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Francois Furet. Interpreting the French Revolution, Cambridge University Press. 1981. Lynn Hunt. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution, Berkley . U niversity of Califo rnia Press. 1984.

Brian Singer. Society, Theory and the French Revolution, New York. St. Martin's Press. 1986.

Joan Landes. Women and the Public Sphere;n the Age of the French Revolution, Ithaca,

Cornell University Press, 1988.

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6. M. Foucault. "What is an Author" ,

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12. M. Foucault. " Politics and the Study of Discourse, " Ideology and Consciousness, No.3 (197S), p. IS. 13. Ibid . 14. Ibid.

16. M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction,Tr. by Robert Hurley , Vintage Books. New York , January 1980, pp. 101-102. 17. Ibid . IS. Ibid . 19. Ibid . 20. Ibid . 21. Ibid . 22. Ibid . 23. Ibid . 24. Ibid . 25. Ibid .

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Lisa Golambek and Do~ald Wilbur. The Timurid Architecture of Iran and rUTan, 2 voJs., Princeton , 1988.

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gottman, which is the equivalent of the term "discourse" as used in modern social sciences. The article is also an invttation to other scholars of the field to define such instrumental concepts when they introduce their Persian equivalents. It warns of the dangers of finding or creating only one equivalent Persian word for concepts like " discourse" in Western or other languages. Before introducing the equivalent of such concepts into the Persian language, the author suggests, they must not only be defined but also made clear in the readers' life context. To support his argument, the author gives some examples of how superficial introductions of West em concepts such as "nationalism", "Iiberalism", "Marxism" . and "Leninism"led to the production of superlicial "intellectuals", and consequently led to the misuse of these concepts in explaining social, political, cultural and economic problems of Iranian society. The result of such superlicial and second hand comprehension of Western knowledge was the development of pseudo and dependent technology and also, in the sphere of culture, the creation of what AI-e Ahmad and Shariati called Gharbzadegi (Westoxication) By applying FoucuaWs definitions of author and writer, and also his analysis of the relationship between knowledge and power, the author agrues that since gharbzadegi displayed ttself in surlace only, the initiators of the " intellectual discourse" of gharbzadegi could only negate its appearance, rather than analyze and negate it in depth. Finally, the author attempts to define and elaborate on the concept of " discourse" as used in the Western academic world, and particularly in the wrttings of M. Foucault.

Abstract prepared by the author.

The Contribution of Iranian Thinkers to Arab Civilization

Louis Massignon

This article is a Persian translation of " Les penseurs Iraniens et I'essor de la

civilization Arabe " in L'ame de /'Iran (Paris, t 951). In this article Massignon examines the influence of Iranian thought on the development of the Arabic language and Arab thought. In his view, pre-Islamic Iranians, who were familiar with semrtic languages through Aramaic and were also aware of the Greek cu~ural and scientific heritage, lent many of the Aryan characteristics of their language and thought to Arabic during the formative period of the first two centuries of Islam and Islamic cu~ure. In the writings of such authors as Ibn al-Moqaffa', who established the conventions of Arab prose, the influence of a Persian mother tongue is unmistakable. One of the important Iranian contributions to Arabic was the disambiguation of Arabic, the elimination of vague refrences and the conversion of equivocal expression into direct speech. He also refers to the Iranian role in the development of the rhetoric and lexicon of Arabic. In the matter of the Persian technological contribution to early Islam, he mentions the contribution of the early Iranian convert Salman-e Farsi to the Prophet of Islam's war effort. The article also examines the Iranian elements in a spectrum of fielas, from music to landscaping.

Abstract translated by Paul Sprachman.

ON DISCOURSE H. Gh. Azodanlu The author begins by referring to a recently coined term in the Persian language,

history. The new meaning of the people, however, emerged with the nostalgia for pre-Islamic Iran and devotion to the ideals of liberty (hufTiyat! azadi), equality (musavat! barabariJ, and fratemity (ukhuwat! baradari). Consequently, millat-i Iran (the people of Iran) discursively replaced the Divine and the shadow of God (Zill Allah) as the source of sovereignty and made possible the emergence of democratic popular politics, a new era in which siasat no longer meant execution and punishment but participation in national decision making . Along with the Iranian cultural and historical symbols, the French Revolution provided the myth and icons of the revolution in Iran. Equality, liberty and fraternity appeared as an icon on the front page of many Persian newspapers such as Musavat, iran-i Now, Sur-i Israfil and Nida-yi Vatan. Many pages of the constitutionalist journals appearing between 1905-1911 were devoted to the definition of terms such as hUfTiyat (Liberty) , musavat (equality), ukhuwat (fraternity), millat (the people/nation), qanun (law), qanun-i asasi (the fundamental law) and many other general concepts which tie the Iranian Constrtutional Revolution to the French Revolution. The principles which appeared in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen were among the intensley debated issues in Majlis-i Shura-yi Milli (National Consultative Assembly). Many of these principles can be found in the Iranian Constitution of 1907 under the section entitled the "Rights of the people of Iran" (huquq-i millat-i Iran) . The emergence of a new political imaginary resulted in an intensified contestation between the Constitutionalists and the Shari 'atists. For example, Shaykh Fail Allah Nuri, the intellectual leader of the ani i-constitutionalist movement, referring to constitutionalists as "Paris worshippers" (Paris Parastha) argued: "Oh, you God worshippers, this National Assembly (Shura-yi MiIIi), Liberty (HufTiyat va AzadT), equality (musavat va barabarT), and the principles of the present constitutional law (asas-i qanun-i mashriitah-i hBliyah) is a dress sown for the body of Farangistan, and is predominantly of naturalist school (tabi-i madhab) and transgress the Divine law and the holy book." In his sincere protestations Shaykh Nuri had clearly understood that the new conception of politics would alter the traditional order of the society and establish something which owes more to the parliamenl of Paris than to Islam. It was quite clearly so. And When Shaykh Fail Allah Nuri was condemned 10 execution by the revolutionary tribunal in 1909, the guiding principle was the French Revolution and Robespierre. Like the execution of Louis XVI , the execution of Shaykh Fail Allah, the most learned of the ulama ofTehran, marked a radical rejection of the previous social and symbolic order. This inaugurated a new age of popular national politics. Abstract prepared by the author.

inqiliilJ-i kabir (great revolution). Persian travellers to Europe. writing at different periods. offered different perceptions of the French Revolution. Mirza 'Abd ai-Latif Shushtari. writing in 1799. perceived the French Revolution as a heretical and anti-religious movement and

wished that God would destroy the contemptible nation of France (tiiyifah-i makhdulah-i Fariins. qatiluhum Allah). Mirza AbO Talib. who travelled to Europe between 1799/1213 and 1803/1 217. noted that " a great revolution" (inqiliiIJ-i 'azimi)oocurred in France. the strong became weak and the weak became strong. The people. in accordance with the laws of the republic. elected from among themselves representatives (ahl-i shurii). Mirza Salih writing in 1819 offered a detailed and accurate account of the revolution. execution of Louis XVI. rise of Robespierre. and the achievements of Napoleon . Others such as Abu ai-Hassan IIchi. Mirza Husayn Khan Ajudanbashi. Mirza Fattah Garmrudi. Farrukh Khan Amin al-Dawlah alsp made general remarks about the French Revolution. Those remarks often served as an introduction to the rise of Napoleon who had become a locus of Iranian fascination. With the developement of a new genre of political pamphleteering and oppositional journalism in 1860's and 1870路s. the French Revolution became viewed as a movement for human liberation from oppression and tyrannic rule. Among essayists and journalists. Mirza Yusuf Khan. Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani. and Mirza Malkum Khan played a notable role in the popularization of the ideals of liberty and equality and in the articulation of a constitutionalist discourse in Iran. Mirza yusuf. a resident of Paris in 1860路s. saw the Civil Code as the secret of the progress of France and the rest of Europe. He viewed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as the spirit and soul of the French Code and called for codification and standardization of Iranian law in accordance with the spirit of the declaration. Mirza Malkum Khan. a close friend of Mirza yusuf. constituted the demand for qiinun (law) as a populist slogan unifying a diverse ensemble of social forces and classes. Mirza Aqa Khan Kirrnani. constructed a system of historical narration in which Mazdak and Kave, two pre-Islamic Iranian personalities, were

construed as the originator of the ideals of liberty. equality and struggle against tyranny. The ideals of the French Revolution. merging with the 19th century movements for the revitalization of pre-Islamic Iranian history. and simplification of Persian

prose changed the signification of millat from the people of Shi-i religion to the people of Iran. The former meaning of "the people" had come from a paradigm in which God was viewed as the source of sovereignty. the state and religion were articulated as twin brothers. and social images and ideals were drawn from Islamic

not possible, they should be owned and operated by individuals; and that where this was not possible, they should be owned and operated by govemment: all measures which he fe~ would restore the balance in lije which had been lost primarily because of machines. As for what Iranians should do in their encounters with the West, he identified five categories for consideration: (1) democracy, and related concepts; (2) scientific advances; (3) various machines; (4)the claims that "civilization", " progress", etc., were somehow peculiar to the West; and (5)materialistic philosophy and other excessive and baseless ideas. He fe~ that Iranians were in general right in adopting, or wanting to adopt, Westem ideas and advances in the first three categories, but that they were wrong in following the West in the last two categories. Looking to the future, he fe~ that two things were needed in the East: (1) to fight religious superstijion, religious divisions, and other harmful ideologies; and (2) to adopt the necessary science and technology from Westemers, while avoiding their ideologicaV philosophical errors.

Abstract prepared by the author.

Constitutionalist Imaginary in Iran and the Ideals of the French Revolution

Mohammad Tavakoli-Targhi

The French Revolution as an event, and as an icon of liberty, has provided the symbolic resources for political and ideological contestations in diverse places and periods of modem history. Interpretations olthe French Revolution like that of other events and texts reveal as much about the interpreting subject as they reveal about the subject being interpreted. The nineteenth century Persian commentators have r~fe~ed to the French Revolution using a wide variety of negative and positive Slgmflers such as fitnah (sedition), fisad (corruption), ba/va-yi am (popular disturbance), shurish (insurrection), inqi/Bb-i 'azim (great reVOlution), and

had led to the endurance of a non-<:ritical proclivity on the part of Iranian intellectuals to reflect on their ancestral beliefs and heritage.

Abstract prepared by the author.

Kasravi on the Cultural Encounter Between East and West

Mohammad-Ali Jazayeri

Ahmad Kasravi (1890-1946), Iranian historian, jurist, and social thinker, began his extensive analysis of Iran's social and political problems and their solutions wtth a critical analysis of the oonditions of the industrialized West, and waming to Iranians and other non-Westemers to avoid the great pitfalls of Westemization. He did so first in the two-volume Ayin (,Creed'), published in 1932-33, at the height of the Great Depression, in the West. A major cause of the problems of the West, he believed, was excessive and indiscriminate use of machines, which helped exacerbate, or create, many other problems. He disputed the claim that. machines made life easier, since they caused widespread unemployment, led to extremes of weaHh and poverty, enoouraged undue concentration on the superficialities of life, and made dishonest notions such as " planned obsolescence" respectable. Commerce, originally a means, had beoome an end with greatly harmful oonsequences. Govemments had oome to subject everything to the interests of capttalists, resuHing in imperialism, oolonialism, etc. Combined with ancient hostiltties among European powers, machines had come to make wars far more horrible than ever. Harmful philosophies, such as materialism, contributed to the worsening of the human condition. Kasravi proposed that where something could be done both by hand and by machine, machines should not be used; that where machines had to be used, they should be made small enough to be operated by individuals; and that where this was

Westoxication and Oriental ism in Reverse

Mehrzad Boroujerdi

This article seeks to critically deconstruct the ontological premises underlying the process of identity formation of modern Iranian intellectuals through a discussion of the problematic of Gharbzadegi (Westoxication). Gharbzadegi was undoubtedly the dominant intellectual discourse of pre-revolutionary Iran owing it's popularity to its iconoclastic attitude toward both the state and the West. Drawing upon the works of Michel Foucault and Edward Said on how the " constitution of otherness" permeates any process of identity formation, the author contends that Gharbzadegi came to articulate a popular yet distorted imagery ofthe " Western other" and the " Iranian self." In their attempt to articulate a counter-discourse to the West and its Orientalist narrative about the " East," Gharbzadegi inadvertently led many Iranian intellectuals te> accept the ontological premise of Orientalism which viewed the West as a "cultur.' of reference. " While decrying the political ramifications of orientalism. Iranian intellectuals embraced the latter's ontological and epistemological dichotomies as well as its figurative mode of language. all that was changed was a reversal in the privileged position of the observer-narrator, as "Orientalism in Reverse" became the new mode of discourse popular among Third World intellectuals. Gharbzadegi was the Iranian version of this "Orientalism in Reverse ." Schematically tracing the trajectory of the discourse of Gharbzadegi in the memoirs of an eighteenth-century Iranian Traveler to Europe, as well as the intellectual debates taking place in post-Constitutional era, the author maintains that Iranian intellectuals' strategy vis-a-vis the West changed from one 'f "Mastering" it to one advocating its "abandonment." The adjoining intellectual ik between the two were the ideas of Dr. Fakhroudin Shad man, who must be cn oited with having articulated the basic tenants of Gharbzadegi almost fifteen years before Jalal AI-e Ahmad. Finally, the article concludes with the assertion that faced with the ideological permeation of the West. Iranian intellectuals have increasingly turned toward nativism, traditionalism, and Islamicism in their process of identity formation. This

27 Within this cultural domain - which in itself was divided into the three spheres of Iranian, Turkish, and Arab influence - existed a number of modernizing centers that began to disseminate cultural and material elements of Western civilization:

Ottoman Empire, India, Caucasus, Egypt and some of their cities such as Istanbul, Cairo, Tiblisi, Calcutta, Bombay and finally Tabriz, Rasht, Rezaiyeh and Tehran. It was in these centers, that, under Western influence, the idea of modernization flourished and led to the advent of important cultural movements such as Nihzal in the Arab world (specially in Egypt and Lebanon), the Jadidi school in Turkistan and Caucasus and the movement for religious modernization in India. Iran was also

influenced by all these currents and movements. 3. While at first the governments in these dependent, non-colonial countries were against modernization and limned themselves exclusively to " reforms", the intellectuals became the advocates of and crusaders for modernization. After the collapse of the empires and the establishment of nation-states some of these intellectuals assumed leading roles in the governments and opened the way for a scrt of "authoritarian modernization". 4. In these newly created nation-states the first drive was for the substnution of . despotic regimes by democratic governments. and hence the primacy of the political dimension of modernization. It was only laterthatthe cultural and economic aspects of modernization came into play. In the second half of the nineteenth century the first phase in the introduction of modernity into Iran began wrth familiarity wrth modern ideas and a yearning for change and progress. It is in this period that modern nationalism becomes the cornerstone of the bourgeoisie in Iran; and in spite of the unwillingness and incapability of the govemment to engage in radical modernization, the SOCiety becomes increasingly acquainted with the West and wnh modem values. The second phase is that of authomarian modemization: onset of industrialization, and the development of rnodern educational, judicial, administrative and military institutions. This is the phase of urbanization and the onslaught of western cultural values. The Second World War ushers in a kind of unbridled modernization. The American way of life replaces that of the Europeans and the modernization of Iran resumes its forward march again. This part of the article is concluded wrth a review of the third phase in which Iran experiences a period of rapid growth and development, thanks to ns abundant human resources and oil revenues.

Abstract prepared by the author.

On Modernization of Iran

Jamshid Behnam

History of the Iranian people in the last century and a ha~ has been deeply influenced by an attraction to the West, by the idea of modemization and by the pull of nationalism. These influences are likely to continue in the years to come. The author attempts to analyze the process of modemization in this period and proposes that such an analysis, specijically in the case of Iran, should be informed by the following points. 1. The process of modemization ought to be studied with reference to modemizing countries that, despite their economic and at times political dependence, were never colonies of the great powers. the case of these non-colonial and yet dependent countries is quite exceptional. However, the " sociology of modemization and development" has usually focused on those countries which have been under direct colonial rule for long periods oftime. It is the " dependent, non-colonial countries", such as Tzarist Russia, Japan, China and the Ottoman empire that form the core of the autho~s reference. 2. The process of modemization in Iran should be reviewed within the context of Middle Eastem cunure. During the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century, the Middle East was by and large dominated by two powers, one with a tribal structure (Qajars) and the other based on the Caliphate of the Islamic tradition (Ottoman Empire). Westem contacts with these two Middle Eastem powers was in a sense a renewal of the ancient contact between Christianity and Islam, albeit with different connotations.

sous la direction de

Rene Grousset, Louis Massignon, Henri Masse

L'ame de I'Iran preface de

Daryush Shayegan essai

Albin Michel

Contents Iran Nameh Vol. VIII, No.3, Summer 1990 Persian:

Articles Selections Book Reviews Communications English:

Abstracts of Articles: On Modernization of Iran (I) Jamshid Behnam

Westoxication and Orientalism in Reverse Mehrzad Boroujerdi

Kasravi on the Cultural Encounter Between East and West Mohammad-Ali Jazayery

Constitutionalist Imaginary in Iran and the Ideals of the French Revolution Mohammad Tavakoli- Targhi

The Contribution of Iranian Thinkers to Arab Civilization Louis Massigrwn

On Discourse H. Gh. Azodanlu

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CJratV A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies

On Modernization of Iran (I) Jamshid Behnam

Westoxication and Orientalism in Reverse

Mehrzad Boroujerdi Kasravi on the Cultural Encounter Between East and West Mohammad-Ali Jazayery

Constitutio nalist Im aginary in Iran and the Ideals o f the Fre nch Revolution Mohammad Tavakoli-Targhi

The Contributio n o f Iranian 11linke rs to Arab Civilizatio n W ),'js Massigrum

O n Discourse

H Gh Azodanliu

Vol. VIII, No.3, Summer 1990