917. Image courtesy of Bibliotheque nationale de France via theatlantic.com

A stretcher bearer patrol painfully makes its way through knee-deep mud near Bol Singhe during the British advance in Flanders, on August 20, 1917. Image courtesy of AP Photo via theatlantic.com

flict, there is an obvious, direct and indirect, impact on the population to this day. Many families will have distant relatives who fought, or indeed died, in the First World War. Yet, the number of deaths cannot be the only causal factor behind the conflict’s continued vivid remembrance. The Napoleonic wars were, whilst longer, exceedingly costly in terms of lives. For instance, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812, marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars proper (the bi-centenary passing in 2012), was exceedingly bloody; of the 422,000 soldiers that marched into Russia, only 10,000 returned. This is a staggering loss, taking place over a very short time

period: six months of combat against a spectral Russian enemy and the deadly Russian winter. The bi-centenary of the 1812 campaign was marked by receptions at the Russian Embassy to mark the “Patriotic War” and by a series of scholarly articles, amongst other things. Now, whilst this is a commemoration, there is far less profundity. This is by no means unjustified: the First World War is, in chronological terms, much closer to the modern day and was, arguably, the start of a new phase of warfare; the industrial war. So, the chronology of the conflict must be a factor contributing to the level of its commemoration. Yet, there is more to it

ing it the perfect symbol the First. That is, students for an appeal for serving at GCSE level in the UK soldiers. learn of the Treaty of Versailles, how Germany was Will this trend continue? humbled and, indeed, Whilst there have been humiliated by its terms, numerous conflicts since leading to economic dethe First World War, only cline and the rise of Adthe Second World War olf Hitler. As a result, the seems to have gained sim- First World War retains ilar levels of commem- its mantle as the ‘first’ of oration. There seems to the industrial, ‘new’ wars; be an implied ‘ranking’ it remains one of the of conflicts in the public turning points in history. consciousness; the title Whilst the Second World “world war” sets up the War has its own horrors First and Second World and is rightly rememWars on a par – they bered for the fight to stop come to be seen as the them, I believe that this epitome of what war can trend will continue. do, and therefore some- Some may argue that as thing to avoid. Despite the last combatants of this, the Second World the First World War have War has not superseded passed on, the war will the First in terms of its lose its continuing sigimpact in the public con- nificance and commemsciousness; people view oration. Yet, the First the Second World War World War’s iconography as almost a bi-product of is rooted in our architec-

than simple timing. If this were the case, then the Second World War would surely supersede it in terms of commemoration. I would argue that the fact that the First World War is seen as a turning point in history, coming near the start of the 20th Century, involving millions of combatants and using new, increasingly brutal and efficient weapons marks it out in the consciousness of many people to this day. This is demonstrated perfectly by the Poppy Campaign; the campaign aims to raise money for serving soldiers, but its iconography is rooted in the First World War; this conflict has been held up as the epitome of war’s impact on society, mak06

ture; the cenotaph, the memorials at Thiepval (and others), school children take sobering tours of the battlefields, and learn of the horrors of the war. Moreover, films and television shows continue to be made about the conflict; classics such as ‘Paths of Glory’ and ‘Blackadder’ followed by more recent productions like ‘Joyeux Noelle’ keep this conflict in our minds. As the centenary approaches, new articles will be written, new television programmes will be produced, all adding to the existing work on the subject, providing new debate – most recently over the pre-existing view that the generals were to blame for the losses of the war. As a result, I would argue that the First World War will, for a sig-

nificant time to come, be remembered with the same levels of profundity as current commemorations. Whilst wars of the previous centuries may have lost some of their lingering impact, none of them rival the First World War for its continued effect on everyday life. I would therefore argue that, as is clear from the upcoming centenary commemoration of the First World War, the conflict retains its profound impact on the national consciousness, and, even after those who experienced it first-hand pass on, the experience of the war will be remembered. •

naive. Think of the modern parallel: it is the same dilemma that the Foreign Ministers of Europe face today. If they do not stand up to Russian aggression in Ukraine and honour the treaty they signed at the end of the Cold war to protect Ukraine, will the European nations and the USA be able to effectively use their influence for good around the world if their word on intervening is not credible?

A Century on...

The choices the heads of state of the world faced in 1914 are much the same as they are today. Is the sovereignty of the nation we have pledge to protect worth the loss of life? Is the loss of position on the world stage something we are willing to shed blood for? And are the strategic concerns outweighed by risk? In August 1914 the British decreed war was necessary. Sad and grim, but a necessity none the In 1914 as in 2014, mor- less. al imperatives are not the only thing that makes the While Grey did predict use of force a more neces- that the war would cost sary. Belgium controlled more lives than previousthe closest channel ports ly fought wars due to the to the British coast. These size and technological were vital to Britain for advances of the various European trade as well European armies, no one as providing the nation could have predicted the its possession of the Port scale and static attritional with the perfect staging warfare that characterpost for an Invasion of ized the fighting on the Britain. If Britain failed to western Front from the go war to defend Belgium Battle of the Marne in there was a real chance September 1914 until the that British trade, and in- Allies were able to regain deed sovereignty, would the initiative in the offenbe threatened. sives of 1918. At the time they genuinely believed Again… not much has they were making the changed. Ukraine is a right decision and withlarge and powerful buff- out the ability to see how er against potential Rus- history would have transian expansion. Through spired otherwise, we will Ukraine run many of never know if taking Britthe pipelines from Rus- ain to war was the best sia that carry oil and gas possible option in terms from Russia and central of the future of Europe. Asia to Europe. Allowing it to fall into the hands of Britain not being ina potentially hostile pow- volved in the war would er would put the energy have undoubtedly shortand infrastructural secu- ened it and saved the rity of millions of Euro- lives of millions. Yet it peans at risk. would seem that when

- Tom Golding

Soldiers of an Australian 4th Division field artillery brigade walk on a duckboard track laid across a muddy, shattered battlefield in Chateau Wood, near Hooge, Belgium, on October 29, 1917. This was during the Battle of Passchendaele, fought by British forces and their allies against Germany for control of territory near Ypres, Belgium. Image courtesy of James Francis Hurley/State Library of New South Wales via theatlantic.com

In which year does this

scenario sound most The answer is both. A century after Europe was plausible, 1914 or 2014? dragged into war, Europe An aggressive and bor- once again finds itself facderline autocratic regime ing two paths. Will there crosses the border of a be a war for Ukraine, or sovereign European na- not? It was exactly the tion. As that country’s same decision that faced military fight on, Europe the British Foreign secholds its breath. Britain retary Sir Edward Grey and France have both in August 1914. Was Belsigned a treaty indicating gium worth defending? they would go to war to Would it be worth the protect the sovereignty bloodshed? of this nation. While the defense of this nation is a moral issue due to the protection treaty there is also a strategic imperative. This nation sits on valuable trade routes in Europe and is a bulwark against expansion of the militaristic power. Europe is on a knife’s edge.

The correct response in hindsight now may well be “no”. Images of the slaughter of the Somme and the knowledge of the outcome of the war in the Middle East today cause many people, notably those of the No Glory Campaign, to state that the First World War

should never have been fought and that there were other alternatives. This is a rather idealistic view of the situation. After all, hindsight is 20/20. In fact it seems as though once Germany was set on its course in mid-1914 there was very little Britain and France could have or even should have done to prevent war. While this seems hawkish in the extreme I must first stress that in my mind war should never be the first answer. However, when the situation is serious enough and the gains (both in political and humanitarian measure) outweigh the calculated risk, war is an extremely unfortunate necessity. That was certainly the

situation facing Grey in 1914. But why did Britain have to become involved? It could well be argued that the British did not have to get involved because the sovereign territory of Belgium and France had been breached. They do have a point; there was nothing physically forcing Britain to go to war. Yet, Grey reasoned that Britain would lose its good name and never be able to show any influence, no matter how morally up standing the cause, on the world stage again. While it could be argued that saving national face is not an acceptable pretext for war, this is rather 08

faced with the decision to go to war to protect freedom and democracy in Europe was war the right option to take at the time. If Germany was able to dominate Europe, how far would peace and democracy really permeate through Europe. Would I make the same decision knowing the losses? That is a far harder question and one I honestly don’t know the answer to. It’s rather hard I find to make a judgment between the ideology of freedom and the loss of so many young lives. When does the greater good stop being worth the host of lesser evils in its name? Its a philosophical question that everyone must settle with their own conscience. This dichotomy is paralleled with the modern situation in Ukraine. Every national leader now knows the risks of large, industrial scale, inter-state warfare. Both world wars have taught us the sort of damage it causes, and we have seen the various armies that would potentially be involved in combat nearly constantly for the last fifteen years. We are also aware of the ultimate endgame, that both sides possess in the form of nuclear weapons. In the light of this it would seem war should not even be an option of the table. But are the freedoms we

take for granted in the West worth defending elsewhere? Is it right to stand up to autocratic militarism? And is it right to defend economic and infrastructural interests with blood? These are the questions that were faced by the British in 1914, and they are the same that face us now. Yet one would hope that the aggressor in this century would mark the lessons of the last and shy from its course, to save the world the unnecessary destruction it’s ambition caused. Above all of this on this centenary, we should not seek to judge the politicians of the time who took us to war, believing they were doing the right thing. We are all Great Captains and statesmen in hindsight or the ideal reality. We should seek to remember the heroism on both sides. It takes a truly staggering amount of bravery to run at someone who is trying to kill you, or to hold the line when it would be far easier to run. Whether you think the war was fought by competing empires for treasure or for the cause of freedom. Whether you think war is sometime necessary or should always be avoided. These men and indeed women deserve our utmost respect for doing things many of us would not be brave enough to do. •

1848 appear as products of simmering discontent of an increasingly empowered working class. Thus one could view the revolutions as a reflection of the increasing expectations citizens had of the state and its role in maintaining social and economic stability and responding to public needs. Fifty years after the revolution that started it all, France took up the mantle once more during its February revolutions in 1848, bring a conclusion to the Orleans monarchy and lading to the creation of the French Second Republic. Leading up these spring surges was the outlawing of political gatherings and demonstrations in 1847 that were circumvented by what became known as ‘Campagne de banquets’. The banquet campaigns, held mostly by middle-class working french men, were a held in defiance of what growing french working class interpreted, quite rightly, as an attempt to stifle their right to collectively express grievances and form unions for the preservation of their individual rights. Engels, whom attended the banquets in 1847, resulting the publication of a series of articles with titles such as “The Reform Movement in France.” In them, Engels astutely delineates the tensions between the working class and the state, noting, that, the government are so afraid of the working

1848 Revolutions - Xenia Rakovshik

It was a period of trial

and error, with the fear of instability and impatient regret shaping the relationship between the public and the state, a time when the modern understanding of a state as a support structure of its society was in its embryonic stages. Inspired by the French revolution, the revolutions of 1848 occurred over diverse geographical locations for a series of parallel diverse causes and provocations. At the core of each lay the development of an aware social class, which though not necessarily leading the revolutions, were invaluable to their occurrence. Yet the passion and fervor that spurred the ‘Springtime of the Peoples’ could only sustain itself for so long on the enthusiasm and energy of those involved. Despite popular support, and some would argue perhaps because of it, the revolutions burst into ephemeral flame before sputtering out by September of that same year. Even in light of calls to the creation of new regimes, old authorities returned to their mantles across Europe only one or two years after the unrest ushering in, as Michael Rapport would

Proclamation of a Venetian republic in St Mark’s Sqaure Venice (1848) Image courtesy of Alamy via historyextra.com

argue, a period of even stronger and more oppressive European states. Although the 1848 revolutions ‘failed’ to established long-lasting democratic governments, the revolutions reflect a stage of public political consciousness, social organization and national self-identification that takes precedent in diplomatic and political debates to this day. Thus a pattern of revolutionary fervor across Europe appears, not as a finite series of events, but as a process of societal-state relationship development on the continuum we’ve christened ‘History’, affected as much by the

past as our present is by them in turn. If one wishes to assess the legacy of any event, the causes reveal just as much, if not more than their outcomes. According to Charles Pouthas, when citizens in the mid 19th c. resolved to instigate some form of change, “inspiration came…from the teachings given to Europe by France.” Whether revolt was motivated by hunger, frustration with the limits of social mobility or nationalism, revolutionary fervor was in one way or another, a continuing desire to seek out the liberalist ideals written out by Locke and Montesquieu

during the Enlightenment period. Adamantly clinging to the foresight of reason, liberals sought out the four basic tenets brought into the public political periphery during the French Revolution: freedom of the individual, a state that protects its citizens, representative elections and a free economy. Tracing the tentative line between burgeoning social consciousness of the middle classes and impending revolution first put into words by German social scientist Friedrich Engels in his 1844, The Conditions of the Working class in England, the Western European Revolutions of 10

people, that they do not allow them the slightest liberty.” Subsequent suppression of individual liberty, including a means to express discontent with the government, emphasizes the discontinuity between the strength of state structures and their ability to address public discontent without falling apart or condemning expression altogether. As revolutions in France illustrate, the ability of a state to change in response to the needs of its citizens dictates, to some extent, the longevity of its power. It bears to note at this juncture that, despite having its origins in France, the revolutions were a series of upheavals over a vast expanse of European regions. Following the outbreak of major skirmishes in outside the Hotel de Ville on the 24th of February, 1848, and a cabinet confirmed by a crowd on the edge of its foundations, Lajos Kossuth called for a representative government in front of the Hungarian Diet early in March coinciding with the beginning of revolution in the Rhineland on the 3rd of March, after which revolutions in Vienna, Berlin, Milan and Venice joined their ranks in quick succession . In assessing the legacy of the 1848 revolutions one intrinsically groups a series of political movements into one category. Taking into account the geographical dif-

ferences across Europe, is it fair to offhandedly categorize these revolutions as a part of a larger revolutionary movement due to chronology? With this in mind it’s rather unlikely, to say the least, that th revolutions were not affected by eachother. Across Europe between 1846 and 1849, an economic depression was gripping Europe. Marked by rising good prices after a poor harvest and a recession that followed the industrial expansion in the early 1840’s, Europe’s once burgeoning working class was left stranded on the ramparts of a ladder that had appeared to lead to a higher level of social mobility. Although occurring in different areas the movements had similar objectives – the establishment of constitutional democratic republics with equality before the law and an end to privilege. It servers to note that in Italy, German and parts of Austria, these aims were compounded by a call for a nation state and unification, however that aside the revolutions generally sought to accomplish similar objectives. Despite what Pouthas’ assertion that “although the revolutions of 1848 were simultaneous and inspired by a common ideology, they were an isolated phenomena,” such a chronological and ideological correlation, perhaps even overlap, denotes a significant shift

in the citizen-state relationship that cannot be denied. Lenore O’Boyle attributes this increased attention of public opinion on matters of state to the “surplus of educated men” that were flooding the job markets during the mid 19th c. In Prussia by 1835, “there were 262 candidates for every 100 livings in the church, 256 candidates for every 100 judicial offices and 194 candidate for every100 medical appointments.” This expectation of upward mobility and the growth of democracy can also be traced to ideas introduced by the French Revolution. The creation of a new European World order by June of 1815 through the signing of the Congress of Vienna, marked a what was meant to be an era of peace following the violence of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In the process larger European powers such as Prussia, Austria and Russia made large territorial gains that were meant to restore the former balance of power. However, conservative policies undertaken by leaders such as prince Clemens von Metternich following the post-war era “ epitomized the post-war system… Metternich recognized that the Hapsburg Empire was the most vulnerable of all European powers to the twin threat of revolution and war, precisely because it was a polyglot ragbag of 11

In Conversation with... Peter Heather Medieval History, the Roman Empire, Simon Schama and Doctor Who’s Tardis. - Sam Higson

and therefore highlights a question keeping second- year History and Memory students awake at night. Do you see your books catering to a more popular or academic brand of history, and how do you view the distinction?

Lamartine in front of the Hôtel de Ville, Paris, on 25 February 1848 Painted by Félix Philippoteaux via thekeystonejournal.wordpress.com

territories.” In his zeal to overtake this threat, “between 1815 and 1848 the army swallowed up 40 per cent of the budget, while interest on the state debt gobbled up another 30 per cent. These financial troubles were a potentially fatal source of weakness. Lack of money needed to help the stricken population in the economic crisis of the 1840’s contributed to Metternich’s downfall in March 1848.” Metternich’s fatal mistake was to overlook the needs of the public his state was meant to take care of, rather than profit off their capital in order to consolidate his own power. In short, he failed to meet an unspoken social contract. One cannot comment on the legacy of revolutions in the nineteenth century, particularly the effect of those that occurred in 1848, without mentioning nationalism. In its purest, and most politi-

cally uncoloured formulation, nationalism “aims to form a sovereign nation state through the right of self-determination of the nation.” Liberal ideas, though well founded, imperiously teeter on the precipice of reasonable freedoms and limitations and extremist anarchy. If any faction could claim independence on the basis of self-determination, what is to keep countries from splitting themselves into listless oblivion? Attributing a label as stark and condemning as “failure” to the outcome of the 1848 revolutions is, by all accounts, too harsh and definitive an assessment. History, after all, follows a continuum rather than a finite series of events; continually amended and retold to fit a convenient narrative. It was not the revolutions themselves that “failed”, rather that failure to immediately meet expectations of the revolution-

aries inevitably resulted in what could have been temporary instability that they were not prepared to tolerate. Instead of allowing liberal governments the time they required to re-order economic and social infrastructures… The revolutionaries may not have successfully ushered in an era of democracy and equality, but they did begin the demolition of feudal social structures, leading to abolition of serfdom. Even if the revolutions of 1848 ultimately ‘failed’ to achieve their technical objectives, they provided a trial for revolutionary movements that shaped political activity from the 19th century onward. Roger Price asserts that many of the wars that occurred during the second half of the 19th century were continuations of the legacy pioneered by the 1848 revolutions. The 1848 revolutions further developed the con-

cept of self-determination that came to fruition during the 1789 French Revolution. That, if anything, remains its legacy, revealing a continuing tension between individual right, social responsibility and state oversight that we struggle to reconcile today. Where does individual freedom begin and state intervention begin? How much state power is ‘too much’ state power? What is the role of the state? These are the questions that the revolutions brought from the periphery of public consciousness to the forefront of civil discussion. These are the questions that plague government’s to this day. These are the questions that will never have a definite answer, only temporary reactions and responses. At least until the next revolution.

Professor of Medieval History at King’s College London Peter Heather Image courtesy of Peter Heather

Peter Heather is Pro-

fessor of Medieval History at King’s College London. He is one of the leading experts on the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages and, according to BBC Barbarian’s presenter Terry Jones, ‘knows more than any other living person what went on in the late Roman Empire’. The author of a number of best-selling books, including The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians and Empires and 12

Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe, Heather has also held teaching posts at UCL and Yale University. Since 2008 he has resided in a rather nice dwelling known as K6.45. MUSE caught up with the historian between lectures and book launches. Sam Higson: Your new book, The Restoration of Rome: Barbarian Popes and Imperial Pretenders, was recently released. It will no doubt be read by a wide-ranging audience,

Peter Heather: I think in my books I am trying to do a hybrid job, and obviously it is up to the reader whether that works or not. This is in the sense that I’m trying to write history that an academic would be entirely happy with, but would also appeal to the more general audience. I absolutely take nothing out of the argument; I do not simplify it, I do not dumb it down. The kind of people that will buy large history books are highly intelligent people who have almost certainly done some sort of degree at university, and are perfectly capable of understanding the kind of intellectual problems that are dealt with. You

Kings

do have to think about presentation though, and how you are going to get your audience into the argument and make them interested. An academic audience is there for professional reasons, and they have to listen to you however dull you are! I had a really good editor for one of my first books, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, and I asked him what the difference was between a more academic treatment and a treatment for a general audience? He said in essence you have to do it in the form of narrative; so instead of having complicated analysis you have to find the right story that allows you then to conclude with the piece of analysis that you want to make about your argument. I think television can dumb down history more, though I do not think it is the historian’s fault. If you want to sell any ideas 13

to TV producers you have to cater to their tastes or it will not be done at all. I have done a lot of interviews for TV programme series and have found that producers consistently patronize and underestimate their audience. I am determined to never take anything out of an argument.

the way he thinks – he is a very sophisticated cultural historian. I do believe that, whatever the television company, the whole process of putting history onto television as opposed to books does dumb it down. In their defence, I suppose, they are aiming for audiences in the millions, whereas even

what we have in place cy is moving towards at the moment is the 80 plus as medicine best sort of system? improves, so people are retired for up to 15 PH: I think that it is the years. I think there is best sort of system, but a very severe problem I believe that it is facing on the expenses side, systematic difficulties which is why nationthat are bringing it close al debt has gone up so to a crisis point. With drastically. At the other regards to the costs of end of things, the taxathe classical welfare tion structure is losing state model - as people the capacity, because

sustainable. SH: Moving on to more serious issues, you have said in previous interviews that you have a soft spot for Sherlock Holmes. What do you think of the BBC’s current ‘Sherlock’ series? For that matter, are you a ‘Doctor Who’ fan? PH: I have seen some of them. I was actually really into the late 1980’s ‘Sherlock’ series on ITV. I do like Benedict Cumberbatch though. One of my teachers pointed out that the stories are always cheats in the sense that there is never enough information to actually solve them, so he always knows something else you do not. As for ‘Doctor Who’, well...I was a great fan in my youth! SH: I remember you saying in your lectures that your period of expertise is often frustrating, due to the lack of or complete absence of evidence, but nonetheless fascinating. Hypothetically, if Doctor Who were to arrive at your doorstep and give you his Tardis for a day, where and when would you go to find out some missing pieces in your ‘knowledge jigsaw’?

From left to right: “The Fall of the Roman Empire - A New History”, “The Restoration of Rome - Barbarian Popes & Imperial Pretenders”, “Empires and Barbarians - The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe”. Images courtesy of Peter Heather.

SH: Even in BBC histo- a very successful history documentaries? ry book will only gain a few hundred thousand PH: Yes, I fear so, al- in terms of audience. though they produce fewer documentaries SH: You may be aware now. Simon Schama is of Jeremy Paxman’s an interesting case; for controversial television that big BBC kings and interview with comediqueens series (‘A Histo- an Rus- sell Brand late ry of Britain’ in 2000) last year about politics. they made him order What is your opinion of it monarch by mon- the current disillusionarch. If you look at his ment with our political earlier work, that is not system? Do you believe Kings

live longer, have fewer children and as the potential for healthcare increases exponentially - it is so much more expensive than anyone thought it was going to be back in the 1940s and 1950s when they were designing it. They were expecting people to retire at 65, live for 5 to 6 years and die peacefully and happily. However life expectan-

of globalisation, to tax very rich corporations. There is a real problem that, firstly, we cannot afford in the future the kind of structure we have taken for granted so far, and that, secondly, our decision-making process is going to be

PH: I am very sure of when about I would want to look. In the political process that leads to the unraveling of the Roman Empire there are two big bouts of frontier intrusion: one in 375-380,

ambushed by a very sectional interest. Western democracy needs to take a step back. I believe the current trajectory is un14

and the second one in 405-410. The one from 375-380 is actually pretty well covered, the second one though is not in the sense that you get plenty of information about the consequences of this bout of invasion, and there are three large groups across the frontier at different times, but you get no information on what caused it. So this is one of the most contentious things in the whole structure and an awful lot flows from it as to whether this invasion was cause or effect. It is frustrating because it looks as though there was a contemporary Roman historian, a man called Olympiodorus, and that there was originally a detailed account of the causes in his history, but the relevant bit has not survived. So I guess I would go and talk to him in the first instance. I think a lot of late Roman historians would take the same view. It is certainly a big contributory element to the answer of why the Roman Empire fell. SH: In the Woody Allen film ‘Midnight in Paris’ there is a thought-provoking theme that runs throughout: people are so nostalgic about the past that they become dis-satisfied with the era they live in and consider a previous period to be their personal ‘Golden Age’. However, when you compare our present to the past, we live in relative privilege in terms of technology, health-

care, standard of living etc. If you could, would you ever swap your era? What would you say to this outlook in general? PH: I think more people are more privileged in the 21st century than any other period. There are still living absolutely horrible lives, but certainly if you were looking at the percentage of the world’s population in relative comfort then I would have thought it is pretty good compared to the past. There are elements of modern living I love – my power shower...my espresso machine, I cannot lie. In the past the only way to really enjoy yourself is if you were a member of the smaller elites. I think the kind of things that really grab my imagination, and in fact a period I enjoy reading for fun, is actually the great era between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries where there was a massive expansion in the understanding of the planet. Likewise there are periods in the nineteenth century too. I mean the single most extraordinary thing I have held in my hand was the covering letter that Charles Darwin sent with On the Origin of Species to his publisher! I can remember it saying something like, chapter 1 is very good though chapter 2 is a bit dull but it has to be there! It is an extraordinary intellectual moment, though I realise Darwin did not do it all by himself.

Kings

SH: Reading, writing or teaching? PH: Reading bizarrely tends to be subordinated to the other two. I only read what I need to do for teaching or writing these days. Teaching and writing I would split 50/50, because I would not want just to write nor would I just want to teach. I mean basically I teach for six months, and I think and write for six months, and I love that. SH: Finally, ever got lost in King’s? PH: Yes! I arrived in January 2008, halfway through an academic year, and I think I did not confidently discover my way around until probably the next autumn... there are still bits of the Chesham Build- ing that I would budget at least 30 minutes to find. Thank you Professor Peter Heather for taking the time to talk to MUSE, and providing us with such an interesting insight into your work. •

Virginia Woolf

King’s Wall of Fame

- Indigo Ellis

The Strand ‘Alumni Wall’ never fails to make by passers look twice - who knew that Florence Nightingale, Bloc Party’s Kele Okereke and author Michael Morpugo were KCL graduates of our 185 year old university. We have rounded up for you some of the wall’s most prominent prodigies who marked their place in history.

It’s

new allowed her to meet Vita Sackville- West, her lover, queen! Home-schooled until and Leonard Woolf, her the age of 15, Adeline future husband. Stephen then enrolled at After an illustrious caKing’s College Ladies De- reer publishing novels, partment in Kensington including Mrs. Dalloway, Square in 1897, and pro- To The Lighthouse and ceeded to attend classes Orlando, Virginia finthere until 1902. King’s ished her manuscript for has been credited with manuscript for Between providing the founda- the Acts, filled her coat tion for Woolf ’s lifelong pockets with stones and engagement with Greek drowned herself in the River Ouse on the 28th literature. After the death of their March 1941. Her suicide father in 1904, Virginia and long history of menand her brother Adrian tal illness has been attribsold 22 Hyde Park Gate uted in modern scholarand bought a house on ship to the sexual abuse Gordon Square, where she and her sister Vanesshe would become part sa suffered at the hands of the influential cir- of their half brothers, as cle of the Bloomsbury revealed in her memoirs, group, instrumental, A Sketch of the Past and along with Adrian, in 22 Hyde Park Gate. Virgina Woolf the Dreadnought hoax. • Image Courtesy of 4thEstatew The Bloomsbury Group

Lord Carey - Cleo Pollard

Lord Carey of Clifton Image Courtesy of Shrewsbury Diocese

“ self-important, alarmist twit!” These were the words accredited to Lord Carey by Andrew Brown, writing for The Guardian in 2010. Indeed, Carey is perhaps the most controversial of

King’s alumni and was even suggested to be ‘the worst archbishop we’ve ever had’ by the Daily Mail in 1999. Remarkably, this provocative figure began his life in London’s humble

East End. After failing his Eleven Plus test and leaving school at the age of 15, he discovered inspiration in the form of God and the Anglican Church. This pushed him to seek further education, studying for O-Levels and eventually graduating from King’s in 1962 with a 2:1 Bachelor of divinity .He was subsequently the first Archbishop of Canterbury since 1375 to not have graduated from Oxbridge. As Archbishop, Carey’s reputation developed against the context of improvements in gay and women’s rights. Whilst he actively supported fe- male ordination and endeavoured to improve relations between Christianity and Islam, he opposed immigration on the basis of the threat posed to British identity and its supposed Christian heritage. What is more, he chose to align himself with the Roman Catholic Church in his stance against the legalization of gay marriage Kings

and other homosexual practices. n 2012, Carey condemned the government’s plan to legalize same- sex marriage, labelling the proposals as ‘cultural vandalism’ and implying that they would remove the focus of procreation from marriage and, worse still, lead to the toleration of polygamy. It is Carey’s on-going views on homosexuality that generate the strongest opposition. This is evident none more so than amongst students of his former university. KCL’s student newspaper, Roar! called for the immediate removal of his image at the entrance of the university’s Strand Campus in 2013. It is unsurprising, therefore, that in a society where we strive for equality and freedom, Carey’s views face such fervent criticism and render him an embarrassment, rather than a source of pride, amongst students of his former university. •

Kingsway’s

Desmond Tutu - Oscar Davies

grees at King’s during the 1960s, Tutu is regarded as one of the greatest civil rights activists for his leadership in the fight against South African apartheid, for which he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984. However, what makes Tutu so exceptional in the present day is his stance on Desmond Tutu homophobia: in contrast Image courtesy of UP2US to Lord Carey’s views, he would rather go to hell he man who was chris- man is perhaps King’s than “go to a homophogreatest alumnus. Havtened in a nightclub bic heaven”. In fact, earliIt can be argued that this ing taken both his bachelor’s and master’s de- er this year, he described

T 16

Kings

himself “as passion- ate about this campaign as [he] ever was about apartheid”. Tutu is more than just a huge metallic head, or a failed nightclub on the top floor of KCLSU: he is living proof that the differences between religion and 21st century society can be suspended by a higher ambition to campaign against inequality and to fight for the minority. • 17

Lights, Camera... History 12 Years A Slave

London’s Historical Gems

The new film from British director Steve McQueen is an adaptation of the memoirs of Solomon Northup, a freeborn black American family man from upstate New York who was kidnapped, shipped to the South and sold to the owner of a Louisiana plantation in 1841. The talented British-born Chiwetel Ejiofor plays Solomon. To reuse Woodrow Wilson’s phrase, ‘this is history with lighting’.

The

film 12 Years a Slave is the best of its kindmade about the era of slavery in the United States of America. Leading critics would agree with me. Why am I unsettled by this piece of information? Why is the past not being projected more on the big screen? The last two films I can recall meaningfully depicting slavery are Gone with the Wind (1939) and Mandingo (1975). We should not include Django Unchained (2013)- another film centred on a slave’s survival in the antebellum South in this area of inquiry, for it was misguided and glorified violence conducted by a wayward man with grandiose ambitions rooted in sociopathic tendencies. The two films can’t be sensibly compared. Django’s most startling scenes come glazed with irony, and it ends with a cathartic bloodbath that

Historic map of london Image courtresy of Maps of Net

The Museum Tavern Located opposite the British Museum, this was the watering-hole of the legendary Karl Marx. Marx often led crawls with revolutionaries from across the water; perhaps you should take a leaf out of his book? The Crown Tavern Lenin’s choice site for a drink; this list looks the like the makings of a revolutionary expedition! The British Museum This fantastic historical site is only a short walk from the Strand campus. Located near Russell Square, this museum is vast; one could literally spend all day exploring and not see everything. Take time out from your hectic fresher’s schedule and indulge your love of history!

Apsley House The home of the college’s founder, the Duke of Wellington, this site is located near Hyde Park Corner tube stop. Buckingham Palace Something for the less revolutionary among you, the royal residence of the British monarchy The Grenadier (Also a is a beautiful (if busy with tourists) site located Near pub) This drinking establish- St. James’s Park tube stop. ment was frequented by our founder, the Duke of The Cabinet War Rooms Wellington. Also located The place from which near Hyde Park, this site the entire British war efis a must for students at fort was coordinated, the war rooms are a fantastic King’s! place to visit. The nearest tube stop is Westminster, The George Inn Once frequented by none with the site itself on King other than Charles Dick- Charles Street. ens, this pub is located in Hampton Court Palace Southwark, near the Lon- For those of you prepared to go further afield, Hendon Bridge tube stop. ry VIII’s residence is a fantastic place to visit. The Star Tavern Another revolutionary pub, this time located near Hyde Park. Allegedly the site for the planning of the Great Train Robbery in 1963, this pub was a second home to local actors, low-level aristocrats and ambassadors.

London

- Emilian Gega

Located in East Mosely, Surrey, this site can be reached on an overground train from London Waterloo within forty minutes. The Imperial War Museum (IWM) Having recently been refurbished, the IWM records the military history of the British Empire. Including exhibitions on current conflicts, this museum is key for anybody interested in military history. The nearest tube stop is Lambeth North. The Tower of London The infamous Tower is now an excellent museum. Located on the North Side of the river, near Tower Bridge, the nearest tube stop is Tower Hill. 18

allows us to leave the cinema feeling that justice, of a limited sort, has been served. McQueen is working with no such protection. This is not how history ought to be depicted. Are we too afraid to confront the past with reasonable moral judgments? In the film’s early scenes, we watch Solomon stroll around his home town of Saratoga with his wife and children, and, Ejiofor moves with a gentle confidence that makes his later imprisonment seem not just inhuman, but illogical. Then, when we first see him in chains, hemmed in by shadows in a dingy cell and lit by a thick strip of moonlight, we are shocked for the same reason he is: we see a free man with his movement wrongly restricted. Then his captor comes in, taunts him, calls him nigger and beats him with a wooden paddle until

it splits in two. Benedict Cumberbatch offers a rare friendly face as Ford the plantation owner, yet crushingly proves to be little more than an ineffectual coward. To ‘save’ him from murder by mewling overseer Tibeats (Paul Dano), Northup is sold on to the deranged Edwin Epps (Michael Fassbender). As the infamous ‘nigger breaker’, Fassbender spits rabid cruelty from a snarling visage of hatred, haunting scenes with his twisted bible recitals. His justification for this sadism? “That’s scripture.” This film is not just a masterpiece; it is a milestone. It is a sober, non-judgmental and cold rendition of slavery. It therefore provides a role model to earlier films that meant well, and a corrective for Quentin Tarantino. Really, it shows slavery as if for the first time. The dead camera stare

Culture

of a close cabal of Negroes in the opening scene provokes us. The subsequent teachings they receive from the aged white farmer who is obviously blasé to their condition, completely disarms us of any pretentions we may have. We really are in for an experience. In his memoir, Solomon describes all too lucidly the scene in which Epps, furious that his slave girl, and source of affection, Patsey had visited a neighbouring plantation, had her stripped naked and tied to four posts, and then her more than 40 times with a whip, before taking over himself McQueen has made a tour de force of this it all in one long, unno respite from it - no • 19

Revealing historic hues in black and white news