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RtWions Before 4Ild After the Iranian Revolution," in F. Kazemi wd S.

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lOJcpb Rouse, KoowledBc IUId Power,/fbac., N. Y., Cornell Univeniry Pren, 1987, pp. 26-40 14. Midlad PoIanyi, Ibe Growth of Science in SocictyM, in Caul..., &. Rogen, MIUIIDd the Science of Mm, CoIumbul, Ohio: OIarie.....d MctriJl, 1965, p. 122. U""'""~ ..r'~l:S"

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Univerlily PM •• of America, 1980. 16. C. V. Scstt.dri and V. Balaji, Twoanb. New Sc~ of Asriculture, Madras. MCRe, undMW, p. 4 (Quoted by Claude Alvares in Wolfsang Sachs, ed. The DeveloprnCllt Dictiooary,

Londoo, Zed Boot.s, 1992, p. 222.

WoJf8a/l1 SKJu, Ibid., p. 223. Ig. Claude Alvares, "Science, Colonialism and Violence: A Luddilc View," in Ashil Nandy,

cd. Scienee, HCB<:fOOfIy..oo V"lOkrJce, Delhi: Odonl Univenity PMss, 1988, p. lOl l.

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J..:.!.l

0.J~ olS'

,~T.J ~I ,~L.;..J.l

:~"..... LSI..>":'

....J...:...-J...,.;

.( r·

t....r.L. jl.i.T.),) ~

W"") •. J..)\.S' 0~~).) '.ljl...0lif ,.,..,..).J

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.",)l.;j\ ~ .)\ ~,;;.),) ~ ....... I.,....b.... , _ J.,.,.....,)~ \.)

~\.) J-.I ...;......\ tS~,.'I ~b...s ~"-! ,.'I~

r,.'li

o .......

.(Y'1-Y'A ............. ) '.,.'1,)1..'1 ,.'I~ jI0~1.s ~~., ..::..j~,.'I .fA ~ tSL.J.:..1

.o~......;i

..,..h.... "'_

., 0L~ ~ o.)L.:.1 .),.'1) "Be. and it is"~ (Vb...".) .0~

·(ui r~\"

.,L

u.S....

lu... ;',.'I\.;II..p..t"!~

.( \Yb...".) .~~ ~)l>L

l. ~ ,)1 <s)~

r-- ,.))1.> ~

~ J~ jl 0~ 0~J

r-- J

..... 1~I )\Sj\._L; o",L.-.

J')J"I> lJ"1>u;'JIL

')JI.> ~J.) ~J ~ <st...:....!.1.> JJ~ J .( \ 'l"V ...,...) .....:-1 )~ <s1~L..

: .))....:.if .r. rS~ ~~.) J') IJ ,J.:.) J..I J

(Iff'...,...) • . . .

I..L:. ..:,...,.,1.:..&.

t.r- r~ ,.... l..~~....s:Jl-

~~,.,.; I...¢~

~J ..;.l;....rJ.- ,~~)l. ,.

J 0l:l"":'" J 0~U J 0 Ijt.....A:-:- ~""\"'i~ vol..J....,,~ If~ ~~ J ..:..-IJ IJ.)~ etc. ~ ~l.iS' ~ J .)jUwIU-- ~ j\ ~~J.) lJ • ... J ru;" .(p. 131) . .ci<f .( \ fA...,... ) • ....J).- V!--II jl -It.~\ ~

c..r!-

jIJ_

~I,. ":'J~ .~\~,.. jl ~~ ~ 04-J.) J.)Yo

~.)JJi ~ J') u.~

...:-1 O....Lot;.

~..;

........' .::-:; """;;

~...;. ~I...:..:...:; ..:.t-ll.....IJ ..:.W:;I ~G..:-..10i ~..;.~.) ~ :~~<sI.r. ...:-1 ~~.)..$ ~~ VoJ~ ~";,:"",,,.Y.)..,....-t...~J.)J~....t..J. J ~"'-:-

1.......1..l;. ,(po 41) "energetic force" :~...w. ~.;; ('1""...,...) ".)~" _

...:-1 holy war.).,.........

,~..;...!. ~"~

.{P. 51)"building and using":~..;...!. ~.;. ( f f <J"» [0~j]".:.;.>I.>,r.J .:.;.>L.."_ ...:-1 d J )S' ~ polishing ~ ~ lo:,•.;,h.) .:.;.>I.)~ (ft' ...,...) «'.).J:' .,......:. ,~,,:, J 0...r..JI~jl ~~ If.

Jif'

y.r r~

..:,... . . . .r.

:~....t..J. ~..;

"Poetry was the highest fonn of Arab discourse, popular and without benefit of reading and writing."(p. 51);

:....t..J.

Poetry was the highest fonn of e~pression

~ ')I..!..

.;...1..

<f -. of the illiterate Arab who could not

read and write. ~] (0' ...,...) «.,?.)7'"".) rS.J:' ~ • ..J-....Ju-" rL!... ~ 0i :;1..>-:-0:-

"'-JL

:~...w. ~..,..:; ,[..:-IIo5~ ~\ ~ ......>..£..

.>\

"Everything about it reaches the mostrils e~cept the odor of decrepitude.(p. 57); .)y .,::..,..: ,~

cSY-- ~I \:,1 ..::.......1 ~.J..:........o.Y ':'J~ 4..JS "! 4.JS

4.;.

· .. in which you can sense everything but decrepitude. (b1" '-""")

~r-if .::...>>-" ~L.. .J ,-,--!i!.S'" 4>..1 ":' ..;; 0,!1 .>..1 04- 0i. :o....w. ~,.;. o..J.$" ~ o..J.$" .i~

"That soul in this body enters the world and becomes possessed offonn."(p. 59) That soul is born in this body and takes fonn. record of deeds

S ,(po 61) "affairs" :0""""':' ~...; (bb '-""" )· .... L.)\S·_ ."-I~

4,.;. :(p. 73) "rea1ityofexistence" :Q....w.

~,.;.

(V1",-,,"") • ..1~",.. ~I.J·...:-1 existing reality J.!i..1

;(p. 76) "comparativist historian":o..l....!. ~....; (vv ,-,,"")'o~t.).,..·...:-1 Judicious historian..1~ ;(p. 9O)"dependenlS with duty" :o....w. ~,.;. ( \ f,-,,"" ).).p- ~.J0~\""" associates who receive a stipwd :..J..!.if ~ ~4 ..1.,.......a... ;(p. 94) "series of levels" :o..J.....!. ~~ (

u '-""")

.~\ .......

U-L._

...:........1 hierarchy .>..,...J.:.;.. ;(p. 116) "simplistic view" :0..J.....!. ~....; (\ T'A '-""") ' IS~~T'_ ...:.......1 toleration

($L:......... (p. 144) "self-interested" :o...w.

~~ (

'r' '-""") .4-.01.$" ..1.,.;..'_

ell--

...:........1 tylt.:..1 .J totalitarian, arbitrary, authoritarian ~I ojl.J ~

,":-",l.:... ;(P. 185)" lost to self' :.....w.

~~ ( y, 1" '-""" ) '..;...~

c..r. '_

...:........1 selfless :o....w.~,.;. ( y'r'-""" ) • ..:....!.1..lS' J.jr..,....J""!\.>...,:.;~ ....

"put his soul into words" (p. 185); Lost his life for his words [because of what he said]·:..J..!.if ~ ~4

41 4S

:o....w. ~~ ('f \ r V"") .J\.j rlL..>..1.J J~ rlL..>..1 .... "On the level of state and on the level of statement" (p. 187); :..1r-!.S'"

~~I~..1 4~ ...:.........;. o~-,", ~U.....-&- ..1~ ')\.J 414S

On the level of ecstasy and on the level of rhetorics.

r ••

"'..=i.... ($.)lLI

Jr.

J ~.,) I,.S""!

'.5).)

.,;\

1.;.......- ~~ ($L.,--~I j\ lS.;l.J....i., ;...:.~ <s1~ ...:.......I

....:.......1 ""L!. ";":;1.,) (p. 31) "al- Moqanna" 1-"'1-' ( "

uP) .~ (r.l ._

.(p. 42) "Khuzistan" 0l:....j.,.> o"L!. ( rr :".,L!. .~1

<>.)..,5

..;.~

:......-...!.~...,.....:; r.".....~

,.s ......

\.;

~"":-(OT...,...) ' ~.J

IS"~ r~J (p.

........i~

v-) \)L..I~ "_ ;,.)L.....;...)~_

J,)..j\"

59) "from another vantage point"

~ ~.P (rV) Yf'~) \s~ ,;.L&o~I· _

L..... '-" '" .,s'l I; l. .J...,-) (p. 68) "human social affain" ...:.......1 0.)..,5

(p. 71) "human society" :.....w. ~,;; ( Y\uP ) '~ 4 1 0L:.\" ~~.).) _ .~ ...:....".P ~I .(p.115)"I.OOO" :....w.1..,.,.-... ~";'.P ( \Tr uP)

.,;1......

rr"..s

...1...-"_

.(p.136)"ten" :.. ...L.!.1>r-~.;;.).J (\0\ V"") " 0 ' _

:,....w.

~.;;

( \ 00

uP)

·wl:.

~..r' ~.,)r_

"incantations and compound med.ications" (p. 139); :...w..(.S""~.;; ...I..:!~ J ..:.-.).,) • ~.,)1·

,;;

...,.J.......

!...r..,;I .....,.,;,Iy.. '¥.J!' \.;

· ~.,)1·

...1..:!L:.

uS"-:JJ ;beneficiai mixed spices (or drugs) ,"herbs and spices" :""L!. ~.,; O~ ~

continually ~~ ...... ~(p. 185) "conditionruJy" :.. .......:.~...,.:; .-.::.......~ . _

...::-..1 I).s::'.:.i 0" (p. 188) "a practical maner" :.....w. ~.;; (T\Y uP)

...:......1

.....w.

~,;; J.:i.lL

'uL ,.,.\' _

.)~ national question' ...:.....1~.) <.S!

.;.o.u -S'" vi."..", ~.) ..:.L.. ll., ,.. .J ..:..;l.~. .J ..:.W <.S!".J~ ....:.!....is ~\ :~.,...;

:.....w.

~;>

( y \ ~) .tf"~1

tS\-.r. ....:.....\

lS"ll<..> tSl. ..:..J.,...:..;.....

....:.....1 violence •..:...:.~. ~ "military and social powers" 4S ,(pp. 32, 160) "event" :......I..-!. ~~ ~ I ( n . ..J..!.(.S"" ".)J'!

....... ) '~ \J' -

)~ fact-.l.:!~ ...::.......! ~.)I.;

pompous ;(p. 51) " rhythmic":~ ~.,.,.....:; ('F'F t,.)"') [ 0~j

r..;..

k L: _

....::-..\ .;. J.:.i,) :.. ...a..!.~.;.

. ~L;.

('f'P t,.)"' )

~.;. ~l:o

he had no use forpoetry:""":'(J""

.)IS

".,......:. I.)

[~].,I IL

~ (p.53)"hedidnotusepoetry"

r-- J"':"""\ olS'i .,)~ r-- t-'...>L:;).,) ..;~ I ~I......... -

(A\ ....,...) . .. lS'i.,)~l:.

"n.e transmission of ethics in history is a matter both of self-awareness and of instinct." (po 80);

J.:.i,) 4.;.

: .,)"":'(J"" .;.

The penneation of ethics in histroy is both conscious and unconscious. "lack of influence of education" :.....a..!. ~.;. ( \ • \....,... ) .~.;. IS";I ~ _

....::-..1 ineffectivenessof. . . :.;.L...) 4.;. ; (p.96) accusation .. jl., ISL:.- ;(p. 123)

~ insult ~

:...J....!.

~ .....

( ,rp ..,..) •..:.......,.:.._

....::-..\ o-:J,)

;(p. 136)

~ unique~: ~ ~..,...:;

( \ 6\

...r» •0 L..aJ1 ~ _ ....::-..\ unbridled

~..l.. 0".. 1~ ).> ~ ,Vl · l / V" I ,,),),?

0.,...1..0 lS., r~

.....,.,., ~ ":"...1..0),) ~r..:-...>I~

.>".-!- ~l;S J \ "":';.3 ),) JI ....... \ "'-1 ~ ..;.:S ~l.:S" ~ :O<L!. ~,;:; ( '6 \ ...,. )

"Majlesi composed or commisioned approximately 1,202.700. .. " (p. 135); writedown·~t;5")1

,;"..L . ~

~ ~ ~ .~ ~,) ~~

...:......1 jotdown ~

:........:.

u-'u......

..;..j,."..a-o J.u 10.;'4)') ~

~,;:; (

\ ~r ...,.. ) ' 0-':' J".-J.-

"The attainment of creative truth" (p. 168)

: ji~ ~ ......:.~ reaching God

)"J<..;...

~l.S J ...::-..1

(d. pp. 186, 188) attainment of Devine Truth ~ (pp.

184, 188) "supernatural" :...;...!. ~,;:; (y \ V

T' T ~ ) '~la..:... _

...:-1 transcendental';:;

J..:-i,) 4.;.

~ ultimately ;(p. 188) "in time": o.,.t.....!, ~..,...:; ( T\P...,.. r ~t,...:.),)·-

•..:......1 ;(p.190) "motive factors" .....a..!. ~.;. (TT'f ...,..) ........:.j L.. J.. \~'-

·..;.:.l....,)if

I,) ,,)~....:r. constructive factors

:....J...!. ~,;; (YH V"") • ..;.:.,,)>!

o.J...l ,)~

'.S~,,)

,;IS '.S1r. ._

"had come onto the scene for a diffemet task" (p. 191); had been trained fOl' ... :...w.~,..J...!. ~.".:; ~~ i f "::,-,.;,,U 1.511. .:,...il,t,,)

:,,~ tSl~ ~ ~'y

. ..;.:.\....J...!. ..~ ~~ ~L... ~ ~ Js:..!....a..:.W tSl ..,)~

'--! ,(po 82) "foreign affairs~ :,.,.r...!.

~..,.:; (AT' V"") '~,)~,).,..""

:0->,,:, ,external matters :.J...!.if ~.".:; '"":!~

o.J...! ~

oI,.~.,jj J r)S tSl,,::-

"roreign afrairs, the surface manirestation of something going on underneath .. " ''"'':!~if L..... c5. :...J...!. ~,;; ( 'j) 0""") • ..:.1.. J

...s:L ,).,..1

...

"controlling matters of property and the people" (p. 91); :~ ..l.:!~

,o...w.

~ ~

...s:L

taelding the affairs of the state and the nation.

l:!

~l:- i f

servants

.(slave

r--

;(p. 137) "likenesses

;(p. 132) "masters" :...J...!. ~,;; ('T'F- 0""") ."J.A")if

01'

master

r-- 'j."..).J...!.~ ....J...!.~';; subjects

analogies" :~ ~.",.; ('bY 0""") •..:.~. _

...:.-1 suspicions l.! uncertainties J ....1.;;

~ ;(p. 137) "writings"

:o...w.

·..J...!.if ~,;;

~.;;

~\,),,) ,)~

( , bY V"") • 1............".,..:;._

modulations ~~ ...:-1 ~Ir ..........

L..JU

....:-L...,;l.:.

..:.......)A..

.':1..,.. _-

L.~ tSl ...)~ ~.;; 'r-'~

45 I...

.5"" _

&,!I jl

:oI..i~tSl~ :,..J...!.~';; (fV V"") '~if ol£:j 0i,,-!

l...s ~ ~Ij

jl ._

"from this very specific vantage point of ours" (p. 54) :.J...!.if ~,;; ~~

. ..:.-10,,)..;5

"J,)h \.)

L:.....

..s

from the narrow angle we are looking at it.

tSl.r.

L.~ ~ 0~ ',,)jb~,,) "vantage point" ~ I......U. ~,..,..:..)

~~".;... J ~~,,) ~I 45 ,,)ji<f I; CYo.k.....I

u-:-- .:,;.

.~ ~.

.(..:.-I';"JL.,;.;.. pointofview :.. ~ ~.;; (FI) ....,..,) 1...G.)b ~ ~ 01.j jl ~ts:... ;.) \.) 1. 1L

: .)..,.:.

~.)~ ~

;"theygaveusaplaceintimeandspace." (p.67)

they placed us somewhere in time.

'..J..St..r J.,.-:....._ ...:-1 .).,..-.0..

transfonns ;(p. 88) "encompasses" : ~~.;; (FV..r- )

:.. .J...!.~"; .. .)L J"";L- ( VT ....,..,) «(.$\; ~ ~J ~-'""t. ~IL

"unjustified and arbitrary interpretation" :)1

(p. 72) "misunderstanding" . ~) ~.,..s, ,s~

:.. ...w.

~..; ( AI) ...,... ) «~l..~.) ~...Gj ~J ":'-':IL

:jl ..;.......\ ';"J~ ..:.......).) ~.;;

;"the powerful life of coon" (p. 83)

the vicissitude of life in the government. :.. .J...!.~';; (M·....,..,) « ~ .)~ .. ~ ~ ~ ~ b

tS"L.) ...,.,...... ._

:...w.~ ~.)~....::r. ;"Goddoesnotgiveanyonerationorsalary." (p. 84)

No one is given ration or salary for the sake of God (for the colour of his eyes) . .;..~ .)I ~

..; l:.1 ;.)1

(~T ...,... )

«.)A ~~ \.:;

:.....w. : .)..,.:.

~ .)~

.;.

.;.;\..,; ~..,....-.:.

~..; [r).....\ j\ ~

ISA-:

;"itcannOl playa role until it comes to life"(pp. 88·9)

It cannot breathe to revive. :.. ~ ~;; ( V. ...,... ) •..::....!.y(..S""

t;-l.. ...::..j\.r-

..$'1~ . -

"or if he wrote with the thought of publication" (p. 93); b~!.S~ ..... t:;- J

e;-b

j \ j~ ( 0 '1.,...... ~JJ .»

~ .);)-" ~JJ.) J') ~ 0L.S'

or if he wrote onhisowninitiatve : ...w.~~;; ~~

• .)~ v.:5f ~

..:-:.b

~1..r" ti....L ~jS t~ 1

;.)

: ~ . ~ .)\.,.... IL

:.....w.

~.;. ( \A ...,... )

"In past society, established level and patterns existed in regard to education and knowledge." (p. 93) : ~cf.)~~

Literacy or "erudition" was hierarchicaJ and codified in the past society.

:.. ....w.

~.;;

( \ ••

....,.., ) « ~ J

...w.l:- r~ 0'Jr'J

.r.~

(S...u.....

"Messengers are accountable for their messages, nothing more." (p. 95);

Messengers are to carry messages, nothing more (period).

:.;;L...;

4...:;

....:...........;.s ~ '':-'\ IS'~I ..;..... 1 n ' ~I .;~ [tS..;.........] JI u::A..i..1

:.....L!.~.;. (\.,. ...,..) •..:-41

jl JI J)l;..\ ~.,.o....:.J.)

"His ethics consists in planning the proper social course. 1be point of depature and heart of his ethics derives from this" (p. 97) .~...s ~

. . . "hean"

ul..,.:;~

\.;

·~-,".;..!..~b·

....GL...;~

\.;

.)~

o....w.........."..

:~If'""-:!~ His ethics is mindful of social expediency, here lies the point of departure and the concern of his ehtics. ~ ~L.~j y

l.;r .)~ .;lS

J ..;..;$,.r

Iy.J ~...,j

"";1

:o....w.~...:;

.;l:J.;

.;.)L

(\fr-\f'f w--) • ...u..)1f

" ... influenced thier cultural development and altered their conducts in some

areas." (p. 128); :.)y!o If~.) 4...:;

... influenced their cultural conduct and altered its function in some respects.

:.....L!.~.;;

(\ff...,..) .~U:. ~~~ J .b~1 ~I~I ~j!.....

" ... perceived themselves as of Iranian nationality." (p. 129);

:..:..L '"":!~ ~ ~).)

4.;;

• . . had no notion [literally comprehension and understanding] of Iranian nationality. ( L", \ ...,..) • ..:.....:.1.3 ~) ~

.)~ J

~ ~l...;.i J ~I.J":!~ .;..L~ P

.J~'-:-- ~11

.u (p. 164) "There was a certain professional mobility" :..:.....\

~ .;...;~~...:;

:.....L!. ~.;.

• .))I.J..:.

J-I ~

Exchange existed even in administrative and judicial services. ~"events and acts" (p. 185) :o~ ~..,....:;(

...w.~

J) rl~ (incidence and timelessness)

(ul."J ,",,:!L:.

"':'}'-1\ i~\'::' ,:~ .

"r...,..)

..s.

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.( Aro J.} ":-...... J

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.)p. (5t...:....:..,:.~ .~I ".).,r. vljl~..:...-.) j ~w..'J lSI..>":' ...r...:.""':'U"" .>I...s::; ~.r .u:.i ~ .J1 ,;W ~ ($L.~ j

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rL .s ~\;S )\ 0~ ..:......L j\ ~ J IS~".).;> ~~ dJ ...:-1 ~\.:.....S' ..s 41 ,).)\.> J) ~ .~b .)1..:-1 --- J '-""'~.... ~ .).).,.. IS~ .....l...:- .).) L....:.......tS" J rS u r,),~1 J ..:.......;. r..s-'~ ~ !S~ 0.......,-:> 0i r.s~I..:,... jl 0l:-) ~I 0lS"~1.,.... li .)~ ..,l..'; IJ'"'L..I ~

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••• - John Foran, Fragile Resistance; Social Transformation in Iran from J500

to the Revolution. Boulder, Westview Press , 1993. - Tim McDaniel. Autocracy, Modernization, and Revolution in Russia and Iran, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1991.

- SrudiaIJ1llIica, tome21 , fascicule I, 1992.

- Periodica lsiamica, Vol . 2, No. ) , 1992.

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Persian Journal for Science and Society P.O.Box 7353 Alexandria, Virgina 22307

The Social Framework of Traditionalism and Modernism in Iran* Ahmad Ashraf Scholars often discuss the clash of tradition and mCKIemity in general terms, using current mCKIels of economic. polilicaJ, social and culuual mCKIemizarion. Less auention is usually paid to the social framework of traditionalism and modernism or to the relative powers of contending traditionist and mCKIemist forces. Since tradition and modernity may be associated with the life-style as well as materia] and non-materiaJ interests of social and economic classes and since relative success of each category may be thought to depend on financiaJ, political and cultural resources available to each, the author places the conflict of Uaditionalism and modernism in its social setting. Thus, the anicle reviews thc confrontation of traditional and modem classes in Iran's developmentaJ process, historical roots of their propensity to religious and worldly affairs, and the role played by religious and secular intcllectuals in the tension between uadition and modernity. In the Islamic societies in moocm times scribes and other functionaries of the state gradually adopted the Western way of life and thus became the nucleus of a ncw middle class, constituted a new political elite and acted as carriers of Western behavioraJ traits. Clerics and members of the bazaar, on the other hand, kept up a rural urbanite life style. In the middle of this century a third type began to appear in the cities. Sinee increasing migration from the fannland to cities during this period has coincided with the rise of fundamentalist Islam, cenain political analysts have interpreted the emerging situation in terms of Durkheim's concept of anomie and considered the dislocated rural people in the cities as the central base of revolutionary Islam. The author suggests, however, that the social base of the traditionaJist forces remains old city neighborhoods and their inhabitants, namely, bazaaris and clerics. The traditional forces in Iran were more successful than their counterparts in other Islamic counlries in reproducing themselves, learning modem ways and modem idioms, and playing an effective political, economic and sociaJ role. Conversely, modernist social classes became relatively wealcer, were increasingly distanced from the mainstream of the society and remained ignorant and neglectful of traditional powers .

â&#x20AC;˘ Abstracts marked by an asterisk have been translated by Iran Nameh.

Nationalism and Moderni7.ation in Iran's Post路Constitutional Political Culture* Nader Entekhabi In the post-constitutional period a new tendency began to take shape in

Iran. The constitutionalistS' failure to achieve the ends of me revolution led many intellectuals and members of the politicaJ elite to believe that the secret of the West's success was to be found not in a representative and democratic order, but rather in its national unilY and nation-state model of government The new tendency, which. may be called "modernist nationalism," was represented by such publications as Kaveh, lranshahr, and Ayandeh. The idea was that Iran needed a powerful centralized Sla\.C to eliminate semi-independent local rulers, to solve the tribal problem, to secure the country's territorial integrity. to do away wilh me ulama's imerference in secular affairs and to establish a unified nation wiLh onc language and onc culture inSlCad of the existing ethnic mosaic that was divided into so many parties and whose constiwents spoke SO many different and mutually incomprehensible languages. Founded on positivistic, centralized, authoritarian and elitist concepts, modernist nationalism was transfonned into the stale ideology of modernization.

The Political Moderni7..ation of Iran* Mohammad Reza Djalili Since the middle of the 19th century, Iran's political elite has tried, for various reasons, to modernize the institutions of the country. The establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran in 1979 seems to suggest that the effort has failed. In rea1ity, however, if the modernization effort seems not to have yielded the expected results, it is, in large pan, due to a constant rivalry between two strong tendencies in the modernization movement (the idealist and the realist) that has led their proponents to fight each other even though they could have easily found a framework for enlenle and compromise. The idealists' failure may be explained in tenns of their utopian illusions. The realists, for their pan, failed due to a lack of flexibility and an incapacity to include in their accomplishments the worries and inleresLS of the people.

The Ups and Downs of Economic Modernization in Iran* Fereydoun Khavand The history of the last two centuries in Iran is a history of lhe struggle to modernize Iran's economy and to overcome its national backwardness. In the 19th century. the two powerful economic refonn currents thai rose from the bosom of the stale bureaucracy failed to reverse Iran 's decline. The next wave of Iran 's economic progress, begun with Rcza Shah's ascem to power, allhough defeated and stopped by the second world war, left an imponant legacy_ A new chapter of economic refonn in Iran during the 19605 and 19705 produced significant results in many fields. But. because of its inner weaknesses, this

modernization experience was also snapped as a resuh of the Islamic Revolution.

Family, Women and Modernization* Vida Nasehi Behnam The anicle is composed of several sections. In the fim section the author traces the paths by which ideas of freedom and equality of men and women entered Iran and discusses how various women's movements began to take shape. Noting the imponant role Iranian writers abroad played in introducing liberal thought to Iran, she also emphasizes the central role of men and women in Iran in establishing a modem press, women's organi7.ations, the Congress of Women, and schools. The second section focuses on the role of the government in establishing a system of modem education, encouraging girls to auend school and to enter the labor market, which resulted in women gelling out or the home and into contact with the world. In the third part the author discusses the effect on women's participation in social and political affairs of national and international political events and organizations, such as the second world war, political parues and the oil nationalization movement. Using personal experience, studies done in the 1960s and 1970s and the laws, in the fowth pan the author notes that modernity in Iran was essentially a matter for urban rather than rural regions.

The article concludes thatlranian women's struggles during the 1980s show that Lhe Iranian society has been affected by modernity and that the process of modernization, begun a hundred and fifty years ago, contin ues despite many

uials and tribulations. Based on a humber of variables, the author suggests that the process has produced Lhrce types of urban women: aadilional, modem-

oriented. and modem.

Modernity, Intellectuals and Democracy* Ramin Djahanbeglou Whereas the tenn "intelligentsia," in its original Russian usage, denotes a group of educated individuals bent on advocating a specific political ideology or religious doctrine, the French word "intellectual" dermes an individual who, unburdened by specific politica1 or ideological agenda, believes in cenain universal valucs. The cultural history of Iran, in the last half century. has been dominated nOl by intellcclua1s. in the French sense of the word, but by the "intelligentsia" with the Russian connotation. In contemporary Iran, therefore, one has been faced not with iconoclasts but with idolizers; nOl with debunkers of legends but with myth-makers. The Iranian "intellecwals," more often than not, have encountered the outside world with a jaundiced, emotional and introspective eye. They have opposed modernity simply because they consider many of its components. such as rationality and democracy, as by-products of WeSlCrn civilization. In their opposition to modernity and westernization. these intellecwals seek refuge in such concepts as "Iranian cultural identity~ or "oriental spiritualism". Thus. the Iranian intellectuals do nOl possess any of the attributes that arc normally associated with their Western counterparts. They can not be called democrats since their beliefs are supposed to be self evident truths and thus not subject to doubt; they are not autonomous thinkers and can not afford to anlagonize public opinion since they seek safety in ideology and crave public adulation. They oppose philosophical relativism and political pluralism in society because of their enchanunent with unitary and absolutist ideologies which has often led them to exercise a kind of intellectual terrorism.

A Hundred Years of Modernization in Iran's Architecture and Urban Development* Reza Moghtader The news of industrial developmcm in Europe and its effect on cities and urban living began to reach Iran approximately from mid路19th century. Gradually, traditional concepts of city planning and urban architecture mixed with new ideas coming from the West as well as Russia The following are

factors affecting this interaction: travels by Iranian statesmen, merchants, students and tourists to Europe and the establishment of foreign embassies, legations and trade representations in Iran; return of students with engineering and architecture degrees from Europe, such as 'Abd ur-Rasul Khan and Min3 Reza (1847), Mirza Mehdi Khan (1864), and others; establishment of "Dar uJ-FunGo" under Arnir

Kabir's aegis, where European-style engineering, design, drafting and mapping were taught.

The Constitutional Revolution (1905/1906) and its accompanying democratic ideals and national feelings, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the frrst world war (1914.1918) helped promote a favorable atmosphere in Iran for modernization, which was accelerated after Reza Shah ascended the throne in 1925. The old "Iranian city" was no longer adequate 10 the emerging economic, social, political and cu1tural needs. During the 193Os, government began 10 renovate the old buildings as well as construct new structures throughout the country, but particularly in the capital, with unprecedented speed. Iran became a giant architectural laboratory. Iran's architecture during the Reza Shah period may be categorized as follows: constructions following traditional concepts (Tehran city hall); constructions innuenced by ancient Iranian architecture (National Bank, Police headquarters, and architecturally the very successful Iran BaSLan Museum; constructions innuenced by neo-classic 1930 style (Ministry of Justice, Tehran railway station); and finally a search and effort at new architecture {Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tehran Post Office}. This period's architects may also be categorized as follows: local architects (Ali Mohammad Khan, Lor路zadeh); Iranian archileCts educated in Europe (Vartan Ovanessian, Gabriel Kevorkian); European architects (Heinrich, Andre Godard, Maxime Siro). Finally, the establishment of "Honar Kadeh," a college where architecture was also taught, may be considered the last valuable product of the modernization period in Iran's architecture. Graduates of this school constitule the largest group of contemporary Iran's architects and city planners and city builders. They have an important share in the building of the 20th century "modem Iran."

Istanbul: A "Way Station" on the Path to the Modernization of Iran* Jamshid Behnam During the 18th and 19th centuries Western "modernity" was introduced LO other lands by two paths: directly from the metropo)cs to colonies, or indirectly in rcsp::msc LO the demand of non-colonized but dependent countries. Iran belonged to the second category. Because Iran was geographicaUy distant, its initial relationship willi.

Europe was mediated through the neighboring countries that were closer to the West. These "relay stations," such as Istanbul. Tbilisi, Cairo. Bombay. Calcutta, functioned as receivers and transmitters of Western civilization. Through these cities various manifeslations of West em civilization--lhoughts, norms, goods and ways and means of social and political managcmenl--were introduced first into border provinces (Azarbaijan. Gilan ...) and then throughout the counuy. For a variety of reasons (possibility of direct contact, travels of Iranians to Europe, closing of the Russian bordcrs, etc.,) these way Slations lost their importance aflCr the Second World War during the second period of Iran's modernization. As a "way Slalion" for Iranian modernists, Istanbul has known two imponant periods. First, during the last decades of the 19th century Iranian residents of Istanbul, panicularly the refugees who had escaped the Qajar despotism, became familiar with lhc lanzimal thinking and prepared the inlClleclual grounds for Iran's ConstituLional Revolution. Second, during the early decades of lhe twentieth century Iranians Oeeing Mohammad Ali Shah's tyranny, emulating and supporting the "Young Turks" movement, demanded through their newspapers, books and other poliLical actions the rcinSlatement of the Constitution and iniLiaLion of modernization in Iran. This aniele discusses the role of Iranian inLCllectuals and merchants in ISlanbul in transmitLing the intellectual, poliLical and social dimensions of Western modernity [0 Iran.

"Unrequited Love" of Eshqi and II Consummated Love" of Nizami* Shahrokh Meskoob Referring extensively to lhe poems of Mir7..adeh Eshqi, particularly to his "/deaf-e Pir-e Mard-e Dehgani (The Ideal of the Old Farmer)," the author elaborates on the uansfonnation of the image and perception of women in modem Persian poell)'. Whereas in Nima's Ajsaneh, the "lover" and the "poet" are depicted along a journey through, and replete with allegorical references to, "oarure", in Eshqi's Idea/the story of the fcmale protagonist is a means to rail against the victimization of women in Iranian society and to reveal man's

criminal side. According lO the author Eshqi's limited poetic experience is rcnected in the clumsy language of this parucular play which is more of a document on the prevailing social and political conditions in Iran lhan a wonhy literary piece. Nevertheless, Eshqi's play must be considered as an imponant poctic work since it clearly displays the poet's extrdOrdinary sense of the pain and injustice afflicting the common man. Furthermore, many aspects of Iran's Constitutional Revolution and its aftermath are IOld in this tale of a woman's woes which is played out in natural settings The powerful presence of "nature" in the creative process of love, and its inevitable end, death--as described in the works of Nima and Eshqi--was altogether a novel feature in Persian literature. HerelOfore, "nature" was either absem from Iranian romantic poetry or, if present., was perceived quilC differently as was man and his relationship to nature. Thus, in classical Persian poetry, nature was perceived through !.he poet's metaphysical and transcendenlal sense. Nature and man's relations with it all passed through the filter of the existemial "Truth".

Science, Universities and Subjugated Knowledges Majid Rahnema Modem science has led to material and technological advances of importance to some aspects of human life. Yet, the hegemonistic trends it has developed, coupled with its exclusive claims as the only possible form of "scientific rationality," have been counterproductive. A whole constellation of knowledges that have been instrumental in creating and regenerating world

18 cultures have been subjugated and some even destroyed in the name of scientific rationality. The problem needs 10 be seriously addressed at a time when many prominent flinsiders" from the scientific imperium are questioning lhe myth of scientiflc rationality as weU as its dubious effccts on the future of the planet A generation of new scientists. acting as "genealogists," are working at the grassroots )cvellD save lhese "subjugal.ed know ledges" from being destroyed. The aim is to allow litem to play their full pan in the peoples' crcam to define and answer the cognitive and practical problems of their concern. Social sciences and universities have so far been not only an insensitive witness lO, but an important inslnlmenl in. the sUbjugation of vernacular knowlcdges. They have lost touch with the sources which could have strengthened the roots vital lO lheir own growth. As a result, they are in the process of losing both lheir usefwness and their credibility. The question is nO{ to adopt a lyrical attitude towards these knowlcdges, much less to opt for "the vinues of direct cognition" as against "the abstract unity of theory." Were all knowledge systems to recognize their IimilS--and indeed their possibilities--in a genuine respect for each other, their path could lead them to a better understanding and. together. they could then reach out for new and unpredictable horizons. It is perhaps time for localized struggles to create new forms of knowledge and power, free from the tyranny of massive and totalizing ideologies.

THE ORAL HISTORY COLLECTION OF THE

FOUNDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDIES

Edited by Gholam Reza Afkhami and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr With a Foreword by Elizabeth B. Mason

FOUNDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDIES 1991

Contents Iran Nameh Vol. XI, No.2, Spring 1993 Persian: Articles Book Reviews Communications English: The Social Framework of Traditionalism and Modernism in Iran Ahmad Ash,a! Nationalism and Modernization in Iran's Political Culture Nader Entekhabi The Political Modernization of Iran Mohammad Reza Djalili The Ups and Downs of Economic Modernization in Iran Fereydoun Khavand Family, Women and Modernization Vida Behnam Modernity, Intellectuals and Democracy Ramin DjahanbegJou A Hundred Years of Modernization in Iran 's Architecture Reza Moghrader Istanbul: A "Way Station" 10 the Modernization of Iran Jamshid Behnam "Unrequited Love" of Eshqi and "Consummated Love" of Nizami Shahrokh Meskoob Science. Universities and SUbjugated Knowledges Majid Rahnema

A Persian Journal 01 Iranian Siudies Published by The FoufJdation lor Iranian Studies

Edilorial Board:

Advisory Board :

Oaryush Shaycgan Shahrokh Meskoob Book Review Editor:

Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak Managing Editor: Harmoz Hekmal

Guiny Azarpay, University of Cllifomia. Berkeley Peter 1. Chelkowski, New York University Richard N. Frye, Harvard University

M. OJ. Mahdjoub S H. Nasr. George Washington University Roger M. Savory, University ofToronlO EhSJn Ymhafer, Columbia Universily

The Foundation for I ram,n Studie. i•• ..,n·proT,!. non·poli!",.] .• Juc3l>OnJI.nd rno:lrch eenler . dodic:altd to 'he ~ .. dy. promotiofl.nd dIs... monOlion of 'he <"lIunl herit. of Iran The F""nd~tlOfl iJ c/I~lied I. 1 S«ticn (501) (.) (3) "'G.lnizallOtl umkr the

Intemal Revemx;~ C~

The view. up,..Hd fn the a rticle. a re those of the a-uthon and do root nto::. .Nrily ,.,1.,;1 the viewl 01 the Journlli. All co"trihuhon •• nd correspondence 5huuld he 3ddre!.SC d 10: Editor. Ir.n Nameh 4343 Monlgornc:O")' A~ .• S,", e 2m Bethesda. MD20814. U.S.A.

Telephone: (301 )657-1990 Iran Nl meh iHopyrightcd 1\192 by the Foundation for Iranian Studin Reque.to for permi •• ion to r~print more , h.n ~or, quot.tiollf .hollid be add ressed to the [ditor

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FOUNDI>.TION FOR IRI>.NII>.N STUDIE:S

CJraIV A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON THE MODERNIZATION OF IRAN

The Social Framework of Traditionalism and Modernism in Iran

Ahmad Ashrqf

Nationalism and Modernization in Iran's Political Culture Nader Entelchabi

The Political Modernization of Iran Mohammad Reza DjaliJi

The Ups and Downs of Economic Modernization in Iran Fereydoun Khavand Family. Women and Modernization Vida Behnam

Modernity. InteUectuals and Democracy Kamin DjaJulnbegJou

A Hundred Years of Mooemization in Iran 's Architecture Reza Moghuuter

Istanbul: A "Way. Station" to the Modernization of Iran Jamshid Behnam "Unrequited Love" of

Esh~i

and "Consummated Love" of Nizami

Shahrokh Meskoob Science. Universities and Subjugated Knowledges Majid Rahnema

Vol. XI, No. 2. Spring :993