Reinventing The Sub-Saharan African Cities

CASE STUDY: IUANDA

Reinventing the sub-Saharan African cities

Nadia Pinto 18058071 Manchester School Of Architecture 2018/19

Content Acknowledgment

xi

Abstract

xii

1.Chapter- Introduction

1-3

literature Review 1.1- Past and Present of the Sub-Saharan cities.

4-9

2. Chapter-Luanda the prototype city 2.1-Introduction: The Urban morphology and the architectural language of the city.

- 18th-19th century, the architecture of the Empire.

- The modernist architecture movement vs the Musseques.

2.2- A global influence over the architectural and cultural identity of the city.

11-15

16-21

Methodology 3.Chapter- The divergence between local and international practices in the making of the African city.

2-26

4. Chapter- The architectural revival for autonomous cities through the community empowerment.

27-32

5. Conclusion

33-34

6.Appendices Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix

7.Bibliography

8.List of Figures

a: interview with Cezary Bednarski b: Interview with Helder Pereira c: Interview with Cidade Vemba d: Participant Information Sheet E: Interviewee Consent Form

35-42 43-49 50-56 57-60 61-62

63-67 68-69

Acknowledgment I would like to express my gratitude to my family, for the unconditional love and support.

To Ola Uduku for being the most insightful supervisor who patiently guided me throughout the process by challenging to develop further my research. For her continuous support, enthusiasm, motivation and immense knowledge in African History, Culture and Architecture. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor to my thesis.

In my home town Luanda, my deepest gratitude goes to Cidade Vemba founder of Nfulu Amuana for welcoming me into his community, Sambizanga, which allowed me to explore and gather the essential materials needed to make this thesis/project possible. Furthermore I am appreciative of the puissant influence he has had over me and for his belief in a more prominent Africa.

I also wish to express my gratitude to Helder Pereira who rendered with his knowledge and critical thinking on the current urban situation of Luanda.

In the United Kingdom, I would like to extend my up most gratitude to the architect Cezary Bednarski, an inspiration to his field, for his significant contribution in expanding my knowledge in both African and European subjects, additionally for his insight and critical analysis on the current issues of African cities.

Last but not least, to my dear friends who have kept me encouraged and sane, thank you.

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Abstract The aim of this thesis is to employ historical analyses and evaluation of the urban and architecture condition of African cities using Luanda as a case study to establish an identity based on the practice of urban social movement aiming to improve life in the communities of African cities. This will introduce new urban social movements that will enhance the cultural and architectural value of the city in an era of capital influence and Internationalization aspiring to deliver an agenda of greater social equality.

In addition, the thesis also aims to dismantle the new emerging 21st century International influence in the Architecture of Sub-Saharan African Cities, which revolves around Western and Asian investment.

Through theoretical rationalization, literature and interviews the quality of urban living and the architecture language in the context of African cities will be analyzed by taking into consideration the cultural, social and economic aspects as the identity of the place. However, by tracing the historical stages of the development of Luanda, the consequences of progression and retrogression will be evaluated through their architecture. Additionally, the research will demonstrate that the African city has become dependent of international influence in the process of shaping itself rather than assisting in constructing self-sustainable and autonomous communities. Moreover, this international influence has imprinted in the transformation of the aesthetics of the city, which struggles to embrace the cultural identity of its people.

To finalise, a new architectural philosophy will be analyzed through an ideology based on grass-roots movements in the architectural realm of the African cities in a time of internationalism and globalization. This ideology will be further elaborated through the observation of practices of both African and international architects whose aim is to create a new approach in the architectural language for African cities, which contradicts the image that emerges from Western influences.

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01- Introduction This research aims to dismantle the pre-conceptualised idea of African cities lacking in architectural identity, which is mainly due to various social and cultural changes throughout history. By exploring the architectural and urban changes of the case study, the city Luanda, the research will trace the reasons for this assumption through literature reviews, qualitative research and interviews. Both in the past and present, the architectural quality of African cities has been focusing on the relationship between humans and the environment. This will be explored throughout the thesis from the process of colonization to the current emerging internationalism and capitalist system that proves to be the contributing factors of architectural transformation.

George Wilhelm Hegel (1837) in his lectures “Philosophy of History� convincingly affirmed that Africa was a place without history, without past, without narrative. Casley- Hayford (2017) profoundly disagreed with this statement asserting that no other continent has celebrated its history with more certainty and the struggle to keep African narrative alive has been consistent, provoked by years of enslavement, colonialism, racism, wars amongst other factors. Those struggles have survived the assaults that history has thrown at it and has left a body of material culture, artistic and intellectual output. Similarly, Hull (1976) rejected the perception of African cities no possessing history, as it does not correspond to the reality and should not be assumed that African cities are inferior in infrastructure development compared to other cities in the world. He also acknowledged the necessity to observe their history and understand that the existence of rational planning with significant integration of community engagement were the main determinants in the placement of buildings as the critical element in the shape of African cities.

Every African city has its own identity, consequently, they should not be defined as a whole. However, due to the current social, economic and cultural issues, cities within contemporary Africa in a time of globalization and technological advancements still struggle to overcome one of the main dilemmas; these are the heavy reliance on population growth and the lack of urban planning that have caused disruption and altered their architectural identity. “African cities work through the colonial to their current identity. The culture of the African city is hybridized on the way African citizens see themselves, through their local condition, their ethnic group and their colonial experience" (Adjaye, 2011:105). It can be said that internationalization and capitalism are one of the causes of the urban and architecture mutation of African cities, capitalism is not concerned about the city or the poor who form a majority of the population.

On account of that, further in this thesis, the Right to the city will be invoked in support of social movements and architecture practice as an initiative of liberalizing and neutralizing from urban struggles and loss of identity provoked by inherent Capitalism in African Cities; also demanding human rights in the urban context. The 21st century has been the time of architectural production in many African cities drawn by capitalism and international influence, which somehow have affected the real image of a Contemporary African Architecture.

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Contemporary African architects, for this occasion, have started to claim more recognition regarding their practice as well as introducing the meaning of the architectural identity not only by the building’s form but also in conditions of social disparity and political instability. Architects are more intricately to connect with the rest of the world, which does not suggest that the Western narrative no longer influences the work of Architects in Africa. However, the principles aim to have an architecture that is more responsive to the local context. Similarly to Latin America, African practices are willing to become less ambitious in scale and more specific in scope (Hernandez, 2010). These principles will also create a relationship south-south that will frame a more balanced approach among developing countries, which will allow them to share their own development experience in a less dictatorial and more flexible manner in order to generate personalised solutions by respecting the specificity of each reality (MOpapers,2012).

Alternatively, Cain and Midi (2017) in the article “African Struggles for the Right to the City� argue that urban civil society can promote and safeguard the right to healthy and inclusive cities by recognizing the participation and advocacy of the citizenry. By this means, cities can redefine urban spaces, reduce inequalities, and ensure the democratic provision and management of public services and resources for the benefit of all. Furthermore, planning must be urgently rethought in African cities with a more inclusive and rational approach instead of believing that vast mega-urban areas are smart solutions. The problematics of a city go beyond the lack of urban infrastructure and architectural identity (Cain and Midi, 2017).

The empirical research, in the last two chapters, will introduce hypothesis for the architectural identity of African cities by tracing and analyzing the practice of architects, NGOs and urban social movements who aim to redefine urban spaces through interventions in deprived communities. Some emphasis will also be given to Latin American practices who pioneered these social movements with the objective of democratizing urban spaces. The outcomes of the qualitative method have been decoded through semi-structured interviews conducted in Luanda and secondary sources that discuss the current and historical urban conditions of African cities. This non-statistical method of analysis will help to understand the ideologies behind contemporary African practices in the process of thinking the city and empowering communities.

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URBAN CONDITION OF THE SUB-SAHARAN CITIES Community empowerment Times of intellectual, economy, comercial, social and cultural prosperity.

15-18 Th CENTURY

CONFERENCE OF BERLIN (1884-85)

21ST CENTURY

19 Th CENTURY

THE SOLUTION FOR AFRICAN CITIES

ECONOMIC GROWTH

20 th CENTURY

2001-2010

PAN-AFRICANISM Afro-centric movements Culture Revival

PRE-COLONIAL

ECONOMIC CRISIS

HISTORY (Changes in the urban morphology and architecture of the city)

2014 URBAN CONDITION

CASE STUDY LUANDA

COLONIAL

CURRENT

CAPITALISM

INTERNATIONAL/POLITICAL INFLUENCE

VS

LOCAL ARCHITECTURE PRACTICES

POST-COLONIAL INDEPENDENCE

Social Movements (Architecture identity of a place)

FUTURE RIGHT TO THE CITY (people part of the decision making of the city)

Fig.1- Schematic Diagram by Author

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Literature Review

1.1- Past and Present of the the Sub-Saharan cities The literature review will define towns and cities pre European invasion by proving the existence of organized urban and architecture system previous to colonization. The urban centres of the majority of ancient African civilization were concentrated in three regions before the colonial invasion: West, East and Southern Africa. The historical trace of African urban centres must be explored and analyzed through governance, economy, architecture as well as the process of community engagement, which help to comprehend the existence of organized urban and architectural settlements (Elleh, N. 1997).

Archives from ruins and buildings of ancient cities will be used as evidence of the existence of functional urban settlements before the western influence that altered the initial urban architectural, cultural and historical conception of the cities. Despite this, a relationship of cultural exchange between Africa and the West originated even before colonies, which signifies that cultures have been assimilated deeply on both sides, why it is sometimes challenging to distinguish between the ones originated from Africa and those from Europe (Elleh,1997).

African cities and towns have always been integrated in an urban and architecture category based on the extent of colonial influence. However, before the colonization, post-independence and the urban dilemma of the 21st centuries, African cities presented many towns and kingdoms with unique, functional and organized architectural and urban schemes. Some still believe that Africans did not have the skills to build an outstanding structure and any architectural monument was of either European or Asian derivation (Elleh,1997). On the contrary, pre-colonial African cities and towns displayed an immense variety of forms from the circular, square or rectangular to a multitude of variations on organic forms such as beehive and geometric forms like cone or cone-on-cylinder, rectangular or square clay box.

A wide variety of building materials along with bulk mud or clay, stone, reed, grass, thatch, palm frond, leaves were used for the construction of residential, religious and administrative buildings (Hull,1976).

The Sub-Saharan African cities and towns have always been perceived as unorganized and cluttered entities. However, this allegation has never proven to be legitimate for the fact that most cities lack historical archives to use as a testimony of greatness. Besides, the colonization influence, the political instability and other situations that have occurred throughout the history of African cities have drastically played a part in their architectural identity, which not only affected the shape of the city but also interfered in the relationship between the inhabitants and the city as well as its global recognition. Hull (1976) argues that the elements of African urban centres that contributed in the shaping of pre-colonial unique, humane and sensible cities and towns are gradually disappearing. Furthermore, the lack of activity for archiving and recording urban history can also be seen as a consequence for the lack of interest from the government, scholars as well as the inhabitants.

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Pre-colonial African Settlements 800- 1897

West- Africa Imperial System

Djenne, Mali

- Mali Empire; - Benin; - Yoruba; - Empire of Ghana; - Songhai Empire; - Empire of Kanem; - Others;

Dogon Villages, Mali/Burkina Faso

800- 1897

East Africa

King Ezana's Stele, Aksum, Ethiopia

4th century AD Church ruins in Adulis

Ethiopia - Kingdom of Aksum; - Christian Ethiopia; Sourthen Sub-Saharan

1300-1629

Great Zimbabwe11-15th Century

Bantu State Ruins of Manyikeni, Mozambique.

- Great Zimbabwe Empire; - Luba State; - Mbanza Kongo Kingdom; - Lunda State;

Fig.2- Pre-colonial settlements timeline by Author

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In support of that, Vemba (2019) pointed out in the interview conducted in Luanda that Africa was placed in pause. He also stated that when African empires were building pyramids, the west was living in a different condition comparing to the technological, scientific and engineering techniques that were explored and applied in African Empires. The assumption of African cities and towns being less advanced was a propaganda originated from the West during the time of colonialism. Before the history that has been narrated since colonization, African cities had their history, and their development spread on several kingdoms and empires.” Europeans were astonished at the size of Dithakong the most southerly town, when they encountered it at the start of the nineteenth century, it was as large as the colonial capital of Cape Town” (Freund, 2006:15).

The literature will briefly introduce the most relevant towns and cities of The pre-colonial West and Southern Africa followed by the impact of independence in the process of liberalization and unification of African cities after colonization. However, the main focus will be placed in the city of Luanda by tracing its urban and architectural changes since the Portuguese occupation.

1.2- PRE-COLONIAL: WEST- AFRICA

The oldest town in the south of the Sahara, Djenne located in Mali, for centuries was one of the most influential commercial trade in sub-Saharan Africa, linking the Western to the Arabic world. The city strongly reflects an Arabic influence shaped by high buildings structured with mud, finished with adobe render and majestic columns embodied on the façades. In defence of the local architectural heritage of the city, concrete construction is strictly banned , and up to this time people continue to build with the same material and structure techniques from the previous centuries. Nearly 2000 of its traditional houses are built on hillocks aiming to protect them from flooding (Adjaye, D. 2010).

“The town is characterised by the intensive and remarkable use of earth specifically in its architecture.

The outstanding mosque of great monumental and religious value is an outstanding example of this. The town is renowned for its civic constructions, with the distinctive style of verticality and buttresses as well as the elegant monumental houses with intricate façades” (Unesco,2019).

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1.3- SOUTHERN AFRICA- Bantu State One of the most important cities located in the Southern region of Sub-Saharan Africa was Tswana. The town located in Botswana had the structure that resembled a series of villages based on descent and affiliation to a chief or elder; a distinct feature was the space for the kgotla, a communal and ceremonial meeting ground. In southern Africa, over the centuries, stone construction was the dominating material building permanent settlements, most of the construction represented small settlements, but not all, some assembled reasonable large communities. An example of these settlements was Mapungubwe a hill village with some impressive graves and art objects. Up north the majestic civilization of Great Zimbabwe, with beautiful circular towers high walls engraved with patterns that portrayed long hours of craft (Freund, 2006).

Meanwhile, in west southern Africa, the most predominant civilization was originated from the Bantus agro-towns. The Bantus occupied the countries of Angola, Congo, Botswana, part of Zimbabwe and Tanzania. These agro-towns may have contained ten to twenty thousand people before the coming of colonial rule. However, the urban character of these sites remained until the colony. One example was Mbanza Kongo, the spiritual and political capital of the Kilukeni dynasty, a large and powerful state south of the Congo River from the 15th to 19th century remained a place where narrow paths ran between walled compounds with enough space for livestock and garden farming (Freund, 2016).

“Urban sites, in African civilization emphasized the importance of the sacral that served as ideal placements for ceremonies and activities that linked men to ancestors and to gods in a way that knits together a community.” (Freund, B., 2006:6). Freund (2006) argues that no other human settlement in the world has strongly emphasized the relationship between people and their surroundings. African cities were designed around the idea that man was in charge of the natural space after God. The architecture of the regions, created at specific geographic locations at certain points in time by different individuals, reflects a spirit of identity. In the architecture of ancient cities, the relationship between the social and environmental aspect is of a significant predominance that incorporates local identity in which people formed physical production (buildings, artifacts) and cultural values (identity, traditions, social values) in response to the surroundings (Salman, 2018). “ Another common feature of the Sub-Saharan cities is their common experience of colonial rule and the attainment of political independence. Most have existed as entities for less than 100 years and independent states for less than 50 years, so they are engaged in a critical process of nation-building” (O’ Connor, 1983:21). Some may assume that the main issue of African development was heavily oppressed by slavery for many years which resulted in the retardant and lack of development of their individuals. Majority of Sub-Saharan Africa’s Urban Centre is of colonial origin, those established by much earlier along the coast remain extremely small until the 21st century. These numerous towns were created by the Europeans for the purpose of administration and trade, playing a critical role in the process of colonial political domination and the extraction of profit by the colonial business enterprises (O’ Connor, 1983).

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1.4- Post-Colonial- Independent Cities

The post-colonial period between the 60s-70s was defined by several growing activisms triggering to the revival of African culture through several influences, mainly related to the political independence of countries like Nigeria, Angola, Uganda, Congo and Rwanda. The 70s led to an accomplishing historical period in the liberalization and unification of African cities like Lagos, Kinshasa, Harare, Luanda, and others. The Independence from European colonies not only brought political autonomy for African people but also reintroduced the cultural identity oppressed by colonization for many years. In 1957, Ghana was the first African country to gain independence from the British Empire. It became the first manifesto of a true African identity revival that aimed to be vigorously reflected in its architecture. Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana, became a pioneer for supporting new urban movements willing to redefine the cultural and architectural identity in the capital city of Accra." To some Nkrumah was an authoritarian ruler responsible for poor judgment and misguided economic policies, despite that, Nkrumah was a pan- Africanist, a great African visionary leader who believed and personified the image that what Africa could be in the future� (Adjaye, D. 2010).

The implementation of the ideology of Pan-Africanism followed by the revival of a variety of new movements, begun in the mid-19th century led by Africans from the Western Hemisphere. It first started as a claim from the black African community of equal rights and inclusiveness in a society mostly dominated by white Americans, in a belief that Africans in the New world should return to Africa and convert and civilize the inhabitants there. Despite that, the pan-Africanism movement was mainly focused on a society formed by black descendants resulted from slavery, which desired some social acceptance and stability. On the other hand, some of the activists perceived Africa as a place in need of salvation, because of the oppression caused by colonial exploitation. They also believed that European colonial rule in Africa could be extinguished if Africans united politically, culturally and economically (Kuryla, 2016).

Afrocentric movements with its roots in the 1960S gained popularity in the United States during the 1980s. The movement emphasizes African modes of re-thinking their culture as a correction to the long tradition of European cultural and intellectual domination (Kurla, 2016). Majority of the urban settlements of African cities have been modified by European influence during colonization, although many current attempts for their revival, the mutated cities and towns will never return to their initial conceptualization.

In order to introduce a more responsive and inclusive contemporary architecture similar to the ones in ancient cities, it is necessary to compile all the knowledge and techniques inherited from both Pre-colonial and Colonial time and produce an architectural language that is responsive to the climate condition of the city. Furthermore, an architectural discourse that reflects the costumes, music, literature, language and lifestyle of African people it is also eminent in the foundation of a sustainable design. There is not specific way to look at architectural identities in regards to African cities; however, one of the ways to create it is by exploring the various changes that architecture in the cities have suffered throughout time.

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Fig.3- African civilizations map imperial by Israel, J.(Wikimedia, 2011: online)

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02-LUANDA THE PROTOTYPE CITY

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2.1- Introduction- The urban morphology and the architectural language of the city.

It is essential to reflect on the experience of the architectural identity of African cities today by identifying a specific case study. Luanda, a city located on the Southwest coast of Africa, in the country of Angola was the first European city created in this location. Founded by the Portuguese in 1575, Luanda a colonial city was created to facilitate slavery and ivory trade from the internal regions of the Mbanza Kongo Kingdom to the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Brasil. It was initially conceived on the top of a hill and with the growing Portuguese settlers, the city was expanding towards the coast. During the 18th century, in Luanda, an African urban culture begun to emerge in the appropriation of spaces, however, this process was interrupted by the rise of Portuguese immigration in the 20th century. This massive European migration broke with the phenomena of the occupation of the city by the natives.

The country gained independence in 1975 followed by a civil war that ended in 2002 then became one of the fastest growing economies in Africa. (Martins,2000).

The architectural and urbanistic production in the city of Luanda can be divided into three periods: the first between 1920 and 1950, with notable projects of both urban planning and architecture with the construction of landmark buildings that would define the city's urban structure. The second period is comprised between 1960 and 1975, with the consolidation of the modern city. The third period between 2006 and 2014 portrays the economic boom that led to major’s architecture and urban transformation through the establishment of international Architecture by developing public infrastructures, such as transport links and housing projects (The Sanzala, 2018).

However, Martins (2000) states that the city of Luanda suffered a complex process in a variety of cultures and influences. Luanda has to be understood through the existence of streets, squares and monuments inserted in a long historical course. The key to progression relies on the comprehension of the historical time-line of the city of Luanda, which, consequently traces its dynamics and integrates with the cultural architectural discourse.

Eighteenth- Nineteenth century This period was marked by a strong political influence of the Portuguese empire, as an example of the relationship between the architectural and political assertion in the city, The Palace of Dona Ana Joaquina located in the downtown bay of Luanda was the most extensive domestic building of its time. The building was owned by a noblewoman who owned her wealth through slavery trade. In addition, this lady had an important role in the Angolan economy, she exchanged commodities with Brazil as well as installing on the banks of the River Bengo the first sugar plantation industry of Angola. The original building was integrated into the Portuguese civil architecture, developed in Angola only from the 18th century. The Portuguese palatial typology was adapted to the climate of Luanda, with the reversal of the façades different from the ones in Portugal (Martins, Grilo and Machado, 2010).

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1

The U-shaped two-story palace combined commercial and residential functions. In the interior, a great patio was developed that linked to interior balconies supported by pillars. The lower floor was composed of large rooms with many doors through which the goods came in and out. The second floor was the main floor where large halls on the core of the building linked to halls on each side for guests and special occasions. In order to respond to a climate demand, the building had a false ceiling of wood constructed intentionally for thermal insulation; high windows allowed satisfactory cross-ventilation and balconies facing the patio contributed to cooling down the rooms (Martins, Grilo and Machado, 2010).

At this stage,a tropical Architecture was emerging in Luanda as an evolution of the architecture of the Portuguese Empire. It was no longer a replica of the buildings constructed in the Portuguese Empire back in Europe, but it was a more flexible change, responsive to the climate of Luanda.

Twentieth Century: The modernist architecture Movement vs Musseques The twentieth century marked a period of The Modern Architecture movement that was reflected in the majority of residential buildings spread throughout the city. The 50s and the 60s characterized a social establishment and political detachment from the motherland Portugal forming the New State. Angola was a country independent from the Portuguese empire, as a consequence of the political reformulation, a new way of architecture inspired by the Le Corbusier movements pioneered in Europe, begun to shape the city ( Schulte and Mingas, 2011).

One of the most influential architects of the time was Vasco Vieira da Costa born in 1911 in Aveiro, Portugal. Between 1940-1946, the Portuguese architect worked with Le Corbusier in the Urban Institute of Paris where he developed the masterplan for the first satellite city in Luanda influenced by the Modernist Movement. The project had to cover five criteria established in 1933 by The International Congresses of Modern Architecture as “The Athens Charter�: residence, leisure, workspace, circulation and culture identity. Vasco Vieira da Gama and others pioneers of the Modern Movement in Angola, found in Luanda a more appropriate environment to introduce a peculiar architectural language different from the one delegated by the New State and the fascist regime (The Sanzala, 2018).

The iconic building of the Kinaxixi’s Market designed by Vasco Vieira in 1950 became the most remarkable building of the Modernist movement in Luanda. The market formed the central element of the new emerging urban morphology and linked from both extremities to the main avenues composed of mix-use buildings aligned in sequence of gallerias and pilotis on the ground floor. The pure geometry of straight lines, the openness through a sequence of voids distributed in two elements along with a sequence of brise-soleil for sunlight control were applied strategically for efficient air flow and light penetration. As a result to that, the building responded successfully to its functionality and the environment (Martins, Grilo, and Machado, 2010).

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The urbanization was an active principle of the governmental policy of the New state, this policy was the one that legitimized a process of architectonic and urbanistic production characteristic of the historical period of the end of Portuguese empire.

The period followed two directions: one towards a nationalist concern that followed principles of constructive actions based on colonial architecture characterized by galleries, covered balconies, blinds and other features of tropical architecture.

The second approach, influenced by internationalization and functional rationalization, tried to innovate the architecture of colonial principles creating an aesthetic of a tropical language influenced by the Le Corbusier architecture, which introduced a revolutionary architecture (Schulte and Mingas, 2011).

The aesthetics of The Modernist architecture in Luanda introduced an innovative solution that combined new constructive systems to the ideals of a new emerging society whose identity, although quite different from the original culture, affirmed itself distancing from the original colonialist architecture, becoming a social manifesto and breaking with the old regime’s tradition ( Schulte and Mingas, 2011). Although the colonial architecture not considered to be representative the original people's architecture, it did a great job at solving issues related to the sustainability and climate impact of the buildings in the entire city. The colonial architecture was thought based on western traces and identity that tried to convert into a more adaptable and flexible architecture for the local condition. The Portuguese adapted their building to the humidity and high temperature, using deep porches and verandas that created shades while being open to allow ventilation flow (Adjaye, D. 2011).

The appropriation of the colonial architecture since national independence in 1975, has raised discussions and conflicts for being associated with times of social oppression among the natives. On the other hand, some argue that the colonial architecture must be preserved for carrying part of the historical narrative of the city although it can stimulate certain discontent and negative memories on its people (Schulte, C. and Mingas, A. 2011). The independence period initiated with the appropriation of the colonial architecture which was strongly linked to a colonial political matrix that used modernist architecture as propaganda. Since then, for more than twenty years the independent political regime has been dictating the rules in all the architectural activities of the city. Architecture is a political

Fig.4- Kinaxixi Market and Dona Ana Joaquina's Palace by Martins, I. (2009:book)

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manifestation where the architectural changes go according to the political changes. However, Architects in the 21st century are vigorously attempting to avoid this political position rejecting the idea of being used only for political propaganda. On the contrary, architects are attempting to exercise their practices more towards a social manifestation �(Pereira, interviewee, 2019).

Luanda suffered a rapid mutation from colonial architecture mostly decaying and in extremely poor conditions due to the lack of maintenance to a high-rise of steel and glass buildings, which attain to reflect prosperity and wealth. However, during this golden time more emphasizes was made towards the image of the city rather than the real needs which relied on the social struggles (Oliveira, 2015). However, Kaminer (2016) in his book The Efficacy of Architecture argues that the lack of clarity regarding architecture’s relation to society is complicated by the question of the structure and constitution of society. A city is composed of a society formed from structural bases led by the forces and means of production.

During the interview with the Architect Pereira (2019), he mentioned that currently, there are two cities in Luanda with quite distinct urban perspectives that can be identified through the social, cultural and geographical condition. The first is a city that has already been structured from the colonial time known as the historical centre. The second is formed by informal sprawl where majority of the population lives, the *musseques in which Martins (2000) states that they generated soon after the creation of the historical city as agglomeration of dwellings for the natives with transient character that still predominant in the urbanscape of Luanda. The musseques in late-colonial Luanda became a space of encounter, new identities and new forms of urbanity. In addition, the self- built architecture of slums can be considered as small innovation that start emerging in times of necessity (Bosslet,2017).

* musseques: From the Kimbundu, Bantu language: Shantytown or slum (WordReference, 2011).

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Fig.5- Luanda's musseques, image by Author

Timeline Map- Masterplan development, City expansion and influences.

1890

1950

1980

Masterplan proposal post-independence.

2019

Current map of Luanda with districts division

Masterplan of the Portuguese Empire

Masterplan of the Modern MovementPortuguese New State

2030

1953

Masterplan Proposal for Luanda.

1977

“ Broadway Malyan, on behalf of the Luanda City authorities and the Angolan Government, led an international team responsible for developing a strategy to accommodate the projected population growth with improved infrastructure, transport and housing provision for the capital city of Angola� (BroadwayMalyan, 2019).

Independence (1975)

Fig.6- Map timeline of Luanda by Author

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2.3- Twenty First Century- A Global influence over the Architectural and Cultural identity of the city.

Fig.7- Luanda's Bay, image by Author

This chapter will start by defining the concept of internationalization, which explains that it is usually employed to convey a positive connotation of its meaning. Internationalization can be an exchange of goods, productive foreign investments, capital movements, technological transfers, cultural relations and human migration (Amoroso, 1998). During the period of the economic boom between 2002-2014, the city witnessed the most significant infrastructure growth of the past 40 years. The investment in the urban and architecture of the city was a response to the development of the socio-economic status of the country, resulting into a massive reconstruction assigned to well-known worldwide companies such as the Chinese CITIC (China International Trust Investment Corporation), the British MACE group, BroadwayMalyan, SOMAGUE and others instead of local companies. Before this international intervention and growth, there was a lack of investment and most of the infrastructure facilities were relying on the ones left by the Portuguese colony (Oliveira, 2015).

Furthermore, Turok (2016) observed that a sizeable urban reconstruction executed by Western and Asian companies resulted in a more modern centre and introduction of a new concept of urbanization based on satellite cities aiming to reduce the population density. This transformation also has been reflected in the architecture and construction quality of the city that has been heavily modified by different social and cultural influences. African rulers have accomplished the urban and architecture transformation that Luanda and any other African cities are facing through the process of decentralization by re-allocating people from the city centre to the peripheries and maintain the centre occupation for only political, administrative and commercial purpose.

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Fig.8- Luanda, image by by Da Silva, A.(2018: online)

However, Bednarski (2015) argues that the opportunity that the capital of Luanda has to grow and improve its urban and social aspect has been missed, poorly distributed and rationally planned by governance. Thus, many cities or towns created through this process are far from being resilient or smart.

In African cities, the economy and social systems are considerably dominant in the centre, that has always been linked to the rural areas. Although most of the social, political and economic activities mostly happened in the centres, it has not implied a rupture concerning the surrounding rural areas lifestyle. The rupture between the city and its surrounding rurality occurs typically in the presence of a new artificial city being imposed in a context mostly familiar to a rural cultural and economic form of living. In the African megacities, the urban and architecture culture have adopted ways of thinking and acting more internationalized, which have been slowly changing the cultural principles inherited from the rural areas (Cain and Midi, 2017).

The city of Luanda is not cohesive, it is more like cities between cities that present various contrasts and different social and cultural experiences. The city as it developed around the initial nucleus, different articulated elements of varying size, which were the neighborhoods or groups of neighborhoods. In the past few years, the occupational density in the city of Luanda has been gradually decentralized and moved towards the peripheries. The result of this urban action has contributed to the implementation of more functional and less crowded centres (Pereira, interviewee, 2019). In support of that, Oliveira (2015) argues that the physical transformation of Luanda has been shaped to adapt to the lifestyle of the elite and middle class with the construction of skyscrapers born from the replacement of the buildings on the bay of the old city.

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The bay of the capital occupies a surface of 7000 m2 and 3km of extension, it is the place of astonishing glass and steel buildings with a long strip of greenspace designed and maintained by the Irish company SIS Pitches. For the landscape of the project, more than three thousand palm trees were imported from Miami, taking into account that could be easily and affordable cultivated locally.

In the meantime, slums expand rapidly in and out of the centre, which can be perceived as a consequence of modernity in contrast to the social exclusion of the urban form and a city shaped by its urban costs (Oliveira, 2015).

As Lall et al (2017) argue, costs determine the urban function contributing to the productivity, labour demand, wages and rents. People come together to create a dwelling to suppress their struggles on the living condition that unfortunately will not be solved instantly by local and national authorities. Thus, majority of the urban pattern of the city has been transformed throughout time by a massive expansion of informality not only related to housing, but also illegal migration, violence, social inequalities and others many issues. Since then, it has been challenging for the government institutions and municipalities to implement strategies that will solve the 21st-century urban tragedy in the city while continuing to deliver the main state priority of diversifying the economy (Camara, 2019).

The land values and housing tend to be higher comparing to the minimum wage per person, which automatically drives citizens into the desperation of self-dwelling. 36,6% of the population lives under poverty and the unemployment rate rises to 22%. However, the number of wealthy people, within the minority rises to 82% a total of 6100 in which 320 are multimillionaires, net worth equivalents to 10 million American dollars and 4900 situated in Luanda, increasing the social inequality fairly noticeable.

According to the 2011 Census the city houses 2.8 million occupying 80% of the area with informal dwellings- slums. The unity base of urban life is predominant in the musseques , where the public life coexists, yet those are the space where the public life evolves, the place of representation of life for most of the inhabitants of the capital (Camara, 2019).

Unable to acquire affordable land and find formal employment the poor have created parallel land markets and built urban livelihoods strategies through street trading and the provision of essential services that the State fails to deliver (Cain and Midi, 2017).This definition of settlements based on self-construction has been expanding in the city since the colonial period, which introduced a new urban and architecture pattern surrounding the city. Slums have been neglected and marginalized throughout the years for not following an adequate urban arrangement as well as lacking on several infrastructures that define habitable spaces. However, slums are strong statements of architectural protest and liberation, which emphasize the absence of social equity in the city of Luanda and many Sub-Saharan African Cities ( Davis, 2007).

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The architecture of slums is presented by houses built on metal scrap, mud bricks, straws and any other accessible material that creates an identity depreciated by policymakers because of its level of accuracy in the architectural aesthetics. Nonetheless, this form of construction reveals a manifesto and reflection on how the majority of the population perceive architecture through the construction of their dwellings, yet, there is something peculiar in the way these living spaces form places of cultural consumption and production (Davis, 2007).

It is safe to say that the principal enemy of development is high levels of corruption, bad management and the climate of impunity resulting in vast social poverty. This poverty is not associated with a shortage of resources, but instead, to a lousy wealth distribution as well as the absence of a system of social provision instead of an unequal and individualistic profit-seeking. The poverty and lack of architectural identity in countries like Angola also relies on the capitalist influence that has no interest in building a city for people, but only interested in building a city for short-term profit. They do not know how to provide decent housing and decent environment for the mass population (Harvey,2012).

Before the economic crisis of the oil price downfall and some others unexplained capital breakdowns, many attempts have been made by authorities to meet with the proposed plan of delivering housing, transport and infrastructure network accessible to all. The government spent 120 thousand million dollars in national reconstruction with visible results, but not, with the desired quality and often with unfinished processes and budgetary slippages ( Thorne and Duran, 2016).

In 2012, Kilamba, Sequele, and other three satellites towns near Luanda were constructed by Chinese state-owned companies and their Chinese subcontractors. These satellite towns and other infrastructure projects were financed by Chinese oil-backed loans, either under China and Angola bilateral agreements or through private contracts. As a result, 20,000 apartments were completed in the first phase at the cost of 3.3 million dollars. The project was divided into 28 urban blocks of about 16 hectares each set within a rectilinear grid. Despite that, these satellite towns almost neglect the architecture, historical and cultural identity of the city. On the other hand, these investments, defined by the public as a debt trap certainly have improved the dynamic of the city by introducing new transport networks, public infrastructure resulting into a small economic growth (Bednarski, 2015). “But China is not just providing the workforce to fuel quickly urbanizing African cities, it is exporting its version of urbanization, creating cities and economic zones that look remarkably similar to Chinese ones� (Roggeveen, 2016). Urbanization inspired by an urbanistic project built in China is suitable for Chinese taste with wooden floors misadjusted to the local climate and small kitchens apartments but in dissonance with the social-minded Angolans and their habits of community living. Several Angolans experts in urbanism and architecture openly criticized the costs and expensive maintenance of the project, considering it inappropriate for the Angolan culture and lifestyle. On the contrary, they defended construction of urbanizations that were much cheaper, accessible and in harmony with the Angolan habits (Oliveira, 2015).

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Fig.9- Zoning map of Luanda by Author.

19- 21st Century 19th Century 17th-21st Century

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In the interview “ Photos: African cities are starting to look eerily like Chinese ones “ with Quartz Africa, Roggeveen (2016) declares that Africa is urbanizing at the same pace as China did in the past 30 years, but in a less coordinated and aligned process. As an example he gives the city of Nairobi in Kenya, with its constructions sites and road work could easily resemble an outskirt of a Chinese city.

He also affirms that Chinese investment has increased the competition between African companies, Chinese investors and Western, which comes into the realization that the world is globalizing much faster than many people think, with Western influence drastically changing and international relationships radically shifting (Roggeveen, 2016). “ It is important to manage any major project carefully, but more so when dealing with a Chinese firm as things that may be taken for granted in other parts of the world can be negotiable when dealing with a Chinese firm. You have to be careful to specify the quality that you want and the standards that you would like the project to be built to. You also need to be very specific about the environmental and social standards you want the project to adhere to” (Andrew, 2018).

Conclusion Marcuse (2009) explains that the problem is not in unregulated credit default swaps or out of control hedge funds; the problem is in exploitation, domination, repression system-wide. Because of poor regulation and other important factors like the lack of adequate infrastructure and specialized labour, Chinese expertise continues to be indispensable. In order to pacify this current situation, African cities like Luanda must improve policies to deal with the lack of architectural and urban identity together with the investment on the skills of their inhabitants by giving more voice and make them work together with both local and foreigner practices. The city dwellers become the influencers and build something of their own, rooted in their cultural identity.

This chapter has demonstrated that the role of local architects must be emphasized as the mediators of knowledge from their practice to policymakers and communities (Thorne and Duran, 2016). Others can not think African cities, but they must be thought by their people and the way they interact with space. As Lepic et al (2008) affirm, most people who build Africa today if they want to build a building, do not use trained architects or specialised investors, they are interested in a basic structure with three rooms, a space with a shop attached that they can rent out for income. “ This requires us to look at the city, its neighbourhoods and its dwellings, as not simply artifacts and/or the format of human activity, but as the vehicle and expression of our human life which, being human, is also communal, in the Greek sense political ” (Kaminer,2016:5).

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Fig.10- An aerial shot of Kilamba City by Quartz (2011:online)

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03-The Divergence between local and International practices in the making of the city The theoretical framework of international influence can be considered as an exchange between two or more countries that strengthen and complement areas or resulting into the success of all participants in the process of exchange (Amoroso, 1996). No contemporary African civilization has grown without an international input that provided expertise in different levels of the region in exchange of capital or any resources. However, these exchange within a common interest arises an uncontrollable amount of social disparity. It seems like the urban planning of the city of Luanda only favours its burgeoning market of middle-class consumers leaving aside the ones in need. The urban development certainly has allowed better communication and services within the country, but poverty still arises (Pereira, interviewee, 2019).

According to Bednarski (2015), people try their best to build dwellings by squeezing in the most uninhabitable area of the city. It is hard to believe that development may bring more poverty. However, citizens and the authorities genuinely believe on the social equality of the city through the architectural improvement, which it is possible but in need of rigorous regulations that will primarily favour and protect the inhabitants of Luanda.

In support of the previous affirmation, Harvey (2012) argues that the organization of the whole city relies on the organizational form that responds to the crucial needs and finds an alternative to the capitalist and international forms of urbanizations, the main task is to build a social city on the ruins of capitalist urbanization that has been highly distracting. However, the process of rapid urbanization does not necessarily mean rapid development, which is most of the time understood as a manifestation of growth from the authorities.

The 21st century for African cities has been a time of infrastructure production aiming to achieve the desirable city that presents all the urban qualities as well as an architectural language that speaks for development. However, this desirable city has generated a vast accumulation of debt outweighed by the benefits of new infrastructure. China, one of the most rapidly growing nation in the planet invested billions of dollars in the infrastructure production for African cities a mean of the capitalist system of exchange and production. Although the investment has been considered dubious and untrustworthy due to the agreement of no interest loan and no deadline for repayment, The Chinese aid plays an essential role in the infrastructure production of African cities. Luanda would never be able to achieve such a rapid infrastructure growth in such a short period. Unfortunately, the city has been through fluctuating economy resulting on a massive crisis from the beginning of 2015 that has brought the need for Western and Chinese contribution in other to continue the urban plan for the city announced before the crisis (Nowthis World, 2015).

On the other hand, this economic crisis caused a significant amount of oppression and dissatisfaction within the inhabitants of the city. It seems like the urban and architecture improvement in the city of Luanda only favours some and leaving others apart. The urban development certainly has allowed better.

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communication and services within the country. However, more poverty is arising; people desperately occupy the most unliveable spaces in the city, spaces with no habitable human conditions (Bednarski, 2015).

Pereira (2019) affirms that the enemies of the architecture and urban catastrophe of African cities are not the Chinese investors with their generous contribution, however it relies on political decisions.

When a higher income country like China invests in a lower income economy it will generate growth for both economies. However, this does not happen simply because African counties/cities have poor regulations in addition to endless corruption.

There are two viewpoints here: one in which we argue about the influence of China in Angola or Africa as economies; and another one that argues about the Chinese impact on the ideologies that shape African regions with its own identities; there are many ways in which it might be challenging to discuss both under the same grounds. However, answering on the Chinese investment in Africa as a boom/ trap, it depends on how African cities evaluate the situation. Chinese investment is not a trap, but rather an extension to the trap, because Africa has been trapped in development for way longer than the Chinese arrival. Investments in infrastructure are significant, they help to move the economy of the cities and create a more assertive fluid dynamic. There is a necessity to create more focus and investment in other areas of the economy.

Nonetheless, in the past ten years, China has been taking the lead in infrastructure production, not the Western. The Chinese ethic of construction it is faster at delivering comparing to other competitors in Luanda such as Portuguese, Spanish, Brazilians, and local construction companies. Private Chinese industries are taking over the cities, and also transforming into the resource of material and Labour for China (Oliveira, 2015).

Fig.11- Contrast of old and new Architecture in Luanda by Author.

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“A city that is a candidate for posting these signs has already entered a low development trap. Potential investors and trading partners quickly see the evidence of the physical and economic dysfunction that constrains public service provision, inhibits labour market pooling and matching, and prevents firms from reaping scale and agglomeration benefits. They stay away, fearing lack of return on their investment. This dynamic will keep Africa’s urban economies undercapitalized, making their development even more challenging than it otherwise would be” (Lall, Henderson, Venables, 2017:102).”

One might question, the real role of planners, architects and whoever claims to the Right of the City in African cities, in the city can not only be envisioned by an entity or groups of authorities in the decision-making of the city, but it must be a connective element of collective rational thoughts. These group of urban collectives is formed by Architecture practices that defend an African architectural identity and resistance to the imposition of urban pattern set by Chinese and Western architecture and urban production, which diverge from the architectural culture and pattern of the city as well as the needs of the inhabitants. " The urban design should be produced on the general concept and then go smaller and smaller, in the end, there is the local community scale where one can start dealing with people, their needs that vary according to location. A masterplan is based on infrastructure, transport, landscape, movement and so on. People cannot contribute at this level because those require specific knowledge. When it comes to a lower scale on how they have to live, people should be hundred percent involved in the process. That is not to say that the masterplan should not be done with the teacher, the prostitute, the politician, etc. However, people must give a valuable contribution with some level of knowledge and rationalization” (Bednarski, interviewee,2019).

Furthermore, it is crucial of local labour be part of the practical action of building the city, in order to achieve a healthy collaboration through the process of sharing expertise, by highlight the value of re-appropriating technical knowledge and articulating alternative platforms for the governing of urban space. Nevertheless, the aim of this investment must focus on the improvement not only the infrastructure sector but also the people itself. The quality of the city not only relies on its aesthetic and technology advancement but most of all on its people, on their quality of life (Bednarski, interviewee, 2019).

In addition , Vemba (2019) affirms that African cities have the potential to become the most sustainable cities in the world, however, the lack of different groups of social commitment or perhaps distanced on the shared ideas for an ideal city, generates a visible disparity in the development of the city compared to other realities. Nowadays, we not only face the problem of lack of urbanization, but population growth has also become one of the biggest 21st-century concerns of the African City.

Likewise, Luanda, Lagos is an overpopulated city being one of the most populated city in the continent with a population of 21 million and an economy mostly dependent on oil revenues. However, as any potential economic city in Africa, Lagos has been influenced by many western architectural projects that perhaps appear to be slightly utopian for not adapting to the climate and population density of the city. Lagos is a horizontal city, so one experience the city physically, bodily, in both the density and activity of people (Wolrdatlas,2019).

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Lotic et al. (2008) disagree with the Utopian masterplan projected by the ‘’ prestigious architect�, Rem Koolhaas for the fact of portraying Lagos as a vertical city rather than horizontal. A question has raised over the studies of African cities on how to plan cities generated by a chaotic architecture and urban system and use these elements to create a unique urban typology that will finally reflect the real African city. The modern African city has not only been shaped by planners, architects, and authorities themselves, but it is mostly and strongly shaped by the people. Inhabitants in African city sculpt their living environment as a form of surviving. African cities need to be redefined and understood by the way people move and interact with the city, by the language, music, and rhythm. For this reason, the architecture and urban forms of African cities are unique and cannot be compared to The Western world.

African cities must create their terms and ways of development based on the cultural, historical aspects of the place and people who reside in it, methods of growth with no replication of 1st world development. It can be argued that not every external influence has to be accepted without first adapting them to the current situation of a place. A mixture of styles and techniques is influencing Luanda current architectural pattern. Hence, one can perceive a feeling of confusion and lack of identity on the architectural aesthetic of the city. However, this can be solved if the architects and planners take action in order to fulfill their roles and responsibilities, as opposed to working from commission to commission. At some point, architects have to do something that will solve the current issues and goes beyond the role of a conventional practice (Kloppenburg,2017).

The discussion in this chapter, it is not disapproving international influence in the process of shaping the city. However, it seeks to accomplish a more cohesive collaboration that will first consider the impact of the projects in the local dwellers' everyday life. Whether it will benefit them or not, whether it will influence the culture dynamic and whether this investment will be socially and economically inclusive, in case this investment will not meet with the cultural, social and economic expectations, what will be the solution given by of local practices to tackle this upcoming issue?

This question will be answered in the next chapter where several architects with African heritage and Afro-centric ideologies tackle the invasive capitalism and internationalization in African cities for the benefit of the less favoured by valuing the quality of an African lifestyle based on the principles of community collaboration. This discussion will also be explored by tracing the practice of urban - and grassroots who claim the right to the city as the Architectural Identity for community regeneration. As well as exploring the attempts of community engagement and social equality through the architecture practice of Latin American cities

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04-The architectural revival for autonomous cities through the community empowerment This chapter will explore ideas around collective responsibilities whose practices aim to support community engagement and employ alternative strategies that will gradually extinguish the existence of social, economic and cultural difference in the cities. Architecture practices who operate as grassroots will be invoked as representative of “The Right to the City” in the African context which will demonstrate activities of collective responsibilities and self-governance as a form of liberation from capitalist governance.

Architecture practices will emphasize through their intervention in deprived communities the importance of collective participation in the process of thinking space. This will also be observed in urban social movements in Latin American cities who face similar struggles to African Sub-Saharan-Cities such as the scarcity of housing, public spaces and approach to informal settlements. This will provide bases for African practices who are willing to improve the quality of urban and architecture in the communities to produce South-South cooperation as an exchange of knowledge and resources.

During the interview, Pereira (2019) emphasized the necessity of architects to be relevant in the local context of their practice. However, he also argued that some barriers like globalization and internationalization which results in the replication of a Western lifestyle are the biggest challenges that local practices confront. Thus, the solution for architects is to act more towards the local context and from there develop cooperation with realities similar to their own like the ones in South American. A relationship South-South will enable to understand how practices act, create dialogue and overcome the urban problematics by responding to their local context and users.

People appear to be central in the agenda of many contemporary architects in Latin America, Luanda and most of the African cities must appraise the model given by Latin American practices. Latin American cities, after the difficult decades of the 1970s and ’80, when the region struggled with weak democracies and the after-effects of dictatorships, financial uncertainty, drug trafficking and civil wars.

After overcoming many social struggles, the 21st century has brought greater security and significant investments of both foreign capital and domestic resources. As a consequence of that, the need to reconstruct national images, to rebuild cultural identities to reflect the greater freedom and affluence, has prompted new interest in architecture and urban design and the reinvigoration of civic spaces (Bianco, 2012).

Change occurs within the process of small scale interventions, followed by an architecture of autonomy, an architecture shaped by people and urban collective practices that aim to resist the commodification of urban spaces practices which aim to solve the issue of urban and architecture production in their living space. The architecture will no longer become a projection of the capital system that only benefits a minority but will create a statement of equality and inclusiveness within cities and dwellers.

In Brazil, a City Statute was implemented in 2001 into the Brazilian Constitution to recognize the collective right to the city. The urban social movements claiming for a ‘right to the city’ agenda see some of its elements as already implemented, as with the participatory municipal budget (Mayer, 2009).

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In order to re-organise a city, it is necessary to form a link between urban activist groups who hold an impartial vision and an ideology more focus towards the needs of the less favourable, and governance.

Groups that envision the city through a critical and rational way diverging from political criteria. The social problematics in African cities must be prioritized before starting to emphasize the aesthetic of the city. The architecture pattern of the cities is a response to the conditions that people find themselves.

According to Bednarski (2019), most architects are completely incompetent, for the fact that through the process of education, professionals are presented to society as full experts in their field. Architects do not show proper attention to the context details, and they are easily influenced by images, which raises the question if architects are the right people to educate politicians. In some conditions most architecture practices both local and international accept projects only for the budget, although being aware of the negative effect it will have on the social and cultural context.

Masterplan Architecture practice de-commodifies the living spaces imposed by authorities through the Chinese housing schemes by giving people the right to self-conduct their ideal construction based on their financial status with professional support. Housing costs in the capital exceed the price that a working-class family can afford. For this reason, Masterplan provides services of consultancy to new housing owners through meetings and advice on how to self-construct efficiently, affordably and following building regulations (Vemba, interviewee, 2019). In other words, "the right to information, the rights to use of multiple services, the right of users to make known their ideas in the space and time of their activities in urban areas; it would also cover the right to the use of the centre" (Lefebvre, 1991:34).

Nevertheless, the majority of the population of Luanda cannot afford the condominiums and housing estates built by private and public investment, which has led citizen to consider self- construction as their primary option. The activity of self- construction is one of the most concerning urban phenomena of the city, the uncontrollable growth requires space for citizens to live, which has resulted on the occupation of land in the outskirts of the city. Houses are built in a risk zone where there is the lack of sanitation, infrastructure and security. Creating a strategy of development and embracing architecture activism as a collaborative to local politics may originate spatial transformation. “ The state needs supporting groups that will think for improvement of the city and its social needs, which cannot be satisfied by that vague commercial and cultural infrastructure considered by planners “(Lefebvre, 1991:147).

New social movements encompass great diversity of causes and concerns and endured an important place for themselves on the political scene; and to believe that new social movements are themselves of greater importance and can make a real contribution to the achievement of fundamental change.

New social movements are essential because of the issues and make a visible impact on their society (Milliband, R. 1991:96).

The work of Nfulu Amuana emphasizes opportunities and abilities generated through innovative forms of collaboration among the community of the district of Sambizanga. During the interview with the architect Vemba (2019), founder of the NGO, he explained the process of community banking that collects a small amount of money from each member intending to enroll every child in the educational system. This process is in place as a response to the lack of commitment that the government has shown towards the community as well as the failing educational system that forces deprived families to pay an amount higher than the minimum wage. Besides that, Nfulu Amuana has transformed an old colonial factory to serve as a community centre to improve the skills of people through the provision of different activities such as textile, craftworks, cinematography, digital technology and others. These activities will improve the community with basic knowledge in areas that will benefit them in the future as well as creating a better opportunity for self- sustainable individuals.

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Digital Skills

Library

NFULU AMUANA CENTRE Art and Craft

Carpentry Economy & Finance

Tailoring Construction skills Community of Sambizanga Horticulture

First aid

Fig.12- Nfulu Amuana, Community Centre Program by Author

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Sports

This production of alternative ways of being in the city through community empowerment is supported

by Lindell (2010) who writes that such fluid networks can be envisioned as a platform for people to collaborate and appraise local informal economic practices as deviations from Western normative ideal, besides providing the basis for social economies. By this means, a different kind of urbanism and architecture can be envisioned.

Thus, it can be argued that urban social movements in African cities are emerging in favour of the deprived ones as well as some form of supporting authorities by taking the weight off their shoulder to deal with these problematic. Architecture Practices, likewise, Masterplan in collaboration with the NGO Nfulu Amuana established in Luanda, have been attempting to implement the “Right to The City “on their daily praxis by the decommodification of Living spaces set by local and national authorities. As Harvey (2012) argues that, the Right to the City has to be attributed to the power and significance of urban social movements, particularly whose struggle over to shape and improve the quality of daily urban life. “ It does no matter that the city has or has not disappeared, that it must be thought a new, reconstructed on new foundations. What is important? Who thinks? Who acts? Who still speaks and for whom? If meaning and finality disappear, we cannot even declare in a praxis, nothing matters “(Lefebvre,1991:150).

ENTRANCE

Male toilet 3.33 m²

Reception 21.10 m²

female toilet 3.40 m² storage 3.98 m²

Storage 1.54 m² Administration room 15.12 m²

Guest toilet 4.50 m²

Guest room 11.88 m²

Corredor 6.60 m²

Tailoring room 23.31 m²

outdoor cinema 70.50 m² IT Room 17.82 m²

Library 13.20 m²

KITCHEN 9.66 m²

Carpentry 12.45 m²

Terrace 13.20 m²

Fig.13- Nfulu Amuana, Community Centre Plan Layout by Vemba, C.(2019)

Fig.14- Nfulu Amuana, Community wall by Author

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There is a convergence of all groups, coalitions, alliances, movements, assemblies around a common set of objectives, which see capitalism as the common enemy and the right to the city as their common cause. Groups that would include concepts such as justice, equity, democracy, the full development of human potentials or capabilities according to their needs and to their abilities (Marcuse, 2009).

In Latin America, Elemental a practice based in Santiago the Chile led by the Architect Alejandro Aravena since 2005 has been building thousands of houses and developed a pioneering approach to low-income housing that is now being employed in Latin American and around the world. The practice designed the buildings with an average budget of ten thousand American dollars, a generous mortgage to allow low-income families to repay. This approach to social housing introduces a political shift in the design of buildings, in which users are the producers of their own habitable space (Hernadez,2006).

Similar to the practice in Latin America, Bednarski (2019) in his interview mentioned about the work that he developed in 2006 composed of a master planning and building design project, initially formed by 500 low-cost houses with courtyards and shared walls was planned in collaboration with Kariobangi Community in Nairobi. The project aimed to improve the living condition and create a character of identity through the introduction of a new wave of urbanization seeking for spatial justice. Each house featured a street-side “Dollar room” created to generate of income through rent or business, enabling the owners of the houses who held titles to the land to obtain mortgages. The project won The Design for an emerging world- Future communities Project Award at Cityscape 2006 in Dubai.

The international Jury said that although the project seemed to be simple, it created a new environment for an impoverished community based on sophisticated analyses. It was shortlisted in the RIBA sustainable community, in addition, Studio Bednarski was invited in 2013 to present at UN- Habitat Nairobi (Studio-Bednarski,2018).

Luanda has lost a modest part of its identity because of the social, historical and political changes from colonial times, civil wars and the economic boom of the beginning of the 21st century. “Imagine a city which could step outside of what others were doing, could walk the path of its own making; were meetings to reap such a change, need not take place. Rather a spontaneous change comes from its citizenry itself” (Breed, 2015). The following statement highlights the importance of stimulating a city that fractures the old habits seeking of new customs built on new foundations. “The time to point over it has come. Shiny new buildings are simply masking the rot. The needs of people who live in the city have to be taken into account and the only way to know about them is by communicating with them. A city that will serve people’s need but not a need that has to design the city with its people, creating UFO city and allocation people in it” (Bednarski, interviewee, 2019).

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Fig.15- Kariobangi Community, Nairobi by Studio Bednarski, 2015

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05- Conclusion It is essential for both construction and architecture practices to have a critical reflection on the possibilities of the ideal city produced on a more traditional scheme. However, this statement does not imply that African cities can be entirely independent of international contribution. "It is not a change in the way architects appropriate Euro- Americans architectures, but in the way, these architectures are implemented to the greater benefit of particular communities” ( Hernandez, 2010:57). Nonetheless, another reason for the lack of identity in the urban and architecture design of African cities relies on the inefficiency of urban policies that will dictate an African identity in the construction of the cities. Then again, the architectural identity of Africa does not derive from the aesthetic of modern centres with communities that tap into global imaginations and draw little attention on the traditional conception of homes and community (Grant,2009). Likewise in Accra where“ the residential schemes are based on housing models developed in North America and elsewhere. For many, urbanities spaces of hope are now imagined in terms of diaspora living (Grant, 2009:64).

The architecture of survival and self-provision is the one that defines most of the African cities. Currently, it seems that architecture in African cities has taken two directions; the architecture of experimentation through a variety of styles from all over the world and the architecture of struggle of unplanned shantytowns and squats. Unfortunately, the existing governance system of most African cities fails to solve the disparity between the emerging new buildings and the large metal scratch dwellings. Both of them must be considered, however, these two types create social division and exclusiveness. A marriage between new aesthetic, social inclusiveness and cultural heritage must be preserved in order to create an architectural identity that will result in a sustainable relationship between people and their place (Salman, 2018).

In the ancient cities and towns, the architecture and urban systems were envisioned and shaped through the daily community life, a pure reflection of their culture, beliefs, and history. Architecture and urban form that might be responsive to the 21st century can be achieved by exploring of the ancient cities like Djenne, through their construction efficiency and, most important the connection between buildings and its users as well as its conservation. Through this, the architectural identity will be defined by the historical culture of each locality and the sense of community.” A new regional identity means being independent of the imported values and ideologies without losing cultural interrelation that serves the human civilization” Salman, 2018).

International practices seem to design buildings based on ideologies of aesthetics and capital which are not necessarily significant to the users ( Hernandez, 2010). The capitalist system will continuously provoke disparity that will be mainly reflected in the architectural language of the city. An instant solution to this matter could be tackled by the collaboration between policymakers and local or international architects or social movements who defend an African identity and aim to create a positive impact in the communities. Unfortunately, most of the architecture practices in African Sub-Saharan cities are still oppressed by authorities who are in charge of the entire process of shaping the city. “ So, what seems like a lack of architecture has to do with those kinds of building experience, in which the architect has not become truly integrated into the everyday practice of people who want to build buildings” (Lepic et al., 2008:62).

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The social architecture practice in the urban context of Luanda and many other Sub-Saharan cities is reflected in the propaganda of authorities by the construction of infrastructures, centralities and satellite cities. In the past few years, Luanda has faced a massive infrastructure redefinition which some believed and called it the beginning of modernity. However, the city is not only formed by the infrastructure, but it is by its users. Ancient African cities have always considered the aspect of humanity in the architecture rationalization. Cities were built to accommodate human and Astros before capital; however, nowadays seems that priorities have shifted, cities accommodate capital before humanity.

From the overall research, it can be stated that the architectural identity of African cities will only be found when African cities genuinely start to evaluate the relationship of man, space and nature existing in pre-colonial settlements in comparison to the newly emerging relationship between a neo-colonial Architecture and its users. By this mean, a society that invests on its individuals and encourages them to participate in the process of shaping the city, neighbourhoods and buildings will deliver a successful urban agenda (Hernadez,2010).

The celebration of an African Architecture revival might seem slightly xenophobic in some views.

However, this revival will not reject the international influence; on the contrary, it will encourage African cities to seek more autonomy in their urban and architecture appraisal by not duplicating aliens systems but instead, creating something authentically African. This revival means to create an urban and architecture language thought by the locals and respected by the outsider, which will generate a value of pride, spaces of inclusiveness and identification in the city instead of imposing living replications of other societies. “ Over time Human civilization has evolved and kept its continuation through the integration with the surrounding environment". The human adaptability to the ambient environment,to every place and region has developed unique characteristics that distinguished each place, that is, the core of identity ”( Salman,2018).

Contemporary African cities will not solve their urban and architectural problematics overnight, it is a long process of continuing experimentations. Architects like David Adjeyo, Francis Kere, Kunle Adeyemi and others aspiring to an African identity in the urban and architecture of African cities started to introduce a modernised architectural language inspired by the African history, culture and use of sustainable material and construction techniques. Although, being successful at delivering an architecture that unites and represents the particularity of African culture, history and sustainability, their practice still mainly implemented and recognised by western society. Few interventions with the aim to improve communities and introduce a new type of architecture of inclusiveness have been applied in the African context, but it is only the beginning of a new architecture that will emerge and become a prototype for African cities, and through architecture will be possible to solve poverty, social inequality, exclusion, and others. “There is much to learn from architecture before it became an expert’s art” (Rudofsky,1964: preface). The recognition of the cultural meaning of architecture in society day-to-day life practices will lead to the comprehension of people’s experience with ambient natural and built environments (Salman, 2018).

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APPENDIX A: Interview with the architect Cezary Bednarski

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

Date: 09/02/2019 Location: London Interviewee: Cezary Bednarski

Title: REINVENTING THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES: CASE STUDY OF LUANDA

Questionnaire

1. From your experience in Luanda, would you suggest a more visible production of culture representations in the emerging urban forms?

2. How do you classify the city of Luanda based on its urban condition?

3. If you had the opportunity to improve the habitat space of Luanda, what would be the element in need of urgent intervention?

4. What are the factors that affect the urban development in the capital of Luanda or in other African cities?

5. What is your opinion about the Chinese influence in the African Urban Development?

6. How can architecture practices help the government to create better built-environments that in developing countries?

7.How does a well-designed environment have an effect on the performance, wealth of people, fight poverty, generate income and create opportunities?

8. Are you in favor of maintaining the architectural, cultural identity of the city to the detriment of modernity or the capitalist system?

9. Do you believe that it is possible to create a balance between the economy, urban growth and social welfare in the African Cities?

10. In your point of view what are the elements that makes a city sustainable and habitable?

11. What is your definition and understanding of the following statement: "Right to City� ?

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

1.[Answer]- *Fault on the recording device.

2.[Answer] CB: The planning process is highly political and you cannot detached it, like Dos Santos’ promise of millions homes to the population, it was purely statistics. Nobody really thinks or is empowered to criticize or take view on where those homes are. If you can go back to the votes and say I built million homes which 99% are buildings like Kilamba. So, you might be worried to link planning with politics but planning is politics.

NP: I was looking on the fact that there is not development without outside influence because we live in a global society and everything is related. One of the things that I will mention when it comes to the Chinese investment, it is not saying that we don’t need. We do, because we don’t have the know how and we still need influencers to come and help to build and share knowledge with people, but I believe we need better regulations to control this influence.

CB: I went to Mozambique not so long ago, the capital Maputo has a river that separates the main part of the city the most developed to the poorest areas. A friend of mine a very prominent bridge engineer, for 25 years was trying to convince the government of Maputo to build a bridge. So in the end they decided to build the bridge. He designed the bridge, however the cheapest price came from the Chinese company who also came with the money. He was appointed as the supervising engineer on behalf of the Mozambique government so the Chinese were building and doing everything else and he was responsible to check whether everything was correct. During the process of construction he was finding major technical mistakes ,the process was not going the way it was supposed to be. Until some point somebody hired the Chinese company and call the government of Mozambique to fire the engineer because apparently, he was disturbing the work taken by the Chinese construction company.

Having regulations is really no sufficient, because if you are weak economically the Chinese can come and bully you putting African countries in a position that they have not choice, either accept the Chinese condition or figure themselves out. However, the main problem is building for the rich which is reasonable because they can vote with their own money, so if you want to spend the money in a house you just have to say which house you want. On the other hand, building for the poor or the people who are..(recording error).

3.[Answer] CB: Because the whole thing was laid out and designed in such a way that was pretty much selfsustaining, then we took into account pollution, burning garbage and the burning facilities was downwind from the expensive flats and would pollute the flats and they would complain, if we did upwind the air pollution would go to the poor who live by the coast. So, I would say that over every

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

project development we are trying to make sense and sense could be social, economical and could be environmental. If you can combine those three it will be great but not always possible.

When we talk about cities is a different story, they are almost like an Ufo specifically designed for a certain kind of social status.

NP: There are some conditions that architects accept projects because of the good money, although they know deep inside that it will not reflect the identity of a place.

CB: It is a human condition, people are corrupt. As example of the slavery trade that started by the Africans selling slaves to the whites not the whites going and stealing the Africans. So, humans are all the same and its objectionable, Foster working for the Saudis and the Saudis are criminals and he is designing this new environmental mega-city in Saudi Arabia, which I do not believe it will work. Zaha Hadid working is Kazakhstan for corrupts, and Broadway Malyan working for Isabel dos Santos.

NP: Architecture practice have no morality and accept these conditions for the sake of capital interest, big architecture practices are a machine to make money. We all part and we never run away from this capitalist ideology, rich will become richer and poor will become more poor; that’s the world we live.

CB: In Cuba- Havana, Fidel Castro and Che Guevara just when they took power decided to build the best art school on the planet, and they built this complex of incredible buildings. One of the buildings was the Plastic Art School and the other one was The ballet and performance theatre, unfortunately, only the theatre building survived. When I went to photograph the ballet school was almost like a ruin jungle, incredible beautiful vaults and massive spaces with palm trees growing inside.

I started a campaign to bring to the UNESCO Protection without any particular claim to fame and then suddenly I heard that foster was invited to refurbish and repair those buildings and he was invited because there was this Cuban ballet dancer who is also involved in teaching ballet in Cuba.

So he felt much better to invite Foster. I read an article saying “ You don’t bring technography to repair poetry ” this building is unique on the planet, you don’t get somebody who just makes hightech machines. I am sure that students in Cuba could sufficiently do it.

NP: That’s really interesting, returning to my literature “ Right to The City ” is a way that we commodify architecture, people will never have much say on the decision that will directly impact their life. However, you put yourself in the position of a local, in a position of defending the identity and heritage of the Cubans, you became the voice for the people that would not be able to speak in their defense.

4. [Answer] CB: Politics and I already answered on the previous questions.

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

5.[Answer] CB: Refer to the Article.

6. [Answer] CB: Well education. London demands lots of new houses, and there is no space to put houses.

The mayor came to my house a month ago because I was commissioned to a plot of land 100 square metres, to build to three bedroom houses. One of the skills in my office is to utilize small spaces to the maximum, so every cubic inch or square inch space is utilized. He was very interested , he was saying how he could bring me to work in small pieces of land in London. I sent three emails to him asking if we should continue with the process but he was too busy. I was trying to educate him in a way that he did not need to demolish the tower, and if you do it clever you can accommodate people among the existing property.

Most architects, lawyers engineers and doctors are completely incompetent, because through the process of education professionals are presented to the society in such a way that they are expert in their field, it is not true, most architects are crap. They own a piece of paper and they call themselves architects, dentist are the same, lawyers and so on. Doctors are lucky because they can bury their mistakes , but architects’ mistakes stands out and is visible to anybody. The problem is that with the start from the primers that architects are mostly incompetent which means that don’t have interest in detail, in context they do not have artistic skills to create building and they are easily influenced by images. Are they the right people to educate politicians?

NP: So you believe that is mostly based on education.

CB:I think that you can not force people to be moral because everybody has got their own selfinterest. I am saying that in the context , on the fact that people who make decision in a global scale, which influence lots of people are not easy to make them aware. As example of some decision-makers in Africa, they solve their bad governance bringing the Chinese company to do lots of housing and statistically will show the number of homes built on their governance, where and how these homes are like , its no one of our business. Its not an easy answer maybe a phycologist can answer it not the architect.

NP: I believe that, we architects should change our practice a little be more and we should redefine the practice of architecture because architecture has always been perceived as the clichĂŠ profession for the rich ones , and now we are trying to go more to a socialist approach and idea of thinking about people rather than actually having the experience of a good design being enough by itself. The change in the practice does not need to rely on the change of political decisions.

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

CB: Well it is linked, years ago I used to start my lecture showing a picture of an orchestra conductor. And my perception then , we architects are like the orchestra conductor that we have disclosed the music. We write the music , because our training facilitates us to be creative not responding a brief but creating a brief. Like this project in Kariobanji, Nairobi we kind of created the brief because the context we met those people formed of 500 families and so on. The project emerged, although there was not project before with a brief directed by the local community. The job of the architect is to respond to a need but not necessarily to the need which is defined ,but we can search for the need.

7.[ Answer] CB: You can get a book on this , statistics, look online you will find lots of stuff.

8. [Answer linked to 1-2] 9. [Answer] CB: Yes, very much so. I believe it could be done in any city to balance the economies , politics and social by giving some power to the people. The power to the people is really quite tricky one because some of the people I meet on the streets I would not like to empower, because they need certain education and understanding level and they can not make some rational decision. People can misunderstand easily the aspects of democracy and the perception is when democracy comes everybody can do whatever they want. However, in democracy you have to agree with each other and have a share interest, whether democracy can work, I have no idea.

NP: The example that you gave of the old Greek city where only people with a certain level of intellect were eligible to vote, I believe that people can make irrational decision. People just need orientation and need guidance.

CB: All the question have starting position which is education/school. Kids should be educated to understand the various aspect of life also urban life and also health which relates to the urban environment. Those kids might become architects, politicians or whoever. They will have the basis to relate.

10. [Answer] CB :Quality of a healthy life and not to much disparity between the extreme wealthy and the extreme poor. London is very similar to African cities where you have housing speculation for example you have Kingsbridge worth 7million pounds and some people who live on 100 pounds a week.

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

11. [Answer] CB: I would go to Danish sources to answer this question. The needs of the people who live in the city have to be taken into account and the only way to know about their needs is by communicating with them. The time to point over it has come. Shiny new buildings are simply masking the rot. A city that will serve people’s need but not a need that has to design the city with its people, creating UFO city and allocation people in it.

NP: What is the best way of taking into account people’s need ? It seems easy to find a solution in theory , scholars who focus on the city all have in common the Right to the city by the empowerment of the voice of the alienated. However, when it gets to practice things tend to be slightly different or perhaps not even applicable sometimes.

CB: The urban design should be produced on the general concept and then go smaller and smaller, in the end, there is the local community scale where one can start dealing with people, their needs that vary according to location. A masterplan is based on infrastructure, transport, landscape, movement and so on. People cannot contribute at this level because these require specific knowledge. When it comes to a lower scale on how they have to live, people should be hundred percent involved in the process. That is not to say that the masterplan should not be done with the teacher, the prostitute, the politician, etc. However, people must give a valuable contribution with some level of knowledge and rationalization. The quality of the city not only relies on its aesthetic and technology advancement but most of all on its people, on their quality of life.

NP: It is also a way of imposing a lifestyle on people because if you take into account every individual’s opinion you will never get to any conclusion.

CB: Democracy is the wrong way. The masterplan should be done with input from people who can make an input but them the further you go into the actual design you cannot depend on them.

NP: The same that happened with the PDGML, first comes the propaganda or start by the macroscale and then think about the micro. The aim of planners, investors and authorities is to sell the idea and then fix the problems of the microscale.

CB: If you start looking into a more socialist engineer that takes people from their neighborhood and allocate some rich people in there, you are not solving the issues of the city.

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Course: Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

NP: It is hard to change the mindset of planners, urbanist and architects because they heavily rely on the political decision-making. Urban planning is really complex, and there is not answer for anything.

CB: I wouldn’t agree with that because there is two types of urbanization; one for existing cities and another for new cities. In the existing city you really have to work with the community, because community has been more difficult to build the physical environment; in the new built there is a risk of sameness. For example if you give the masterplan for a city with million people, like the one Foster has been commissioned in India it is completely scandalous. The masterplan of a city shouldn’t be given to a single architect because the city will be a signature of the architect. In the masterplan we did in Angola five thousand people participated, which is quite small. We could do more such as environmental planning and everything else, but if you have to design a city for half a million people that becomes suspect.

If you look at examples of masterplan Brasilia in Brazil, they are graphics. He designed a city that was 50 km long in one building, this is graphic. Most planners are crap, they are just interested in visuals, architects as well, politician too and that’s the way planning goes on by wasting resources and not creating comfortable life.

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APPENDIX B: Interview with the architect Helder Pereira

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku Date: 18/02/2019 Location: Luanda Interviewee: Helder Pereira -Atelier Mulemba.

Title: REINVENTING THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES: CASE STUDY OF LUANDA

Questionnaire

1. How do you classify the city of Luanda ?

2. From your point of view what are the elements that make a city habitable and sustainable?

3. What would you change in your city, in order to improve the day-to-day life of its inhabitants?

4. What is your definition and understanding of the following statement: "Right to City� ?

5.What kind of impact have you already caused to your local area?

6. What are the factors that cause slow urban development in Luanda?

7. In your opinion , What does the word well-being signify ?

8.What future you idealise for African cities ( Luanda)?

9. Are in favour of maintaining an architectural identity of the city in detriment to internationalization?

10. Do you believe in the possibility of creating a balance between economic growth and social well-being?

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku 11.What is your opinion on the Chinese influence in the urban and architectonic sector of the city?

12.What should the function/role of the African architect in an era of globalization and internationalization?

13.What is your opinion in relation to centralities and what are the difficulties faced daily in the city?

14.From your experience in Luanda, would you suggest a more visible production of culture representations in the emerging urban forms?

15. How can architecture practices help the government to create better built-environments that in developing countries?

1.[ Answer] H.P: At the moment, there are two cities in Luanda, due to the fact of presenting two quite distinct urban perspectives. It is interesting that we may have plenty of theories on how to classify the city. However, it depends on our social condition and on our geographical location in the city.

Currently, we have a city that has already been structured, there is the historical centre as well as an informal expansion where the majority of the population lives. In this case, there is not a cohesive city, it is more like cities between cities, where there are contrasts and different sensory experiences.

2. [Answer] HP: The capacity of an individual to act and perform, the dimension of the city and its ability to sustain itself with food, infrastructure, and the energy consumption is an inequality that occurs in our city, specifically in the capital. This is a challenge for most cities in the world, mobility in Luanda are one of the most critical urban element.

3. [Answer] HP: THE MOBILITY, ACCESS TO WORK. The population is very dependent on the public structures that do not exist, as well as the capacity to live independently of simple acts to deal with specific local problems.

4. [Answer] HP: Right to the city, right to exist as an individual with rights, with “access.” The city has to respond with levels of basic support such as education, health, jobs, transportation, etc. The population does not realise the rights they are entitled to, and the city itself does not respond to the needs, and the “access” is not democratic.

5. [Answer]

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku HP: Planting trees to tackle social as well as environmental issues. We have been trying to make our projects be seen as homolytic as possible and we try to deal with the use of water, energy consumption, recycling of water, residues destination, etc. In each project that we do, we feel like people have a tendency to replicate. In each project, we always try to open a bridge of excursion that may affect other individuals and/or architects, students and I believe it creates a snowball effect. If we see that we can deal with all these things in the project, it is a sign that anyone else could do it.

In many cases the client ends up learning that water can be recycled for watering the plants and other purposes related to the project. We do not want objects, and our mistake in our professions have been creating objects in isolation. A building also responds to the political context, and we have to assume that it is also part of our responsibility, and after that we create an ecosystem where all the elements which we want to work in symbiosis can coexist, from the social aspect to the interaction between the user and their house. It creates a transition process and none of these forms become a system in isolation.

6.[Answer] HP: The barriers of development in Luanda, political interference and private interests have been extremely strong. It takes us to the position we are at the moment because those interests have always been ahead of the mission to serve the public.

When you talk about African architecture and modernism people sometimes forget that it what was made in a period under colonial authority. Nonetheless, it was not an inclusive architecture, it was related to politics and it was done within a colonial political matrix that used modernist architecture for their benefit. We have been working in Luanda for more than 15/20 years under a regime that dictates the rules even on the architectural activities. Architecture is a political manifestation where the architectural changes go accordingly to the political changes.

Oscar Niemeyer was a politician, he created Brasilia from scratch, the centralised, extremely right wing in a state of absolute control of the city. On top of that, Brasilia was not made for the low class, rather for the bureaucrats and middle class. Thus, all people that immigrated to Brasilia in order to help, have all been kicked out of there. Architects in the 21st century are strongly attempting to avoid this political side, we do not want to be used as propaganda. At the same time, the architect is trying to go more towards the social side, in this case, social and political.

THE SOCIAL is political, not as politics itself, but I am trying to make a stand. we must be careful with the language because the word politics becomes synonym with the institution. In the case we would be talking about politics more philosophically, there is no one in defense “you are on one side or on the other�.

HP: Landscaping and public spaces at current are one of the biggest problems in the city of Luanda. If I had to pick a second choice, I would choose public schools. Environment and education are probably the two elements that are in more urgent need of change.

7. [Answer]

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku HP: Wellbeing means the condition of an individual in the city. In this case, probably understanding the position of an individual is important because it relates to the contribution we provide to the city we live in. The individual´s capability of intellectual criticism, intervention and discussion and the understanding that of freedom and power to speak and discuss are very important.

Unfortunately, we have not had the opportunity to do it. In other words, it has been a few decades since the colonial era that we have been cutting down the capacity of self-awareness.

8.[Answer] HP: The future that I idealize for African cities is the one with more balance, with cities more directed to sustainability and adaptability according to the condition and context in which they are inserted. When I speak of adaptability, I want to raise awareness of climate change in which our cities are not prepared to deal with at the moment.

9. [Answer] HP: I think we must stand to the present, we can not be afraid to do anything, knowing that we are defining the future at every moment. Therefore, I would not put one over the other. Each of them presents particularities that can be used. I am more interested in finding solutions in the present that may change the future.

10. [Answer] HP: Yes, I believe in it. It means changing the structure of governance and the structure of perception of people’s life.

11. [Answer] HP: I have nothing against the Chinese influence. Every time I hear this conversation, I try to reference that behind a Chinese influence there is an Angolan influence. I believe we have to take responsibilities for the decisions we have been making. From the last past years we’ve been opening doors to foreign influences, not just Chinese. Part of the urban structure we have and the architectural solutions are not all related to the Chinese influence. At the end of the day, I am more interested in understanding how Angolans will know what we want for our city and from there looking for the necessary support.

12. [ Answer] HP: Be as relevant as possible in the local context you are in. Obviously, there are some barriers like globalization and internationalization, which I think are the biggest challenges that we may have. Try to act more towards the local context in which we are and from there never lose the connection with the ability we have to communicate with the other realities similar to our own. I believe there is a more exiting part than taking advantage of the capacity of mass communication we have today with the internet. We can try to understand how they act, create dialogue and understand the way they solve the urban problematics without stopping to respond to the local context and its dwellers.

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku

13: [Answer] HP: The centralities have a lot of people living there, despite the flaws and the fact that the centralities themselves are insufficient. I believe we can not run away from this situation, I think it is more important to understand how the people who live in these centralities go about with their lives, act in the urban area they live in and how they can obtain some autonomy. Not all is lost.

There is the side of being able to fulfill the needs of the people, due to that, we can not go towards design and aesthetics that would probably be more desirable in terms of architecture and identity preservation. But we managed to solve a social question that is the lack of houses for middle, mid-low and low-income classes). The centralities, kilamba, for example, is not the only place houses are being built, there is Zango, Nova vida, etc. the government went more towards building for the public function workers, it was a first step towards providing houses than anything else. Unfortunately, it was a project designed very quickly, and the social aspect of it is a crime in all of those projects. Nova vida for example, all building is the same, 3-4 floor, I think it was designed as a dormitory rather than a city. Where are the shops? Where are the activities? Many people live there, but there are no jobs in the vicinities. Most of the ground level spaces have been taken as illegal private property by certain people..

14. [Answer] HP: I would say yes, because we are looking at the city that counts a population of 6.5-7 million.

Cities that are starting to have these extend fabric require key elements to support navigation in terms of urban forms. We still live in this informal city were the navigation is still quite difficult. But at the same time, we still missing a lot of visual icon to decide where should we go, the relevance of these structures. I think this visible production of culture is important, because the moment we start producing buildings that can create a language to the city we are at same time developing new aspects and new experiences to the city. I don’t think people have felt that is relevant to a project, a lot of clients do not understand or do not have the resources to understand the importance of it and how it can be relevant to themselves and to the city. Through design you can do it.

15. [Answer] In our context of Angola, the government is taking the role of the legislator and the executor, in all levels and this has been one of the main issues here. I think we lack a lot of good legislation, and proper legislation need to be designed for us to deal with the present and future for our urban environment. I do not think the government is doing that whatsoever, the government is taking a note set of laws that keep existing and is ruling and creating environment under those laws with some specific changes, but it is actually not contributing to support the local practices and structures to intervene in a better way in the city and the environment. I would instead prefer if

48

Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku the government step back and just say “ we are going to do good legislation so the practitioner can do good architecture, good urban design, good landscape projects” and suddenly we start seeing that coming back. The problem is most of the time when we are designing something in our projects, we are the one deciding if we are going to do a good project or not. We can just compare the regulations, and the project could actually be inadequate in terms of the city and the local context. Too much interfering in a sense that they need actually to design the laws, what we can do in our position as designers is pointless, because if we don’t have the excellent legislation and a good brief whatever we do is pointless because we are backpedaling all the time. The moment the government starts taking seriously the design of legislation to support a better environment that’s when design projects will start. We are architects at the end of the process.

NP: When you mention that the government is taking both of roles as executor and legislator, I think that’s where comes the issue of most African cities, because at this point we just stand in a position of not having much of a saying as architects. We just have to follow whatever they impose on us, we do not have much authority. The government wants to take authority over everything; however, it has to determine legislation that can be appropriately executed by architects, urbanist and engineers.

HP: Part of it becomes almost as a hangover from a period where the state was asked to keep control of absolutely everything on people’s lives, it was a provider of everything for people. Now we find in this capitalist environment where one crash with the other, actually they are not providing anything.

The state can not provide everything for people, and people can not create such dependence and expectation on them. One of the things that the Right to The City mentions is the state actually should depend on groups of people that think about the city. It is impossible for a state to take charge of everything, and that’s why we live in a situation of chaos because the state is trying to take charge of everything. The roles and authorities in African cities need to be distributed in different departments, for example, the ministry of Urbanization that has a monopolistic authority over the city must be split apart and give it to various groups.

Angola ended up in this situation in the last decades First, people need to be given education, debate, a voice, a role in society, the moment those opportunities appear it will change in the political landscape of Angola. There is still a lot of debates on decentralizing government and the provinces having their own government in this case “Autarquias,” because everything has been centralized in Luanda. We know what the challenges are, people know that the government cannot provide everything but also the cost of understanding and shifting to the right direction means that the political fabric will change , that’s the defense that the state uses. At the same time this spider effect that looks not as obvious as it is, will change the way people look at the rulers and also to their responsibilities to rule. At the moment people act in a way that when the government rules they cannot question anything. The moment people can question that’s when things will start to change.

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APPENDIX C: Interview with the architect Cidade Vemba

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku Date: 18/02/2019 Location: Luanda Interviewee: Cidade Vemba- (Nfulu Amuana and Masterplan Luanda)

Title: REINVENTING THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CITIES: CASE STUDY OF LUANDA

Questionnaire

1. How do you classify the city of Luanda ?

2. From your point of view what are the elements that make a city habitable and sustainable?

3. What would you change in your city, in order to improve the day-to-day life of its inhabitants?

4. What is your definition and understanding of the following statement: "Right to City� ?

5.What kind of impact have you already caused to your local area?

6. What are the factors that cause slow urban development in Luanda?

7. In your opinion , What does the word well-being signify ?

8.What future you idealise for African cities ( Luanda)?

9. Are in favour of maintaining an architectural identity of the city in detriment to internationalization?

10. Do you believe in the possibility of creating a balance between economic growth and social well-being?

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Olu Uduku 11.What is your opinion on the Chinese influence in the urban and architectonic sector of the city?

12.What should the function/role of the African architect in an era of globalization and internationalization?

13.What is your opinion in relation to centralities and what are the difficulties faced daily in the city?

CV: The state is the mediator, but activists groups like Nfulu Nmuana try to collaborate and serve as support for certain needs or shortages that are supposed to be provided by the state. The state can not do everything but it should rely on groups that will determine and serve as transmitters of the people’s need to the state.

I would not say rescue African identity, but the term that I use is African autonomy, because we have always been autonomous people, and I have said that Africa was placed in pause. When we built pyramids, the other side did not know where they lived, there is evidence today that defend that the African man never lived in caves, this is all a story that the West invented. On the other hand the importance of the autonomy of Africa and to show that before the history that we have today, we had our own history, we had our own development from several kingdoms, so we have always been interconnected with the factor of spirituality. In Africa we have always been people who have always respected nature, we always cohabited respecting all living beings. The arrival of the West, that is to say the colonizers, made us stay in pause until today there is an effort and influence that Africa continues in this state.

Fortunately, nowadays we can see changes coming from revolutionary minds in search of the truth to give another direction to the future of Africa. The topic you are developing will provoke and it is through provocation that there are changes in all sectors, specially the intellectual and cultural . When you develop a theme like this, it is because you are waiting for a response on who we are and where we are going.

I argue that for the result of the African growth and improvement it is necessary for us to be linked, we need Africa to join forces because the union becomes stronger. As an example, Europe and the Arab countries united for their development, which is a war that the West has controlled in order to separate the African nations for better reign. One of the codes that we need to have is to choose a commercial African language, so we can keep the communication. we can not communicate through a foreign language. we have the example of great languages spoken in Africa, such as Swaili and Lingala. We can not continue to have our identity meetings with a nonAfrican language. Second we need to consume African products, and it is necessary to know what we have and and what we are capable of doing with the resources to be able to invest in various sectors.

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Olu Uduku Sometimes when we defend certain aspects of Africa they think that we are closing to the world in order to create barriers, on the contrary and to show “who” Africa is to the world with all its qualities and not simply for the material point of view. They think it's a bit grudging or racist.

When I speak of defending an African language, many people contradict without knowing that before colonization there was a constant communication among the African kingdoms in order to facilitate trade. We will have a unified Africa only when we begin to think as Africans and not as West Africans. Unfortunately for some time we had the Africans of laboratory or that is descending of Africans but it grows in Europe in which all the knowledge acquired is European, habits and customs. An intermediate class was created in the Portuguese colonization where the assimilated existed. The figure of the assimilated and the African individual who does not feel African due to a certain status given by the colonizer. This individual would be an intermediary between the two social parameters (Portuguese and Angolan) and always remain in the same social position. It is necessary to perceive these historical elements that were the causes of African social destructuring, African living is associated with tribalism and backwardness, especially in Angola in relation to other African countries. The Europeans did not discover Africa; on the contrary, there were already African navigators who in turn were going to make trade exchanges and bureaucratic relations with Europe, and never on the way to judge the other culture. Africans are more humanistic people, not saying that others are not.

So that we truly have African functional cities it is necessary for us to be interconnected by the language and then by the African economy itself. Analyze what we have in African cities from the point of view of technology.Today we still have much to teach, to exchange and also to learn.

Actually, African peoples need to have a certain awakening, without other people in categories who have access to knowledge must share and try to introduce a dynamic and productive mind.

Cheikh Anta Diop said "go to the world and preach Africa". Many historians wrote that Africa did not exist, Africa began to exist after colonization. Africa had no reigns, the term king does not come from Africa.

Cheik Anta Diop was an African scientist who contributed to the development of Pan-Africanism today, and has also done studies on the human race, he proved that the oldest people are the Africans and that the Europeans are descendants of Africans. The development of African cities has to be with the transformation of Architecture. In the days of today the architecture that we live in Angola is an architecture that is not ours and that is nothing to do with our way of living. An architecture of the occidental model, if you notice our architecture or our urbanism, it has nothing to do with us. An African special organization already existed in the Kingdom of Congo where there was the central zone of the Market, administrative areas where there was administrative power, and there was the power of the monarchy where there were royalty or the gods (the “Ngola” ect). There was already communication and traveling, most in waterway form.

1.[Answer] 53

Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku CV: The city of Luanda is a socially and culturally diverse city, because we have all the living beings of Angola, in other words, all the representatives of the Angolan tribes in Luanda. From an urbanistic point of view the city that does not identify its people.It has not been built for the people who live in it. The cultural side is not in agreement to the urbanistic side. Luanda fails in some cultural representations, which means the centre of the city was not built for people.

The colonial architecture was an exclusive architecture and even after the independence and with the occupation of the infrastructures left by the Portuguese colony it did not go accordingly to the lifestyle of the immigrant people from the rural areas. Most of the buildings are decaying because of the lack of maintenance and conservation. In this situation, the occupants cannot be blamed This type of construction it doesn’t go along with the social and cultural context. The architects who argues that architecture should adapt to man and not man adapt to the architecture.When the architects designs a project should consider this elements in order to avoid future problems.

2. [Answer] CV: What makes a city sustainable is a city adapted to the man and that responds to their needs. This will make the city sustainable because the man will not have to struggle to adapt to the city. Man is the center of everything.

3.[Answer] CV: I would change all the policies.

4.[ Answer] CV: The right to the city is the right to life. In the same way that doctors prescribe medication to a patient depending on a particular situation and depending on the physical conditions of the individual, the city must also be guided in this way. The policies created by our cities are not thought taking into account the real problems. We are implementing cameras in the city, of course the security is important but not yet, the priority of the city. Installing cameras arise from budget maintenance, etc. The city has urgent problems like sewage, lack of green spaces, transport, not of cameras. Priorities need to be redefined in the policies of the city.

5. [Answer] CV: The contribution that could provoke an awakening of the conscience would be the Nfulu Amuna partnership, a solidary association, philanthropic and nonprofit associations. In our program of action we have several activities that are linked to the current situation of the community and social development of people where we have a series of conversations that could

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku help people to reflect the way they live. The active participation will solve the Communities’ problems. It is necessary that individuals living in a community have the responsibility of preserving the development of their community. Not necessarily have to wait for the "neighbor" or governing entities to solve their problems. In our community, we are rehearsing the circular economy that each inhabitant contributes with 100 kwanzas to pay the tuition of all the students who do not have financial condition to pay the tuition fee. I believe that we will not have no student or child outside the teaching system in the Sambizanga urban district’ 6 [Answer] CV: The factors that I consider to be a barrier to the development of the city of Luanda and many of the other African cities are politics and tribalism.

If it had to intervene within the urban mesh, it first expropriated all public spaces that became private and lawfully belong to the people. In the village alice 80% of the squares have become party lounges and the basketball courts storage. Return the public spaces to the city.

7. [Answer] CV: Wellbeing means to be in a balance with the city, where the city offers conditions of habitability in all aspects such as mobility, leisure, work, etc.

8. [Answer] CV: Africa will not develop in isolation, because we have always been people of relationships. Think and live Africa, because when you live in Africa you will respect, you will contribute.

9. [Answer] CV: We can have relationships but of these relationships we must have identity or characteristics of our own because if we lack on it, any influence can impose their own. When there is a lack of character, everything is accepted. The capitalist model can thus be defined as neocolonialism. We will not develop with the capitalist system, but we need to have an African capitalist system. For the development of Africa, the current capitalist system does not favor people.

10. [Answer] CV: I believe that yes, as long as a city is developed according to human needs.

11. [ Answer]

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Course: Master Of Architecture Student: Nadia Pinto ID: 18058071 Tutor: Ola Uduku CV: Bad , it is an imposition because we are not doing what has to do with our identity, that is the neo-colonialism. China is having almost the same influence as European colonialism had on African citizens. The Chinese System is very aggressive, deconstruct the economy, deconstruct society and cultural aspects, they come in a silent and dangerous. This is what is happening in all African cities. The Chinese agreement will become a dependency that will be difficult to get out of it. Today is not the weapon that speaks, today it is capitalism. Capitalism is more aggressive where who speaks is the one who possesses. China is destroying the cultural heritage.

12. [Answer] CV: The role of the African architect is to be identified by the influence we have on other individuals or other architects. As an example , Frank Kehere, however it is in a European context, he can asserts himself. His architectura has an African identity.

13. [Answer] CV: The centralities were made to answer a political question and not -social. People are not identified, they are in segregation, they have been placed in isolated areas. The quality of life of these people is compromised, people live on one site and work on another.

We can help each other as long as the policies are in line with the constructive techniques. The policies dictate the rules but the constructive techniques do not adapt to the rules. When we talk about building 1 million houses, with short technical time, is not viable. The technical and practical factor need to be respected by the policies. As a result, we do things that do not adapt to the reality.

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APPENDIX D: Participant Information Sheet

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Reinventing the Sub-Saharan African Cities: Case study of Luanda Participant Information Sheet (PIS) You are being invited to take part in a research study conducted as part of a student project exploring the past, present and future urban and architecture condition of Sub-Saharan African cities , having Luanda as a case study.

The impact of internationalization in the shaping of the city in contrast with local practices and neo-liberal groups that claim an architecture identity for the city through the empowerment of communities. Before you decide whether to take part, it is important for you to understand why the research is being conducted and what it will involve.

Please take time to read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if you wish. Please ask if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part. Thank you for taking the time to read this.

Who will conduct the research?

Nadia Pinto – Masters Student at Manchester School of Architecture Address: Chatham Building, Cavendish St, Manchester M15 6BR What is the purpose of the research?

The research will analyse through a theoretical rationalization the quality of urban living in the context of African cities by obeying the cultural and social features of a place. As a result aiming to improve the condition of the urban life for the mass of the population, however by tracing the historical stages of the development of African cities, one will be capable to perceive the cause of progression, the consequences of retrogression as well as the massive population growth in the urbanization of the most powerful cities of sub-Saharan Africa.

Furthermore, neo-liberal movements will be empowered to enhance the cultural and social value of the city by prioritizing the citizen’s needs. It can be argued that Capitalism is the reason for the urban problem in African cities, capitalism is not concerned about the city neither the poor who form the majority of the population.

On account of that, the Right to the city will be invoked in support of social movements and architecture practice as an initiative of liberalizing and neutralizing from urban struggles provoked by inherent Capitalism in African Cities; also demanding human rights in the urban context. This research intends to be a reflection of each interviewees’ opinion on regard to the issues of urbanism and architecture identity presented by the case study city, Luanda.

Why have I been chosen?

You are being invited to participate in this study because of your broad knowledge and understanding on African architecture before colonisation as well as the researches you conduct on the indigenous architecture of Angola in particular the bantu civilisation, Mbanza Congo. Also for being the founder of Nfulu Amuana, a NGO that aims to combat poverty and empower the most deprived communities in Luanda through the sharing of knowledge and skills.

What would I be asked to do if I took part?

To participate in a face to face interview.

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What will happen to my personal information?

In order to undertake the research project we will need to collect the following personal information/data about you: Name Company E-mail address Telephone Number Only the researcher will have access to this information.

I am collecting and storing this personal information in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Data Protection Act 2018 which legislate to protect your personal information. The legal basis upon which we are using your personal information is “public interest task” and “for research purposes”. For more information about the way we process your personal information and comply with data protection law please see our Privacy Notice for Research Participants.

The University of Manchester, as Data Controller for this project, takes responsibility for the protection of the personal information that this study is collecting about you. In order to comply with the legal obligations to protect your personal data the University has safeguards in place such as policies and procedures. Your data will be looked after in the following way: The researcher at the University of Manchester will have access to your personal identifiable information, that is data which could identify you, but I will anonymise it as soon as practical. However, your consent form will be retained for 5 years.

Only the researcher at the University of Manchester will have access to data which could identify you. An audio recording will be made of the interview. As soon as is practicable, this recording will be transcribed, anonymised and deleted. Your consent form, however, will be kept for 5 years. It will be stored in a separate location to the anonymised transcript You have a number of rights under data protection law regarding your personal information. For example you can request a copy of the information we hold about you, including audio recordings. This is known as a Subject Access Request. If you would like to know more about your different rights, please consult our privacy notice for research and if you wish to contact us about your data protection rights, please email dataprotection@manchester.ac.uk or write to The Information Governance Office, Christie Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL. at the University and we will guide you through the process of exercising your rights.

You also have a right to complain to the Information Commissioner’s Office, Tel 0303 123 1113 Individuals from the University, the site where the research is taking place and regulatory authorities may need to review the study information for auditing and monitoring purposes or in the event of an incident.

What happens if I do not want to take part or if I change my mind?

It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If you do decide to take part you will be given this information sheet to keep and be asked to sign a consent form. If you decide to take part you are still free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason and without detriment to yourself. However, it will not be possible to remove your data from the project once it has been anonymised and forms part of the dataset as we will not be able to identify your specific data. This does not affect your data protection rights.

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The audio recording of the interview is essential to this research. You as a participant should be comfortable with the recording process at all times and are free to stop recording at any time.

What is the duration of the research?

A single interview will be carried which will take approximately one hour. Research project will conclude April 2019 Where will the research be conducted?

At the University of Manchester Will the outcomes of the research be published?

The principal output from the research will be a Master dissertation. It is possible that the study will also lead to academic publications or presentations at conferences. No information that could be used to identify participants will be included in any such outputs.

Who has reviewed the research project?

The project has been reviewed by my supervisor Dr Ola Uduku What if I want to make a complaint?

Minor Complaints Professor Ola Uduku Manchester School of Architecture Rm. 707 Chatham Building Manchester M15 6BR Formal Complaints If you wish to make a formal complaint or if you are not satisfied with the response you have gained from the researchers in the first instance then please contact The Research Governance and Integrity Manager, Research Office, Christie Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, by emailing: research.complaints@manchester.ac.uk or by telephoning 0161 275 2674.

What Do I Do Now? If you have any queries about the study or if you are interested in taking part then please contact the researcher(s) Nadia Pinto– Masters Student Manchester School of Architecture Chatham Building, Cavendish St, Manchester M15 6BR Nadia-isabel.c.pinto@stu.mmu.ac.uk

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APPENDIX E: Interviewee Consent Form

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Interviewee Consent Form

If you are happy to participate please complete and sign the consent form below Activities 1

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Initials

I confirm that I have read the attached information sheet for the above study and have had the opportunity to consider the information and ask questions and had these answered satisfactorily.

I understand that my participation in the study is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason and without detriment to myself. I understand that it will not be possible to remove my data from the project once it has been anonymised and forms part of the data set.

I agree to take part on this basis

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I agree to the interviews being audio recorded.

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I agree that any data collected may be published in anonymous form in the dissertation and/or in academic books, reports or journals

Data Protection The personal information we collect and use to conduct this research will be processed in accordance with data protection law as explained in the Participant Information Sheet and the Privacy Notice for Research Participants.

________________________ Name of Participant

________________________ Signature

Date

________________________ ________________________ Name of the person taking consent Signature

Date

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Harvey, D. (2012). Rebel Cities. 1st ed. Verso. London.pp.14-146 Lefebvre, H.(1991).The Production of Space.1st publishing translation. Donald Nicholson-Smith. Oxford. pp-10-150 Oliveira,S.,R (2015). Magnificent and Beggar Land: Angola Since the Civil War.1st ed. Oxford University Press.

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MOpapers, (2012). What is the Rise of South-South Relations About? Development, not Aid. Available at: https://ecdpm.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/What-is-Rise-South-South-Relations-about-Development-not-Aid-Bilal.pdf [Accessed 13th April 2019] Turok, I. (2016). Getting urbanization to work in Africa: the role of the urban land-infrastructure-finance nexus, Area Development and Policy. Vol.1, no.1. pp. 30-47, DOI: 10.1080/23792949.2016.1166444[ e-journal Available at: https://rsa.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23792949.2016.1166444#.XK3MVfZuKas [ Accessed, 10th April, 2017] Unesco (2019). Old Towns of Djenne. [online] Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/116 [Accessed 12th March 2019] Kuryla, P. (2016). Pan-Africanism. Encyclopedialike Britannica, Inc. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pan-Africanism [ Accessed 24th February 2019].

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Kloppenburg, J.(2017). Fabienne Hozel: Working in Slums communities. [online] Available at: https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/stories/fabienne-hoelzel-working-in-slum-communities/ [ Accessed 11th April 2019] Vivanco, S. (2012). Latin America: A New Generation of Women Architects. [online] Available at: https://placesjournal.org/article/latin-america-a-new-generation-of-women-architects/?cn-reloaded=1 [Accessed 05th April 2019] Bosslet, J. (2007). The Making of Imperial Peripheries: The musseques in Late-Colonial Luanda. [online] Available at: https://globalurbanhistory.com/2017/10/31/the-making-of-imperial-peripheries-the-musseques-in-late-colonial-luanda/ [ Accessed 20th April 2019]

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Marcuse, P. (2009). From Critical Urban Theory to The Right to the City. 13:2-3, pp.185-197, DOI: 10.1080/13604810902982177 Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13604810902982177 [ Accessed 29th December 2019] Salman, M. (2018). Sustainability and Vernacular Architecture: Rethinking What Identity Is. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82025 Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/sustainability-and-vernacular-architecture-rethinking-what-identity-is [Accessed 25th March 2019] Blier,P.,S.(2012). The African Urban Past:Historical Perspective on the Metropolis.[ebook].

Available at: scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier.1_african_metropolitan_architecture_ed._adjaye_2012_pdf_edited_copy.pdf. [ Accessed 10th March 2019] Lall, V.S., Henderson, V.J. and Venables, J.A. Africa’s cities: Opening Doors to the World. 1st ed. The World Bank Group.[online] Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/africa-regional-studies/publication/african-citiesopening-doors-to-the-world [Accessed 03th February 2019] BroadwayMalyan, (2019). Luanda City-Luanda, Angola.[online] Available at: https://www.broadwaymalyan.com/projects/luanda-city/ [Accessed 26th April 2019] Studio-Bednarski, (2018). Social Housing, Community of Kariobangi South, Nairobi, Kenya.[Online] Available at: http://www.studio-bednarski.com/KARIOS.php [Accessed 5th January 2019]

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Figures Reference Fig.1- Schematic diagram Author's own image.

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Fig.2- Pre-colonial settlements timeline Author's own image

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Fig.3- Israel, J. (2011). African Civilizations map [Online image] Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:African-civilizations-map-imperial.png [Accessed on 16th April 2019]

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Fig.4-Martins, I. (2010). Arquitecturas de Luanda. Sinfic.pp.62-179 [illustration]

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Fig.5- Luanda's Musseque, Author's own image

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Fig.6- Map timeline of Luanda Authors own table.

Images retrived from:Ukuma (2019). O novo Bairro, Golfe-Luanda Angola 1975 [Online image] http://www.ukuma.net/wp/2017/02/23/plano-director-da-cidade-de-luanda-o-t-u-ang ola1973/ [Accessed 26th April 2019]

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Broadway Malyan (2019). Luanda City [Online image] Available at: https://www.broadwaymalyan.com/projects/luanda-city/ [Accessed 26th April 2019] Conquista de Angola (2018). Mapa da cidade de SĂŁo Paulo de Luanda.[Online image] Available at: https://conquistadeangola.wordpress.com/3-2/ [Accessed 26th April 2019] Correia, A., M. (2013) Map Luanda 1950. [Online image] Available at: https://pt.slideshare.net/DevelopmentWorkshopAngola/movimento-moderno-da-arqutectura-em-luanda-ate-1975-maria-alice-correia-18102013 [Accessed 26th April 2019] Da Silva, A. (2018). Luanda.[Online] Available at: https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10212428273681489&set= pb.1220661426.-2207520000.1556359208.&type=3&theater [Accessed 26th April 2019] Fig.7- Luanda's Bay Author's own image

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Fig.8- Da Silva, A. (2018). Luanda.[Online] Available at: https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10212428273681489&set= pb.1220661426.-2207520000.1556359208.&type=3&theater [Accessed 24th April 2019]

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Fig.9- Zoning map of Luanda, Author's own image

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Fig.10- Quartz (2016). An aerial shot of Kilamba City. [Online image] Available at: https://qz.com/africa/480625/photos-african-cities-are-starting-to-look-eerilylike-chinese-ones/ [Accessed 18 Apr. 2019].

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Fig.11- Contrast of old and new Architecture in Luanda, Author's own image

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Fig.12- Nfulu Amuana Community Centre program, Author's own image

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Fig.13- Vemba, C. (2019). Nfulu Amuana, Community Centre Layout plan [illustration]

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Fig.14-Nfulu Amuana Community wall , Author's own image.

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Fig.15- Studio Bednarski (2015). Kariobangi Community-Nairobi [Online image] Available at: http://www.studio-bednarski.com/KARIOS.php [Accessed 12th April 2019]

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