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••• - Shahrokh Meskoob, Iranian Nationality and the Persian Language, Tr.

Michael Hillmann, Washington, D. c., Mage, 1992. - Hamid Dabashi, Theology of Discontent: the Ideologjcal Foundations of

the Islamic Revolution in Iran, New York, New York University Press, 1993. Daryush Shayegan, Cultural

ScJtizophrenia; Islamic Societies Confronting

the

West, Translated from the French by John Howe, London, Saqi Books, 1992. - Mary Boyce, Zaroastrianism; Its Antiquily and Constant Vigor, (Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies, No.7), New York, Mazda, 1992. - George A. Boumoutian, The Khanare of Erevan Under Qajar Rule,

1795-1828, (Persian Studies Series, No, 13), New York, Mazda, 1992. - Linda Komaroff, The Golden Disk of Heaven: Metalwork of Timurid Iran,

(persian Art Series, No.2), New York, Mazda, 1992.

I ••

• Mohammad Ebn-e Monavvar. The Secrets of God's Mystical Oneness, Tr. John O'Kane, (Penian Heritage Series, No. 38), New York.. Mazda. 1992. • Gilbert Laurd, A Grammar of Contemporary Persian. (Persian Studies

Series. No. 14), New York. Mazda, 1992. -Muhanunad A.

Dandamayev, h3.nians in Achaemenid Babylonia.

(Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies, No.6), New York, Mazda. 1992.

• C. A. Storey, Pasian Uttnture. Vol. V. Pan I, London. The Royal Asiatic Society. \992.

• • • - The Middle East Journal, Vol. 47. Winter 1993. - Chanleh, Vol. I, No. I, Fall 1992. - HamdarrllsJamjcus, Vol. XV. No. 3, Autumn 1992.

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Persian Journal for Science and Society P.O. Box 7353 Alexandria, Virgina 22307

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9 the hagiographical literature suggests that Baqi Billah agreed with his disciple's position, there are a number of reasons for supposing that this might not be quite accumte. One of them is the fact that Khwaja Khtuli (along with his brother Khwaja Kalan) established a rival Naqshbandi KhaMqah and never swerved from his devotion to Ibn aI· · Arabi. In an Arabic work, al-Fawa'ih. he writes: A group has supposed that tawhid is in shuhud, not wujud, but mey have not reached the reality of the station. Another group has verified thar wujud is the same as shuhud and that the shuhud that opposes wlljud is of no account" Khwaja Khurd is the aulhor of severa] beautiful and simple Persian ft

works that display his mastery of wahdat aJ-wujud. His Nur-i Wahdat, whose text is provided in mis article, illustrates that a vision of lhe oneness of all things does not contradict careful observance of the SIlariah.

Doctrinal and Theoretical Gnosis and Spiritual Wayfaring in Sufism Seyyed Hossein N asr Theoretical gnosis. that is, doctrinal and metaphysical expositions of the trulhs of SufISm appeared in me Islamic world in the 6lh/12th and 7th/13th centwies and spread especially through the leaChings of Ibn •Arabi and his school. While it spread widely panicularly in Iran, it was also opposed by several circles. The author discusses the opposition of various groups such as cenain Shari'ite scholars, metaphysical expositions, philosophers with a rationalistic bent and finally, in the recent period, modernists influenced by various schools of Western philosophy and opposed to al1 traditional thought The author responds to their criticism of theoretical gnosis and discusses why its appearance was necessary from the point of view of the integral tradition of SufISm and has played a very imponant role as far as spiritual practice and travelling upon the path of SufISm are concerned.

The Concept of Knowledge in Rumi's Mathnawi Mohammad Este'lami The definition of 'ilm or knowledge in Rumi's Mathnawi embraces the generally accepted definitions of science, knowledge, philosophy, theology or mysticism. In Rumi's view. however, the concept of 'Urn at the same time both b'atlscends and. in a sense, differs from the concepts usually associated with the terms such as science, knowledge. or philosophy_ Indeed, there are two main definitions for 'j/m in the Mathnawi. In the first definition 'Urn is related to lhe visible and lhe material existence and is, therefore, accessible to man through educational institutions and scientific experimentation. In the other defUlition 'ilm is not worJd]y or materia] and, therefore, can not be taught and is not accessible through books. laboratories or

educational ins:titutions. This cXlI'aocdinary 'Um attests to the fact that the Truth lies beyond ordinary hwnan knowledge. It is related to an awareness of the invisible and uanscendental world which is the only real and eternal aspect of existence. Thus, to be well-versed in any particular scientific or scholastic freld does not by itself open a window to mat invisible world. Rumi never doubts or denigrates the values of scholarship and scientific endeavors. His overriding consideration is, however, that all knowledge. science, and culture. must serve as a stepping SlOne for man to attain a higher level of consciousness and to reach the highest plateaus of spiritual and humane understanding. In this comprehensive defmition of 'Urn the ultimate function of all institutions of learning woukl be. therefore, to facilitate the elevation of man to such lofty levels of understanding and gnosis.

Khwaja Khurd's NUT路i Wahdat William C. Chittick Khwaja Khurd was born in 1010/1601. His father was Shaykh Muhammad Baqi Billah (d.IOl2/1603), who was instrumental in establishing the Naqshbandi Sufi order in India Baqi Billah is known mairuy as the master of Shaykb Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1034/1624), who proposed the K1ea of wahdaJ al-slulhud as a corrective to wahdat al-wujud, the supposed position of rbn al-' Arabi. AJthough

active engagement with the most crucial theological, philosophical and mystical issues of his time. A close reading of Shakwa' a/-Gharib provides a window onto the inner sanctum of the Persian and Islamic moral imagination--in relentless pun;uit of certitude and serenity in the face of a perpetually recurring sense of uncertainty, doubt and anxiety of being.

Epistemological Significance of Suhrawardi's Persian Writings Mehdi Aminrazavi In this article an attempt has been made to demonstrate lhat some of lhe interpretations of Suhrawardi's doctrine of illwnination [lshraq] have been somewhat inaccurate and that the correct interpretation of this doctrine has to take into account Suhrawardi's mystical works written in Persian. Among these inaccuracies include the following: (a) An utra rationalistic interpretation of Suhrawardi which disregards lhe Sufi elemems of lshraq and considers the peripatetic works of Suhrawardi to be his major contribution; (b) An Avicinian interpretation which maintains that through rationalization alone one can have a vision of truth which Suhrawardi equates with the experience of illumination and: (c) The view that holds the doctrine of illumination to be a perfect blend of reason and intellectual intuition. It is a combination of the mastery of rationalistic philosophy and inner purification which leads to the experience of illumination. The problem. according to the author. lies in the question as to which should come flTSt. rationalistic philosophy or inner purification. The author argues that his interpretation of Suhrawardi's philosophy emphasizes the primacy of inner purification since the core of the doctrine of lshraq is Sufism. He further argues that the Persian mystical narratives of Suhrawardi are essential clues to the understanding of his philosophy. in fact, more essential than his Peripatetic writings. According to the author. Suhrawardi ultimately advocated. practical wisdom and not discursive reasoning as the only way oftlecoming "illuminated."

6 scholars of Akbar's court. It was through Darn ShukUh's Persian translation that the philosophy of Upanishads was introduced to Europe.

The interaction Qf Islamic SufISm and Hindu and Buddhist traditions have been noticed. Sufi thought, practice and organization in South Asia were inspired and rotated within the perimeters laid down by the Iranian lhinkers. Indian Sufism was particularly influenced by Suhrawardi, Abu Sa'Id Abul-Khair.

Sana'l, 'Attar. RUmI. 'IrAqI, Hall!j. Khw!ja 'AbdullAh Ansari. GhazzAlI, Hujwiri and Jaml, among others. Taken as a whole. the Persian Sufi ideas and traditions supplied to Muslim mystical movemem in South Asia its motive power, its driving force. its ideals and its goals.

'Ayn al-Qudat's Trial According to His Apologia Hamid Dabashi 'Ayn a1.Qudal a1-Hamadani', (491/1098-525/1131) Shakwa' ai-gharib is onc of the most remarkable texts of medieval intellectua1 hislOfy. In this short, concise, and deliberate apologia, delivered in first. person narrative. 'Ayn aIQudat defends himself against the charges of heresy, claims to divinily, and a few other related accusations levelled against him by a number of leading theologians and jurists. At the peak of his intellectual achievements, attained at the early age of thirty-three lunar years, â&#x20AC;˘Ayn al-Qudat was Caplw-ed in his native Hamadan and imprisoned in Baghdad. From his prison cell, he delivered one of the most astonishing documents in the history of Persian and Islamic mystical

though!. In Shakwa' al-Gharib (litetally, the complaint of the exile), 'Ayn alQudal provides a personal assessment., rare in the individuality of its conception and delivery, of some of the most troublesome issues in the Islamk: intellectual history. The clarity of his personal voice and the brilliance of his moral imagination are so powerful and passionate that since al-Ghazzali's al-MUIU{idh min ai-Dalal we have never heard a Persian thinker speak of his inner doubts and anxieties, convictions and capabilities, so clearly and convincingly. As 'Ayn al-Qudal gives an account of the charges brought against him, and as he provides a brilliant response to them, we witness the mind of one individual thinker in

Persian Influence on the Development of Literary And Sufi Traditions in South Asia* Khaliq Ahmad Nizami In this article, which is a reproduction in Persian of the Foundation for Iranian Studies' and the George Washington University's joint Annual Noruz Lecture by a Distinguished Scholar of Iranian Studies, Professor Khaliq Ahmad Nizami traces the influence of Iran on the development of South Asian culture. panicularly its social and rcligio-philosophical thought. The spirit of medieval Persian Renaissance turned Iranian traditions into a vibrant force and shaped the socio-political ideals of the Sultans, the literary and anistic paradigms of scholars, the moral code and spiritual goals of the Sufis. the melodies of the musicians and the parameters of medical science.

It was generally believed in India during the Sultanate period that kingship was nOl possible without emulating Persian customs, ceremonies and principles of government. From Hasan Nishapuri, the earliest historian of Delhi Sultanate (Taj al-Ma'athir) to Khair aI-Din llAMbMI. the last historian of the Mughal Empire Clbrat Namah).the Iranian paucrn delemlined the collection and presemation of hislOricaI data. In the field of learning and literature, Iranian influence shaped the contour and conspeclUs of historiography, pcM!try, tasawwuf (mysticism), [nsha' (epistolary principles) and tibb (medicine). The Persian poetic genius found a congenial aunosphere at Akbar's court and its influence spread far and wide. In all imponant genres of poetry--ghazal, mathnawi and qasidah--the success of a poet in South Asia was measwro by the extent of his approximation to standards set by the Iranian poets. The Shiihnilmeh influenced the politico-cultural thinking of the people so deeply that its translations were undertaken in several Indian languages, including Urdu, Hindi and Gujurati. The process of what Iqbal calls tidamgari (shaping the Man), and which later on became the summum bonum of mystic activity, begins in the 13th century with Sa'd!, RumI, 'IraqI and other masters of Persian poetry. Hafiz's literary reputation reached India during his lifetime and his poetry came to represent the quintessence of the romantic fervor of Iran. The Khamsah tradition in India owes much of its elan to Ni711mI of Ganja, the most resplendent poet of romantic epic. The masters of Persian qasidah--RudakI, 'UnS1lli, FarrukhI, Kh.liqilni, AnwarI and others--dclemlined qasidah patterns and motifs in India. Persian became the language of all Indian religions when Mahabharar, Ramayan, Atharban, Haribas and other religious texts were rendered imo Persian by the

4 The Influence of the Iranian SOfis on Arab Literature:

Poetry and Prose' Ahmad Mahdavi Damghani The term adtlb in Islamic culrure has a practical as well as an intellectual connotation. Practical adab defmes an area of behavior which is generally known as "polite. Intellectually, adab means literat.me in the wider sense of the tenn. Iranian sufis have played a very important role in the development and perfection of practical and intellectual adab in tht" Arab and other Islamic societies. The first book in Arabic on practical adab was written H

in the 2nd centwy A.H./9 A.D. by 'Abdullah Ibn-Mubarak Marwazi of Khurasan. Marwazi's was followed by some twenty books, also on practical adab, mostly written in Arabic by Iranians.

Toward the end of the 4th century A.H., two famous Iranian sufi masters, AbU Bakr Gulabadi BukhAraI and AbU Nasr Sarraj TosI comJXlsed afTa'arrufand a/-Luma' respectively, where the intellectual foundations as well as practical rules of tasawwuf were elaborated. Indeed, with few exceptions (notably Ahmad Ibn-'iisim AntakI, Harith Ibn-Asad Mubasibi. AbU Sa'id aiA'rabi, and Abu tAlib MakkI who were Arabs), Iranians spearheaded the development and perfection of practical and intellectual adab within the Muslim community in the years to come. Some of their work represents the best in mWldane Arabic prose. The first gnostic Arabic poems were composed by Iranian sUfis. Iranians introduced the Rubiif, the quatrain form, to Arabic poetry. The fIrSt Arab sufi poet to use the form, Ibn Faril MisI'i, learned it from Iranians. A particularly important contribution of Iranians to Arab gnostic adab is the sufi interpretation and explication of the Holy Qur'an, which remained purely an Iranian undertaking until the 7th century A.H. Extant among these interpretative essays are Sulami Nishabiiri's Haqayiq al-TaJsfr, Tarmadi's Nawiidir, Qushairt NisMbiir'i's Latayif aJ-'lshariJt, and Ru.zbihan Shirazi's 'Ara'is aJ-Baytln. Ibn Arabi's Futulult Makkfya and al-Jawab al路Mustaqim are elaborations of discourses begun centuries before by Tarmadi and other Iranian sufis.

Chivalry in Islamic lran* Mohammad OJ.'far Mahdjoub Referring to both the writings of Western scholars and the first hand indigenous documents. treatises. books and epic stories on the concept and institutions of Javanmardi [chivalry). the author suggests that chivalrous behavior of either individuals or groups dates back to pre-Islamic. and even pre-historic, Iran. Historically, in both Iran and Arab societies javanmardi and gnostic philosophy shared a number of common characteristics. Renunciation of worldly goods and aspirations. altruism and patience in the face of adversity were among the basic norms of behavior wsplayed by early Javanmards and sufis both. Furthermore, according to the author, both khanUjahs [abodes of sufis) and langars (abodes of javanmards] gradually turned toward subtle and at times open rivalries. In fact. the competition between various groups of javanmards often led to armed and bloody skirmishes requiring intervention by government's security forces. The aulhor also describes in some detail how the code of chivalrous behavior influenced the business conduct of many a merchant or artisan guild in Iran. Each of these guilds drafteda manual of chivalrous conduct (fotvvat-nameh) which included the basic precepts and norms of behavior to which all members of the guild adhered in their business dealings. The author further suggests that these chivalry-oriented guilds survived in Islamic societies until early twentieth ceOltD)'. The author concludes this article by wscussing the various genres of !oloVVD1-nameh and by citing some of the more noteworthy among them .

â&#x20AC;˘ Abstracts marked by an asterisk are JRpared by Iran Namd. Abstracts without asterisk are prepared by authors.

THE ORAL HISTORY COLLECTION OFTHE

FOU NDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDIES

Edited by Gholam Reza Afkhami and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr With a Foreword by Elizabeth B. Mason

FOUNDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDI ES 1991

Contents Iran Nameh Vol. XI, No. I, Winter 1993

Persian: Anicles Book Reviews Communications

English:

Chivalry in Islamic Iran Mohammad Dja,/ar Mahdjoub

The Influence of the Iranian Sufis on Arab Literature Ahmad Mahdavi Damghani Persian Influence on Literary and Sufi Tradition in South Asia Khaliq Ahmad Nizami â&#x20AC;˘Ayn al-Qudat's Trial According to His Apologia Hamid Dabashi

Epistemological Significance of Suhrawardi's Persian Writings Mehdi Aminrazavi The Concept of Knowledge in Riimf's Mathnawf Mohammad Este'lami Khwaja Khurd's Nur-i WaJuJat William C. Chittick Doctrinal and Theoretical Gnosis and Spiritual Wayfaring in Sufism

Seyyed Hossein Nasr

A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies Published by The Foundation lor Iranian Studies

Editorial Board:

Advisory Board:

Daryush Shayegan Shahrokh Meskoob

Guitty Azarpay, University of California, Bcrktley Peter J. Chelkowski, New York University Richard N. Frye, Harvard University

Book Review Editor:

Ahmad Karimi·Hakkak

M. Dj. Mahdjoub

S. H. Nasr. George Washington University

Managing Editor:

Roger M. Savory, University ofToronto

Honnoz Hekmal

Ehsan Yarsha!er, Columbia University

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Chivalry in Islamic Iran Mohammad Dja'jar Mahdjoub The Influence of the Iranian Sufis on Arab Literature Ahmad Mahdavi Damghani

Persian Influence on Literary and Sufi Tradition in South Asia Khaliq Ahmad Nizami

'Ayn aI-Qudat's Trial According to His Apologia Hamid Dabashi Epistemological Significance of Suhrawardi's Persian Writings Mehdi Aminrazavi

The Concept of Knowledge in Rfimi's Mathnawf Mohammad Este'/ami

Khwaja Khurd's Nur-i Wahdat William C. Chittick Docainal and Theoretical Gnosis and Spiritual Wayfaring in Sufism Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Vol . XI. No. I, Winter 1993