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3,Michael M. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, Debating MuJliml: Co/rural Dialogue! in POJfmooemirY:lJ1d Tradirion, Madison, University of Wisconsin Pren, 1990, p. xui.

4. Akbar S, AIuned, PosllJJO(Jcm/sm II1Id Is/am: Prt:dic:ameHt IIlId Promise, New York.,

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~Die

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Marlik.,~

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___ , MIJCell.mea

~ HOBC and Mule Fi8unne from Marltk:

Archaeolog!.11 ltamca ef OricnWis,

Hooorem Lows Vanden Berghe, l, pp. 287-309.

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Contents Iran Nameh Vol. XII, No.4, Fall 1994

A Special Issue On Iranian Identity 2 Persian:

Articles Selected Texts Book Reviews Hnglish:

Crafting History and Fashioning Iran: The Reconstruction of Iranian Identity in Modernist Historical Narratives Mobamad Tavakoli Targbi

Tajik National Identity Muriel Atkin "How To Be Persian Abroad?" An Old Question in the Postmodern Age Nasrin Rahimieb Zaghe, Haft Tepe and Marlik Excavations, and Their Bearing on the Archaeology of Iran Bzat O. Negahban

CALENDAR CONVERSION TABLES Hijri Shamsi (Solu)-Hijri QaIN.ri (LW'W'}-A.D. Gregorian Shamsi 1250-1400 / Qamari 1288-1443/ A.D. 1871-2020 With a Supplement Hijri Qamari (Lunar}-Gregonan

Hijra 1-1288/ A.D 622-1871

Ibrahim V. Pourhadi New Edition

Foundation (or Iranian 5hldies

1993

Crafting History and Fashioning Iran: The Reconstruction of Iranian Identity in Modernist Historical Narratives* Mohamad Tavakoli Targhi Iranian modernism and the secular notions of "the Self' were products of dialogic interactions with India, Europe and the Arab-Islamic culture in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These interactions overdetermined the reorienting of the self, the recasting of gender, the refashioning of Iran, and the rescripting of the people/nation. The dissemination of modem geographical and aslTOnomica1 views subverted the classical Islamic division of both the Earth and the Universe into seven spheres, which were essential 10 the transfonnation of the self from the physical to the intellectual. Subversion of the geocentric world-views coincided with the subversion of the authority of the 'U1ama. The political ascendancy of Europe and the dissemination of modem geography also challenged the privileged position of Iran. Whereas Iran was conceived as the center of the seven spheres of the Earth in the classica1 Persian geographic imagination, its territories became confmed to the nineteenth century borders imposed by the emergent European powers. The grandeur formerly based on territory was then displaced with a tempoml splendor expanding back: 10 the dawn of History. European infiltration and territorial diminution of Iran contributed to societal dislocation and allowed for the contingent reaniculation of Iranian identity. The dissemination of Iran-glorifying printed texts contributed to a process of cultural transference that intensified the desire for the recovery of the "forgotten history" of ancient Iran. This awakening of interest in the pre-Islamic history provided a formative element of Iranian modernism and the discourse of constitutionalism. The Islamic master-narrative dividing history to civilized Islamic and Wlcivilized pre-Islamic periods was increasingly displaced with the meta-narratives and periodizaLions of Dasalir and SJuJhnamah, two semina] Iranglorifying texts. In the modernist emplotments of ancient Iranian history, the eras of Adam, Noah, Moses, and Jesus were displaced with an Iran-time divided into the periods or Abadiyan, Sha'iyan, and Golsha'iayn .

.. Abstracts with asterisks have been prepared by authors.

30 The invention of an idealized past was contemporaneous with the restyling of language. Language restyling, a process which continues with greater

vigor lOday, was also achieved in a diaJogic relationship with !ran's Arab-. European-, and lhe often ignored Indian-other. 1be relationship with the Persianspeaking Indian-other facilitated the renaissance and canonization of classical Persian literature. The newly imagined "Iran," constructed of textual uaces and archaeoiogical ruins, fashioned a new syntax for the reconstruction of the past and the formation of a new national identity, time, territot)'o writ, culture. and literature. The selective remembrance of things pre-Islamic made possible the dissociation of Iran from Islam and the articulation of a new national identity and

political discourse. This contingent forgetting and remembering. a rhetorical act enabling maneuver among alternative and often contradictory positions and identities, foregrounded Iranian modernity and the discourse of constitutionalism. Rhetorical maneuvers among alternative forms of Iranian ness made possible the

resignification of shared but contcslCd concepts used by modernists and tradiliona1ists, lranists and Islamicists.

Tajik National Identity Muriel Atkin The fonnation of the Tajik national consciousness has happened in this century, in the full light of contemporary history. The paradox of the Tajik national identity in Central Asia stems from the fact that it was imposed from without on a society in which cullUre and ethnici[y were not congruent and neither factor determined broad political affiliations. The broadest traditional social classifications in Centra1 Asia into modem times were not among ethnic groups but between nomadic and sedentary populations. Compared to the process evolved in Europe, what is unusual about the formation of the modem Tajik naliona1 identi[y in Centra1 Asia is the degree to which it was anificiaJ at its inception. The Soviet government, for political reasons of its own. chose to reorganize its Central Asian holdings into units named for specifiC nationalities. beginning in 192A. No CentraJ Asians, whether conservative. reformist, or radicaJ, of any ethnicity had wanted lhal The reorganization was further complicalCd by the fact that the process gerrymandered the region. creating irridentas and minori[y enclaves in each republic.

31 Although the building of the Tajik national identity began as a

contrivance, it has acquired a substantial measure of public credibility in the nearly seventy years since the process began. Much of this was a result of the formal auention to nationality in the Soviet Union. Although some aspects of Soviet nationality policy provided institutional support for the development of Tajik national identity. other aspects restricted that process. One prominent example was the deliberate separation of Tajiks from the wider Pcrsian路speaking world. Much of this was done through cultural means. Official policy dictated that the Tajiks' language be called Tajik. not Persian, and that it be classified as a distinct language. A major change in the tone of the process of redefinition of the Tajiks' nationa1 identity occuned in the late 1980's and early 1990's. The old Soviet constraints on expressions of national feeling weakened, then crumbled, as did the Soviet State. Among other things, the end of the old soviet insistence on the distinction between Tajiks and Persian speakers outside lhe Soviet Union enabled Tajiks lO look abroad for assistance in lheir national renewal. The 1980's saw increasing references lO lhe fact lhat Tajik and Persian were essentially one language. Tajik intellectuals began to look at the way Persian was used in Iran, and, lO a lesser degree, Afghanistan, as a SOW"CC of alternatives for lhe Russian words introduced into Tajik in the Soviet era. The vigorous assertion of lhe Tajik national identity, which had blossomed since lhe late 1980's, came to an end, at least for lhe time being, wilh the disastrous civil war of 1992. TIle victory of Communist hard路liners in December of lhat year brought wilh it a climate of intense political repression. Many of the people who were most active in lhe process of national redefinition were killed. driven into exile, or intimidate into silence. A meaningful public discussion of lhe nature of lhe Tajik national identity has lhus become impossible.

"How to Be Persian Abroad?": An Old Question in the Postmodern Age Nasrin Rahimieh The reasons for the recent massive exodus from Iran may be intellectual, social, political, or religious. The end result, however, is a cross-cultural and cross-linguistic hybridity. Like Montesquieu's Rica, lhe Iranian expauialCs find lhemselves either in a playful act of cross-dressing, or an oppressive masquerade which threatens to erase their specificities. Many see themselves vacillating

32 between the two poles of embracing meir hyphenated identity and scurrying back to the safety aIKI comfort of their Persian heritage. In their creations. the immigrant and exiled Iranian writers, especially when mey have adopted a second language, one recognized a shared community of free of borders and boundaries. They may agonize over their apparent loss of

language, memory. and identity, but lhey also write. in a newly discovered language, about their arrival into a community of transcultural writers. This literalUre of the diaspora belongs to a larger literary system and reaches different audiences. One may read it for expressions of Persian identity. but it must not

be considered simply as a vehicle for cultural preservation. Cultures, like languages, are always in flux. The difference between deterrilOrialized and territorialized Persian writers is not to be measured in terms of how well they cling onto an essence, but rather in lCmlS of how differently they manipulate and rework that essence. Neither group can afford to remain static. The challenge faced by Persian writers abroad is not how 10 preserve their Persian identity, but how to place it within the new global conditions of extraterritoriality. Clearly, in the contemporary world "How can one be Persian?" is a rhetorical question. To be Persian abroad is to follow the kind of trajectory of loss and re&scovery outlined by Eva Hoffman in her autobiographical work, Lost in Translation. She sees her journey from Poland to the United States as having culminated in a new moment no longer fixed upon the JXlSl. Her experience as well that of the protagonist in Taghi Modarressi's novel, The Pilgrim's Rules of Enqueue, may be extended symbolically to the condition of the Persian diaspora: a movement at once away form the core of their identity and towards a periphery which will ultimately reshape our understanding of that core.

Zaghe, Haft Tepe, and Marlik Excavations, and their Bearing on the Archaeology of lran* Ezzat O. Negahban Zaghe For nine sea5On<>, from 1970 to 1978, the Qazvin Plain Project, an archaeological expedition sponsored by the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Tehran, under my direction worked in the Qazvin Plain in the northwestern pan of the Iranian Plateau, surveying an area nearly 150 km. long east-west and 80 kID. wide north-south. Contemporaneousl y willi this survey, we

33 excavaled the three mounds of Zaghe, Qabreslan and Sagzabad, located within two kilometers of each other in the southwestern comer of the Qazvin Plain. The oldest Mound, Zaghe, revealed archaeologica1 debris of an early village fanning community of the late 7th to the middle of the 5th millennium B.C.; Qabrestan contained remains of the 5th to 1st millennium B.C.: and Sagzabad, the largest of the three mounds, was occupied from the 4th to the middle of the 1st miUennium B.C. Zaghe. the vcry early village farming community. produced several archaeologicallcvels wilh major archirecwral remains includJng residential units, a painted temple which is unique of its kind. and, in its later stages, an industrial section with numerous kilns and workshops. Materia] discovered during the excavation of Zaghe included architccturaJ remains, pollery, SlOne lOOls and equipment. bone tools and equipment, hammered copper lOois and personal ornaments. The three mOWlds taken together present a chronology which covers nearly seven millennia, beginning from the late 7th and continuing up to the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. Prior to our survey and excavation there had been only scarce and limited infonnation available on this important strategic area of the Qazvin Plain which, due to its geographic location, played a significant role in cross-cultural relations in the ancient world.

Haft Tepe The second archaeological site to be discussed is Haft Tepe, an Elamite center of the middle of the second millennium B.C., located in the southwestern alluvial plain of Khuzistan southeast of Susa. Excavation, sponsored by the Archaeological Service of Iran and the Institute of Archeology of the University of Tehran, was carried out for fourteen seasons under my direction, from 1966 until 1980, when political disturbances in Iran prevented further work. Haft Tepe is a very large sile of many mounds, comaining massive architectural remains, extensive archives of clay tablets, and a wide variety of objects. Scattered over the site were simple burials, jar burials, buria1s with funerary objects. sarcophagus burials, and two examples of multiple burials. one with twenty-three skeletons together, in tombs of baked brick. The excavation of Haft Tepe yielded information on one of the great centers of the Elamite kingdom in the middle of the second millennium B.C., established by Tepti-Ahar. a previously unidentified Elamite king. The massive architectura1 remains and many objects of art and technology were of such importance that an archaeological museum equipped with a laboratory and technical facilities was built at the site to house the material and efficient headquarters for the expedition were conslTUclCd nearby.

34 Marlik The third site to be considered is me Royal Cemetery of Marlik. bekmging to a group of Indo-Iranians who settled on the nonhem slopes of the Albun mountains in the middle of the second millennium B.C. They formed a kingdom which ruled over a large area mainly centered in the Caspian Basin, including Russian Talych, Gilan, and Mazandaran, for severa] centuries between the founeenth and the tenth centuries a.c. This kingdom had been forgotten for more than three lhousand years when, in the early 1960s, we excavated flftythree tombs comprising the Royal Cemetery. containing precious jewelry. gold. silver, and bronze ritual vessels. human and animal figurines of gold, bronze and pou.ery. bronze weapons and equipment. pottery vessels and more, all illustrating the life and beliefs of the people buried there.

IN THE EYE OF THE STORMWomen in Post-Revolutionary Iran Edited by

MAHNAZ AFKHAMI

and

ERIKA FRIEDL

Syracuse University Press 1994

THE ORAL HISTORY COLLECTION OFTHE

FOUNDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDIES

Edited by Gholam Reza Afkhami and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr With a Foreword by Elizabeth B. Mason

FOUNDATION FOR IRANIAN STUDIES 1991

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- Ch'llire, Summer 1994. - International Journal of Middle East Studies. Vol. 26, no. 3 ( August

1994), and no, 4 (Novevrnber 1994) J- Critique. NO.5 (FaJl 1944) - The University of Chicago. Middle East Documentation Center, Catalogue of Microfomls projects in Ottoman. Persian and Arabic, June 1994. Harvard Middle Eastern aJld Is/antic Review, Vol. I, No. I, February

1994.

Clra1t) Nemh A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies

Published by The Foundation for Iranian Studies

Editorial Board (Vol. XlI):

Advisory Board :

Shahrokh M eskoob ,

Ahmad Karimi Hakkak, Ali Banuazizid and Jahangir Amuzegar

Book Review Editor: Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr

Managing Editor: Hormoz Hekmat

Guilty Azarpay, University of Californi~. Bcrkcky

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Roger M. Savory. University ofTuron!o

The Foundation for Irani." Studies is a oon·profit. nnn-polim·.I, ~d"'::ltional and rc",.rch cenlC. , (Jodlolled I" the >tully. p"HT"'li<J" a",J ~,,""mi""t"''' vf Ihe <-ulL"",1 heri,"~c ~r Iran . The FoulIJ,uioo i~ cl~:;:;ificd ~, • Sec/ion (.5111) Ie) (.1) "rpniL'lioo undcr the Internal Reven",' s"tvlC" n~k

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~OUNDI\TION ~OR

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OraIV A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON IRANIAN IDENTITY Guest Editor: Ali Banuazizi

Crafting History and Fashioning Iran: The Reconstruction of Iranian identity in Modernist Historical Narratives Mohamad Tavakoli -Targhi

Tajik National Identity "

Muriel Atkin

"How To Be Persian Abroad?" An Old Question in the Postmodem Age Nasrin Rahimieh

Zaghe, Haft Tepe and Marlik Excavations, and Their Bearing on the Archaeology of Iran Ezal 0. Negahban

Vol . XII , No. 4, Fall 1994