Autonomous
Infrastructure
Critical Studies in Architecture ARC6010 2015/2016 Nadia Pinto S13170771
Contents
List of Illustration
xv
1.Introduction: Evolution of city fabric to Out-of-town retail centre
6
2. Urban Morphology of out-of-town retail centre in British cities
10
3. Study case: From Manchester City centre to Intu Trafford shopping centre
21
4. Consumerism and Consumers behaviour at The Trafford Centre
33
5- Conclusion
34
Bibliography and Reference Appendices - Literature Review - Group Presentation
38 52 74
Illustrations
1. Decentralisation Diagram 2. City Centre and Suburb spatial and morphological arrangement 3. High Street Market 4. Manchester city centre and Trafford area map 5. Manchester Market street timeline diagram 6. Manchester city centre building’s density and purpose 7. Trafford area building’s density 8. Historical maps 9. Transport links and access 10. Car parking for private mobility 11. Buses route at Trafford Centre 12. Travelling distance from Manchester city to Trafford Centre 13. Consumers at Trafford Centre 14. Consuming behaviour 15. Orient Food hall 16. Trafford Centre stores arrangement 17. Worldwide architecture scenes 18. Interior architectural details
4 6 8 9 12 14 15 18 19 19 20 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
Autonomous Infrastructure
“ Trace the influence of private mobility, in context to the development of the city fabric and out-of-town retail centres or transport interchange. Consider the likely shape of the urban and residual landscape. Speculate on how increased autonomy transforms the dynamic of the urban environment and how we interact with the street edge.�
1
Autonomous Infrastructure
Introduction
This essay will mainly focus on analysing the development of the retail units from high street to out of town retail centres focusing on the urban forms and elements such as streets as well as the private and public transportation links that contributed to the decentralisation of inhabitants to the suburbs. The second part will cover the illusion of “ shopping fantasy� that out-of-town centres try to recreate in order to increase the economic sectors in terms of profit. However, this attempt may cause a psychological impact on the consumers, encouraging a compulsive shopping behaviour due to the architectural dynamic and style of out-of-town shopping centres. Using the Trafford Centre as a case study, the impact that this specific out- of town shopping centre has on the social and demographic flow of Manchester area will be examined in relation to how it affects the local economy of the city centre retail units. A comparison of inner and out of town retail units will be made in terms of the behavioural elements of its consumers, originated from an illusionary world that these types of shopping centres generate.
2
Autonomous Infrastructure
Since the early modern period of industrial revolution, commercial units have been the main source of economy growth for most of the developed cities in Europe, which has resulted in a series of recreational spaces for social and consumerism activities (Savage et al, 2003). The retail industry has always played a crucial role in society, being one of the main contributor element to shape the urban environment of a city. Streets, schools, residences and others institutions are linked to the main economic source of the area represented by the inner retail units. The following urban phenomena formulate interdependence between these urban elements that result in a “city fabric” where all the elements are interconnected and dependent on one another to execute their function. However, with the improvement of pedestrian and vehicular mobility, the city fabric started to become more flexible and allow people to scatter to various destinations, including the suburban areas (fig.1). As in the case of Manchester, in the early 1990s due to an economical decline of the city, the population began to dislocate in the suburbs, looking for more employability opportunities as well as affordable houses (Pacione, 2005, p.203). “A city can be seen as an enclosure of social changes, undergoing transformations from year to year, and day to day” (Morrison, 2003,p.3). English cities present a well-developed economy based on the multicultural interchange of goods, occupying the total land use of 800 million ft2 (74 million m2) of the urban environment. Significantly, retailing in England can be analysed in two different contexts based on cultural and economic factors. In terms of culture, retail units are viewed as a mean of consumption that is mainly influenced by the exchange of goods and performance of consuming habits. On the other hand, the economic factor concerns the incorporation and implementation of the physical structure of retail environments, which will provide the capital to sustain the economic growth of that specific area (Pacione, 2005).
3
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.1- Urban decentralisation
4
Autonomous Infrastructure
The central areas of the cities in England are located according to commercial building’s amenities; they involve different activities and establish interdependence between them. However, within the last century, the city centre shopping started to loose the power on its consumers. These town centres have been losing strength and dynamism that characterized other times due to the expansion of the city being triggered by the introduction of new means of mobility. New ways of travelling such as trains, public transports and construction of motorways for a larger number of drivers have been upgraded in British cities (Pacione, 2005). Since then, the planning of trade and mobility has been considered as part of the planning of land use, being used to try to control the pattern of change in the development and improvement of both out and inner retail units ( Pacione, 2005). The evolution of out of town retail centres present a certain autonomy and independence from the city centre, which will be analysed later on the progression of this essay. Despite the fact that out of town retail centres manifest a particular autonomy in the urban context, they still rely on the relationship between public and private mobility. These facilities are generated by the transport links as well as the relationship between the infrastructure and the street, taking into account the environmental impact that the infrastructure has on the residual landscape (fig.2). Cities in the modern world are ruled by consumption in capitalist society. In the past years consumption has been playing a controlling role in the daily life of the cities and its inhabitants. We live in a society where most human activities depend on work productivity, a society with a lifestyle mostly orientated towards goods and materialistic behaviour (Morrison, 2003). However, there is a necessity to comprehend that a city is not an isolated entity without any links to its inhabitants; on the contrary, it is a constant process of reconstruction in time and space. British cities are governed by the unstoppable need to consume, which in Morrison’s view (2003) is caused by oppression and cultural uncertainty.
5
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.2- City centre and suburb urban arrangement
The economies of small and medium-sized shops within the cities are increasingly depend on the success of tertiary activities. The traditional trade in particular is one of the sectors, which in the 1990s has experienced an accelerated adaptation to new challenges that needed to have an attractive feature. In this context of change, the traditional trade cannot fail to find an effective response able to create a valid transforming dynamic for the future (Morrison,2003).
6
Autonomous Infrastructure
Urban Morphology of out- of- town retail Centre “ The increase levels of urbanization and urban growth in English cities are the result of a combination of a natural increase of the urban population and net in-migration to urban areas”(Pacione, 2005, p.78). The changes that occur in the transition from the town centre to out-of-town retail result from changes in the social and economic factors. Thus, the subsequent changes are also inclined to the demographic, cultural, and technological aspect of the urban market. The location of some town shops may depend on the flow of people, traffic circulation and access, the arrangement of the connecting links of streets and roads as well as the balance between new built and historical architecture (fig.3). Town Centre shopping do not present a single definition, since they correspond to areas perceived by the people who them either to live, shop, work or visit (Pacione, 2005, p.79). On the other hand, majority of out-of town Centres are built on urban lands that are either abandoned or neglected by the owners or local authority, mostly occurring as result of urban conurbation and growth. However, this urban circumstance facilitates the acquisition of lands, being cheaper compared to the ones located in the city Centre. “ Since a great deal of capital in land is usually tied up in the built environment ” (Savage, 2003). “ Planners in Britain are suspicious of any development that might contribute to urban sprawl and is particularly reluctant to allow new suburban shopping facilities to erode the rural character of the green belt.”(Pacione, 2005,p.255). The residual landscape that surrounds neighbouring villages and towns is taken with extreme importance by local authorities in British cities due to its importance for the wildlife. A new building facility surrounded by residual landscape may cause a drastic impact on the urban environment causing unwanted waste emission and gases pollution; as a result, the biodiversity starts to disappear. On the other hand, Pacione argues that green belt land is uniformly attractive, whereas a new shopping facility on a derelict site could contribute to the visual upgrading of the landscape. (Pacione,2005,p.256).
7
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.3- Hight Street market
Although the inner retail environments of British cities have gradually lost its mass consumption value through the time, out of town retail units have contributed to revitalize abandoned sites in order to introduce new areas of purchasing profit centre. The development of out-of-town-centre begun with the city expansion and population growth. Furthermore, one of the most important features was the improvement of both public transport and motorways. The increased value of the properties, higher transport costs to access the central area, car parking, pollution and others factors also helped for the dramatic moving to the outskirts. Living within the city Centre area has gradually exceeded the average expectation salary of the population; people started moving to the outskirts because it was more affordable. However, this change implied also looking for commercial facilities nearby the living suburban area (Sulkunen,1987).
8
Autonomous Infrastructure
Out-of- town shopping centres have dramatically grown into an important icon on the urban landscape transforming its original arrangement of crops plantation, motorways and isolated housing development. On the urban landscape, out-of-town retail units formulate the central point where all the urban elements will link together. In other words, one can perceive that every single feature of the urban man-made landscape such as motorways, housing estates, industrial and agricultural facilities will all link to one big facility, which is determined by the out-of town shopping Centre. “ Most of these intermediate settlements function as links between town and country where agricultural surpluses are exchanged for manufactured goods and services in accordance with the percepts of central place hypothesis” (Pacione, pp.78, 2005). Hence, shopping centres generate public spaces that encourage interaction between the user and the urban landscape, enhancing the use of lands that have never been used. The residual landscape will be followed by a transformation into profitable community Centre with the aim to bring back to the community as well as generating a new public space. “Shopping is for most people a necessity, for others a pleasure and for some a hobby”. The factors that motivate an individual to acquire a specific item are inherent in the individual and the item acquired. There are aspects of shopping behaviour that are, however, affected by the location of the store and the physical characteristics it displays to the shopping public. Out- of- town shopping centres are designed to make good consumers and help people to engage in a fantasy, which includes in the participation what appears to be a public realm (Smiley,2002).
Fig.4- Manchester City Centre and suburb map
9
Autonomous Infrastructure
Customers tend to prefer shopping mall rather than town shopping Centre for the convenience of anything they desire under the same roof and the variety of attraction that it offers. It is easier to access to different departments. The town Centre is the main core of the regional market trading that attracts visitors and workers to shop because of the proximity to other facilities such as public transports, hotels, offices, etc (fig.4). Hence, what distinguishes the inner shopping centre and out-of-town retail are the multifunctional and organic mixture of activities that the out of town retail units offer, combining shopping with leisure facilities and office/business. However, town centre shopping have a more traditional and in some cases tend to be crowded for being allocated on areas with mix use buildings (Sulkunen,1987).
10
Autonomous Infrastructure
Case study: From Manchester city centre to Intu Trafford Centre Manchester is the third largest British city that has grown significantly in the economic and social criteria since the industrial revolution. Like any other city in England, Manchester has been influenced by a range of social aspects that have contributed to the decentralisation of people from the city centre to the suburbs. “ This situation has been reinforced as a consequence of massive slum clearance which has been replaced by public housing” (Healey et al,1992, p.66 ). The inhabitants of Manchester from the 1950s and beginnings of 1980s were tragically affected by a high rate of unemployment within the city centre, which led people to look for jobs in industries and warehouses outside the urban fringe. The city centre of Manchester began to lose its economical prestige in the retailing sector, being exposed to a competition originated from the new centres development in the suburbs (Healey et al, 1992). Despite the economic decline, the city centre retail units have always been considered as a traditional and cultural process that has a positive impact on the inhabitants and attracted tourism into the area. From the following affirmation, one can say that the out of town and city centre retail in Manchester although being developed by the Great Manchester authority for the purpose of profit extraction, both affect the consumers in distinctive ways (fig.5). Manchester city has been arranged in a particular architectural approach where the city itself presents a variation of urban style that from Williams’ view are caused by cultural uncertainty. The lack of identity and uncertainty in the urban settlement of the city creates a specific feel of anxiety on its users. As Williams argues that, English cities have learned to be anxious because their cultural position is uncertain, which can be reflected in the way cities are designed and the variation on the urban style. The influence of different culture and international exchange has been forcing the city and its inhabitants to adapt themselves into a diversification of urban design and culture. Thus, the reason that cities do not reflect the original identity, it is because they try to satisfy everybody’s need and resemble the modern city based on American system rather than European. English urban culture is in a process of continuous mutation due to foreigner’s influence, which can be translated as globalisation (Williams,2004). 11
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.5- Manchester Market Street timeline diagram
12
Autonomous Infrastructure
Manchester city centre is based on a strong undefined cultural power as well as mass cultural consumption derived from the influence of multiculturalism and globalisation based “ in a context where culture is no longer connected to place but driven by globalised flows of information, capital and culture of goods” (Sulkunen, 1997, p.153). The feeling of anxiety is directly linked to Manchester due to the uncertainty caused by a lack of identity where the city instead of being easily read and identified by its urban style and inhabitants, it is an idealisation of urban life. “This makes the term anxiety slide towards metaphor, away from being simply a label for a psychological condition, but as I hope will become clear this usage provides a helpful vocabulary to describe urban experience ”(Williams, 2004 p.12 ). This type of feeling is also reflected in the urban arrangement of Manchester city centre, although the local authorities have tried to conserve the traditional role of the inner city as well as improve the urban environment. At the same time, neighbouring regions such as Salford and Trafford in the early 80s commenced to achieve a new urban and architectural approach, stepping back the anxious feel that inner cities generated by the uncertainty of architecture patterns and impact on the inhabitants.“ Salford and Trafford were both successful in moving development forward. Together they successfully bid for an enterprise zone for the decaying docks area and the Trafford Park Industrial Estate ” (Healey et al, 1992, p.68). As a result, of a new urban regeneration in the suburbs of Manchester, the out- of- town centre in Trafford was built in 1998 to execute the concept of the public realm in that area. The out of town retail development located in the Trafford district was conceived as a result of the easy acquisition of cheaper land and building permission from local authorities (Taylor, 2016).
13
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.6- Manchester city centre builidng’s density
14
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.7- Trafford area builidng’s density
15
Autonomous Infrastructure
16
Autonomous Infrastructure
Intu Trafford Centre is one of the largest out-of- town retail centres in Europe designed by the architecture firm Chapman Taylor for the client Into properties (fig.6). The first opening for the public was on the 10th of September of 1998. The retail unit comprises of 3 storeys of restaurants, cinemas and department stores occupying a total area of 207,000 m2. The construction process took a significant time due to the political concern of Manchester City council regarding the negative impact that it may cause on the economy of the smaller retail unit around the area and neighbouring villages. “ The local planning authorities played an important role in influencing the level of retailing in both private and public sectors. They controlled the number of shops in ratio to a certain population and their location� (Gayler, 1984,p.11). Thus, another concern of local planning authority of Manchester city Centre was also the impact that the retail centre would have on the traffic of M60. Before the conceptualisation of the project, the land was owned by Manchester Ship Canal Company and bought few years later by John Whittaker. The planning of the retail centre went through a series of political procedures in order to provide the balance between the economic and social needs of Manchester City as well as having efficient transport facilities. However, it was comprehensible that the introduction of The Trafford Centre would cost a significant amount of money that indirectly would be taken from the citizen’s income through taxes. Furthermore, it would also affect the local business of Dumplington that also depends on the capital flow of the city centres shops (OpenBuildings, 2012).
17
Autonomous Infrastructure
As an immediate economic impact of the centre’s construction, the business of the retail centre presented an extreme growth in a short amount of time, which proved that the citizen’s and local authorities concerns in the building not to success had entirely failed. The Trafford centre proved to be a successful and independent business strategy in Manchester, which also encouraged people to move to the outskirts of the city and work within the building’s departments ( Healey et al, 1992). The out of town retail centre was seen as a way of providing the smaller rehoused population with better facilities and employability opportunities. It was considered as an urban renewal of Manchester. However, most of the social facilities only happened due to the motorways imp and transport links improvements. Before the retail construction, the area would only be accessed by the M60 that would certainly cause a huge amount of motorway traffic. The best strategy and main focus would be inclined on the transport links between Manchester city centre and surrounding villages to the Trafford Centre (Healey et al,1992). The access to the Trafford Centre is mainly done by bus, private cars and train that facilitate the mobility within the Manchester area. The great flow of people move in and out of the shopping centre is also allowed by the variation of transport means that link the shopping to different areas of Manchester. In addition, car-parking areas are located with 10,122 space for private cars (fig.9) and 350 for buses (fig.10). Fig.8- Historical maps
18
Autonomous Infrastructure
Due to the large scale of The Trafford Centre, one may argue that parking and transportation are considered one of the main aspects of the design process. The autonomous and independent infrastructure would not exist without its consumers that heavily rely on the transport links. The users commute from a place to another, so it is necessary to analyse the best means to make this journey comfortable and enjoyable. Traffic jam is a negative and disturbing phenomenon that most of the Manchester city’s citizen experience on the M60, which is the main motorway adjacent to the infrastructure (Healey et al, 1992). As a result of this inconvenient urban phenomenon, the Trafford Centre introduced a solution at its early stage of a construction that consisted of two supplementary roads A508 and B5211 as well as series of secondary street and entrance to the building (IntuTrafford Centre).
Fig.9- Transport links and acces
Fig.10- Parking space for private mobility
19
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.11- Buses Route
20
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.12- Travelling from city centre to Trafford centre
21
Autonomous Infrastructure
Consumerism and consumers behaviour at the Trafford Centre In both out and inner shopping centre, shoppers can be categorized in an infinite number of ways: shoppers who are satisfying an immediate need, shoppers who are making routine purchases of household necessities, shoppers who are making infrequent purchases of lasting items and shoppers who use the act of shopping as a shared recreational or social event (Schulze, 1997). The choice of a place to shop is influenced by the nature of the purchasing and the current needs and preferences of the shoppers. The layout and design of the store still have an important role to play in motivating the customers to buy an increased range of goods available on technological developments and international trading (Deasy, 1985, p.82). “If an establishment offers goods and services that are of high quality and, therefore, high priced, the materials used as well as the design, should reflect a similar quality. The important point is that as the design takes shape, each design element must be judged on the basis of its effect on the target group rather than solely on abstract aesthetic merit� (Deasy, 1985, p.81). The shopping architecture and location have a significant impact not only on its consumers and workers but also on the city overall. The city is the main urban centre where most of the social and economic activities take place. However, in terms of the wide urban context, commercial areas located on the outskirts of cities in England have been playing an important role in the arrangement of urban areas. Furthermore, the out-oftown shopping areas have contributed to the diversification of the land use, proposing and reintroducing the same or even better attraction that city centres’ market can offer to the public (Deasy, 1985).
22
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.13- Consumers at Trafford Centre
23
Autonomous Infrastructure
One of the reasons that make the Trafford Centre to sell goods in a larger amount it is relying on the easy access for transports and free car parking facilities. In addition, out of town Centre offer facilities such as larger stores and sheltering in case of bad weathering conditions. On the other hand, it causes the town shopping centre to lose trade and customers and may not be accessible to all the customers especially the elderly. The Trafford centre was designed to make good consumers and help people engage in a fantasy, which includes in the participation to what appear to be a public realm (Butcher, 2011). The architecture of Trafford Centre not only contributes to the economy of the area increasing employability but also affects consumers on their buying behaviour. Comparing to other European’s countries, England is the nation that shows the highest percentage of consumers. This occurrence is mostly originated by the flourishing and diversified economy that the country has made a profit since the industrial revolution. The intensity of commercial space and population growth within the city led people in British cities such as Manchester to migrate from big cities to smaller towns ( Williams, 2004, p.3). Migration has also been one of the reasons that English cities lose their identity. Furthermore, disparity on classes is clearly noticeable since the aristocrats tend to isolate themselves from the middle working class concentrated on cities. The upper classes in the English urban cities prefer to live in small towns trying to preserve their cultural and heritage safe from alien’s influence. The author assumes that, “despite being the most urbanised country in Europe, since the 19th century England has been a place of darkness which is essentially foreigner, a site of alienation and estrangement with competing visions of consumption and residence” (Williams, 2004, p.4).
24
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.14- Consuming behaviour
25
Autonomous Infrastructure
The mass construction of large shopping units derives from the feeling of anxiety that from William’s (2004) view most of the British city transmit to its inhabitants. Retail unit tries to recreate the social and cultural aspect of the city becoming the central aspect of the urban landscape. However, “ this physical retail environment has the ability to alter shoppers reaction and behaviour” (Babin, 1994). Furthermore, anxiety is almost like an experience of a mix of feelings delivered by the individual in the response of modern space. Out of town shopping units such as the Trafford centre can be seen as a good example of an urban experience where the extravagance on architecture styles can transmit a feeling of anxiety on its users (Williams, 2004). The Trafford Centre shows a strong compromise with the local community for the fact that majority of the population in Manchester live on the outskirts of the city; meanwhile, only 30% live in the city centre (Healey et al, 1992). The shopping Centre changes the reputation that most out of town shopping centre for being only a place of consumerism. On the contrary, the Trafford Centre tries to recreate a place not only to shop but also a place for leisure and entertainment, which has led people to commute from others nearby cities only to enjoy the architectural experience and facilities. Throughout this experience, there is a consciousness or social ideology that grows among the consumers by the sense of activity within the shopping centre, from product concept to the concept of consumption. At the Trafford Centre people tend to behave differently comparing to city centre’s consumers. The Trafford centre offers a variety of facilities and fascinating architecture decoration themes from all over the world. The intention of this specific urban space is to attract people in a way that will stimulate consumers to buy in a more compulsive way, not taking into consideration the price range and budget. Besides that, people behave differently in The Trafford Centre, the social environment greats a sense of relaxation and enjoyment within the users, this is evident in the Orion food hall (Butcher, 2011).
26
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.15- Orient Food hall (Trafford Centre
27
Autonomous Infrastructure
The Trafford Centre incorporates the illusion of a non-realistic world almost like theme parks, which make the consumers believe in finding themselves somewhere else in the world being the opposite of their normal lives, however it may be argued that the influence of different culture and international exchange has been forcing the city and its inhabitants to adapt into a diversification of urban design and culture. Shopping malls reflect an uncertain position in terms of the architecture style. The reason that out of town shopping centres do not reflect the original identity of city fabric shopping is that they try to resemble the same attraction as “ theme park” where the shopping culture is in continuous mutation due to foreigner’s influence which can be translated as globalisation (Butcher, 2011). “It is all a result of an intense subliminal stimulus making consumers more vulnerable and less sensible to buying ” (Schulze, 1997). Consumption not only is represented by the acquisitions of goods on both inner and out of town retail centres but also represents a conflict over the individuals’ freedom against control. The control over consumers is related to a new society based on materialistic behaviours where the acquisition of goods is made on a global scale (Schulze, 1997).
28
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.16- Trafford Centre store arrangement
On the other hand, in the city centre of Manchester consumers become more reasonable on their spending and more aware of the price of goods, meanwhile in The Trafford Centre consumers are brainwashed by this illusionary world of consumerism; “ as the diversity of available objects and experiences has become almost unlimited there has been a shift in focus from achievement to inner experience in our life concept �(Schulze, 1997,p.4). The Trafford Centre is one of the most appropriate references of mass consumption society in Manchester and United Kingdom. People use the space for social engagements, these spaces resemble different cultures, for example, the Italian restaurants are set in a way is similar to the Italian plazas. This can almost be compared to Trafalgar Square, which is mainly used as gathering area. The architecture of the shopping centre also plays an important role on the consumers. Shopping Centres nowadays tend to recreate pleasing and enjoyable atmospheres where the consumers travel on their imagination (Butcher, 2011). Furthermore, Shopping as practice is a psychological action that helps people to release stress and anxiety. One may argue that the reason that locals and tourist visit the Trafford Centre frequently is because the shopping offers a fascinating and out of this world architecture experience. 29
Autonomous Infrastructure
However, the physical retail environment within the Trafford Centre has also the power to change the way consumers react and behave. The design of the stores in terms of light, interior decoration and spatial layout can be used as effective means to stimulate consumers on purchasing more items. “ Previous results suggest that consumers pleasure relates positively to utilitarian shopping value, facilitating the shopping task, and the consumer relates positively to shopping value, making the store environment a more attractive place to spend money � (Babin, 1994). The demand for more attractive places within the British cities is growing significantly amongst the consumers. Those will be the main users of this space that offers variety of activities choices as well as products globally purchased. Out of town, shopping centres are considered at the present as mass concentration areas as it was a city within a city where the variety of offers and attraction lives within its architecture (Babin, 1994). However, we live in a society that the best communication way is expressed through the way we present ourselves, this is mostly related to the amount we spend on acquisitions and materialistic possessions. People in commercial units pretend to be someone else. One can say that all the emotional choices the consumers make within the shopping units are purposely influenced by the architecture that most of the out-of-town shopping centres deliver. The design of retail units is mainly conceptualised in a way that one can perceive wealth through the expensive materials selected for its construction and the sequence of colonnades and arches that almost resemble the glamorous time of the Roman Empire. The Trafford Centre represents anywhere else that one could ever dream to be, it is almost like travelling without living the comfort zone of one’s neighbourhood. On its early stage of design one of the main concern of the architects and associates was to design a building the closest to the access of motorways and train station. Thus, people instead of travelling all the way to Manchester city centre they will rather go to the Trafford centre, also taking into account that car-parking tickets are available in a higher number of space with no cost. Moreover, one can relate back to the urban morphology of out-of-town retail centre that refers the closest the infrastructure locates to the street edge the more consumers will attract. People seek for convenience; they would rather leave the comfort of their home on a weekend to anywhere they can drive safe; as they reach to the shopping mall is warm, aesthetically pleasing and fun (Acegeography, 2013).
30
Autonomous Infrastructure
Out-of-town retail units have always prioritised the comfort of consumers, the stores and others departments arranged in such an architectural system that the consumers firstly would not be exposed to cold and rain during winter; secondly, they will still believe to find themselves in the city centre. The Trafford centre’s layout consists of two floors that vary on stores department and restaurants. As one walks through these spaces they can identify some architecture elements such as benches, light post, street names, palm trees and others; like the ones one can find in any other city in the world. All those characteristic reflected in the shopping environment influence indirectly the way consumers behave on their purchasing, this causes them to buy more than the expected. On the contrary, in the city centre where most of the stores are located adjacent and perpendicular to the street edge not being confined in only one space. This urban layout in the city centre allows the mix of different building purpose where the consumer can easily escape from the temptation of spending more than they need. “Consumption is understood as an object of governance that consists of the process of controlling or managing a known object by exercising a directing or restraining influence over it � (Sulkunen, 1997, pp.277).
Fig.17- Worldwide architecture scene
31
Autonomous Infrastructure
Surprisingly, the main supporter of out-of-town retail centre is the government. This is due to the consumerism and materialism behaviour that occurs on those new developments of the urban landscape. In this respect, it is intentionally designed to reinforce the political and social power that the government has upon consumers. This relationship is ruled by the exchange that happens between retail industry and consumer preferences. Out of town centres, compared to town retail units are indirectly ruled by local authorities that make the best profit out of consumers (Sulkunen, 1997). The self-contained autonomous infrastructures almost resemble the same pattern that 18th-century prisons used to control prisoners on how they moved and behaved in a determined space. The layout of out of town retail centre, like some prisons, consists of a long corridor linked to small corridors that will lead to stores where consumers move in a space enclosed by walls (Jacob, 2014). The stores in the Trafford Centre are side-oriented along the streets within the building. This spatial arrangement will determine how people move through the shopping centre, which in a way it is used as a map to guide consumers to spend money on specific locations that are deliberately designed for the unconscious behaviour of moving within space (Babin,1994).
32
Autonomous Infrastructure
Fig.18- Interior architectural details
33
Autonomous Infrastructure
Conclusion In conclusion, this essay has proven that the out of town retail centres are considered as an extension of the supermarket idea originated from the city centre’s high street. The emergence of out of town retail centre not only contributed to the economy by providing jobs for suburban residents but also increased the creation of social areas outside cities. Based on the analyses and discussions made in this essay, it is evident that the presence of retail centres in the suburban environment has increased the number of visitors travelling from elsewhere. This occurrence was achieved by the improvement in the overall infrastructure and transport interchange. Furthermore, out of town, retail centres in Britain have empowered the economic, social and political aspects in relation to the overall urban development. From examining the Trafford Centre as the main case study for this essay, it is clear that this is considered as one of the best responses to the autonomous infrastructure of Manchester that has contributed not only to the local economy but also to the enhancement of the surrounding residual landscape. In addition, The Trafford Centre has contributed to the improvement of the overall local fluidity and transport interchange. Finally, it is apparent that the psychological influence that retail shopping centres exert on consumers has a great impact on their consuming behaviour resulting in them acting differently under different architectural scenes. Although consumers might subconsciously be aware of this phenomenon, the architecture implemented in most of the British retail centres such as The Trafford Centre still exerts` a powerful controlling element on their compulsive shopping behaviour.
34
Autonomous Infrastructure
Reference and Bibliography
35
Autonomous Infrastructure
• Books and Journals Deasy, C.M.(1985). Designing Places For People.1st ed. Wason Guptill. New York Mun, David. (1981). Shops: A Manual of Planning and Design.1st ed. The Architecture Press. London Riewoldt, Otto. (2000). Retail Design.1st ed. Laurence King. Hong Kong Morrison, K. A. (2003). English Shops And Shopping. 1st ed. Yale University Press. Yale. Williams, R. J. (2004). The Anxious City: English Urbanism In The Late Twenty Century. 1st ed. Routledge. London. Frampton, K. (1992). Modern Architecture A Critical History. 3rd ed. Thames and Hudson. London. Hetherington, P. (2003). The New Town That Could Be A New City. The Guardian, 19 February. Savage, Warde, A.Mand Word,K.(2003).Urban Sociology, Capitalism and Modernity.2nd ed. Palgrave MacMillan. New York. Pacione, M.(2003). Urban Geography- A Global Perspective.2nd edition. Routledge. New York. Gayler, J.H.(1984).Retail Innovation. The Problems of Out-of-town Shopping Centre Development.1st edition. London. Healey, P. Davoudi, S. Toole, M. Tavsanoglu, S and Usher,D.(1992). Rebuilding The City. Property-led Urban Regeneration. 1st edition. E & FN SPON. Sulkunen, P.(1997). Constructing The New Consumer Society.1st edition. St Martin’s Press. New York. Babin,J.B. (1994). Consumer Self-Regulation in a Retail Environment. 1st ed.Louisana State University Press. Louisana 36
Autonomous Infrastructure
•
Online Sources
Lockton, D. (2011). Architecture, Urbanism, Design and Behaviour: A Brief Review. Available at: http://architectures.danlockton.co.uk/2011/09/12/architecture-urbanism-design-and-behaviour-a-brief-review/ [accessed on 19th October 2015] jacob, R. (2014). How prison Architecture Can Transform Inmates Lives. Available at: http://www.psmag.com/politics-and-law/jail-prison-architecture-inmates-crime-design-82968 [accessed on 20th February 2016 ] Taylor, C. (2016).Trafford Centre. Available at: http://www.chapmantaylor.com/en/projects/detail/trafford-centre/en/ [accessed on 15th February 2016] OpenBuildings. (2014). Trafford Centre. Available at: http://openbuildings.com/buildings/trafford-centre-profile-16563 [accessed 13th February 2016 ] Butcher, L. (2011). The Hyperreality of The Trafford Centre.Available at: http://lukebutcher.blogspot.co.uk [accessed 10th February 2016] Intu Trafford Centre. (2016).How to find us. Available at: http://intu.co.uk/traffordcentre/centre-information/how-to-find-us [accessed 5th January 2016 ] Wordpress. (2012). Urban Morphology. Available at: http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org [ accessed 23th January 2016 ] Acegeography. (2013). Retailing and Others Service. Available at: http://www.acegeography.com/retailing-and-other-services.html [accessed 10th February]
37
Autonomous Infrastructure
• Images Fig.1- Decentralisation Diagram . By author (2016) Fig.2- Urban Morphology . Web. 12th February 2016, edited by author < http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org > Fig.3- Sketch of market street, Manchester, by author (2016) Fig.4-. Manchester city centre and Trafford area map , by author (2016) Fig 5- Coyle. S.(2014).Down Decades. M.E.N Media. Web. 15th February 2016, edited by author < http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/nostalgia/down-decades-see-how-market-7052446> Fig.6- Manchester city centre building’s density and purpose, by author (2016) Fig.7- Trafford area building’s density , by author (2016) Fig.8 -Historical maps , by author (2016) Fig.9- Transport links and access, from Trafford brochure, edited by author (2016) Fig.10- Car parking for private mobility, by author (2016) Fig.11- Buses route at Trafford Centre, google maps, edited by author (2016) Fig.12-Travelling distance from Manchester city to Trafford Centre , by author (2016) Fig.13-. Consumers at Trafford Centre, by group work (2016) Fig.14-Consuming behaviour, by group work (2016) Fig.15- Orient Food Hall, by group work (2016) Fig.16- Trafford Centre stores arrangement , photograph by author (2016) Fig.17-Worldwide architecture scenes, by author (2016) Fig.18-Interior architectural details , by group work (2016) Group members, Trafford Centre: Nadia Pinto Alex Marangoci Stefan Munteanu Zohra Abba Maham Tahir
38
Autonomous Infrastructure
Appendices
1.Literature Review 2. Group Presentation
39
Autonomous Infrastructure
40
Autonomous Infrastructure
Appendice
2. Group Presentation
Autonomous Infrastructure
53
Autonomous Infrastructure
54
Autonomous Infrastructure
55
Autonomous Infrastructure
56
Autonomous Infrastructure
57
Autonomous Infrastructure
58
Autonomous Infrastructure
59
Autonomous Infrastructure
60
Autonomous Infrastructure
61
Autonomous Infrastructure
62
Autonomous Infrastructure
63
Autonomous Infrastructure
64
Autonomous Infrastructure
65
Autonomous Infrastructure
66
Autonomous Infrastructure
67
Autonomous Infrastructure
68
Autonomous Infrastructure
69
Autonomous Infrastructure
70
Autonomous Infrastructure
71
Autonomous Infrastructure
72
Autonomous Infrastructure
73
Autonomous Infrastructure
74