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ENCYCLOPJEDIA IRANICA

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Fascicle 1, Volume VIII EBN 'AYY AS -ECONOMY V,

MAZDA PUBLISHERS P. O. BOX 2603 COSTA MESA, CA 92626 Tel: (714) 751-5252 Tel: (714) 751-4805

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ENCYCLOPlEDIA IRANICA

Fascicle 1, Volume VIII EBN 'AYY AS-ECONOMY V.

MAZDA PUBLISHERS Po0 0BOx 2603 COSTA MESA, CA 92626

Tel: (714) 751-5252 Tel: (714) 751-4805

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Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Oliver Leaman eds. History of Islamic Philosophy

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••• - Studia lraniea, Tome 24, fase. 1- 2 (1995), Tome 25 , fase. 1-2 (1996)

-Inrernational Journal of Middle East,Vol. 29, No. I (February 1997) -Hamdad IsJamieus, Vol. XIX, No.3 (Autumn 1996).

Cinematic Identity in Iran, Egypt and Turkey

Hormuz Kay The cinema of Iran, Egypt and Turkey while different in many ways share a number of common characteristics . This article is an attempt to review and compare these differences and similarities. According to the author, in all these countries introduction of cinema led to similar resistance mostly inspired by religious authorities. Yet, eventually in all three the film became a powerful cultural and social medium. Film-makers in Turkey, where a secular system of government had been established in early 1920's and women had been franchised in 1934, enjoyed extensive freedom of action, albeit in a politically restrictive atmosphere. Although film production in Turkey reached its zenith in the 1970's, it has been in decline since 1980 as a result of the American management of the Turkish movie theaters and the flood of American films. The Turkish contemporary cinema clearly represents the effons of a society in the midst of a struggle to break the fetters of a restrictive traditional culture. Cinema, as a western medium, entered closed societies in Turkey, Iran and Egypt with ancient civilizations and yet encumbered with despotic political systems and superstitious tradition-bound cultures. Native cinema in all these three countries clearly reflected continuing social evolution, although the cultural and historical disparities affected the development and quality of film-making in each society. The changes in the last two decades have contributed to the creation of a more purposeful art in all these countries. Two major factors stand out in this transformation: the spread of religious fundamentalism and the onslaught of wester, particularly American, films . In the last three decades, the most imponant common characteristic of serious film-making in all these countries is its politicization on the one hand and its commitment to depicting social ills and cultural anomalies, on the other. There is, however, a clear and tragic difference between Iranian cinema and that of Turkey and Egypt. While Turkish and Egyptian film-makers had, in this period, taken on both political despotism and cultural constraints, Iranian filmmakers as well as Iranian intellectuals heavily relied on traditional cultural norms in order to carty on their campaign against political repression . For this , not only Iranian intellectuals and film-makers but also the society at large paid a heavy price .

Glimpses of History in Persian Classical Poetry

Manouchehr Kashef!

Persian classical poetry, according to the author, is replete with references--at times quite detailed and extensive--to Iranian history, social mores or personal memoirs of the poet. However, not much attention has been paid by either literary critics or historiographers to this rich source of Iranian history . One reason for this inattention may lie in the fact that these references are more often than not couched in intricate allegories and interspersed in seemingly unconnected episodes. Furthermore, the poetry of some of the most renowned of Iranian poets, such as Khaqani or Anvari, is at best quite hard to fathom for the uninitiated. References to the poet's biographical data may also include useful information about certain aspects of Iran's history, geography, society and/or culture. These references, however, basically contain information on the poet's family tree, his birthplace, early education and upbringing, personal relations , fortunes found and lost, and description of peoples and places . It is, however, the poet's accounts of the events of his time that are of significant historical value. These accounts are usually about military expeditions, scenes of victory and defeat, festivities during important national holidays, events surrounding the death and succession of a ruler, name and traits of important courtesans, and finally natural disasters and the calamities brought on by invading armies. In the poetry of this genre, the works of those panegyrists favored by a particular ruler could be of particular historical Significance since the presence of the poet at the ruler's court enables him to witness important events that would otherwise have gone unreported. Farrokhi Sistani, the author suggests, must be considered among such poets. He spent nearly all his adult life in the Ghaznavi court and has directly or indirectly referred, in his poetry , to a large number of significant historical events of his time.

A Survey of Memoirs on the Iranian Religious Movement

Cyrus Mir The purpose of this article is to evaluate the relevance of the memoirs of some of the prominent individuals in the leadership ranks of the Iranian religious movement during the reign of the late shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as primary research sources for the study of the movement. These memoirs have all been published in recent years and shed light on many aspects of the movement which aimed at establishing a theocratic government in Iran. The author points out that although this movement predates the emergence of Ayatollah Khomeini on the political scene, his authority and charismatic leadership was essential to its victory. Therefore, the article starts with the recently published memoirs of his elder brother, Ayatollah Pasandideh. These memoirs provide the reader with some insights into the family history and the circumstances surrounding Khomeini's early childhood. It also presents an interesting picture of the life and the status of ularna in provincial Persia at the tum of the century. Other memoirs which have been reviewed in this article are collectively chosen for both the wealth of information and insights that they provide as well as their scope in covering different aspects and stages in the development of the Islamic movement. In particular, the author highlights the strengths of each memoir as related to various areas of study . These include the history , goals and strategies of the religious movement, its modes of mobilization, major organizations, inter and intra organizational ties, and the evolving interactions between the movement, at different stages of its growth, with other sociopolitical forces including the religious modernists and various factions within the Shi'ite establishment. The article concludes by referring to the memoirs of Jalal Farsi . This source, while failing to enhance our understanding of the movement per se, provides us with important information about the network of political activists outside Iran with ties to the religious movement in Iran. Worthy of attention are the personal and organizational connections between these activists and various Palestinian and Shi'ite groups in Lebanon and the role that this network played in .the process of the Islamic revolution in Iran.

The Basis and Nature of Ulama's Authority in Qajar Iran

Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi This article elaborates on the status of the Shi'ite ulama in Qajar period and traces the development of their authority, both theoretically and in practice. According to the author, a new round of popular Shi'ism carne to dominate the Shi'ite community at the expense of Sufi, Sunni and other Islamic sects . The religious folk rites, which were extensively encouraged by some of the ularna such as Mulla Mohammad Baqir Majlisi, centered on tomb visitations, and mourning processions . In the following century, the numerous groups of pilgrims and mourners not only changed the character of the Shi'ite holy cities but also affected the religious-moral attitude of the Iranians. The holy cities became the locus for payment of the alms and charity, particularly khums (share of the Imam). Since the tenth century, the ularna had doctrinally concentrated on khums as a special source of income for Shi'ite seminaries particularly through the folk rites. Another element contributing to the rise of ularna's status and power in the Qajar period, was their claim to be the vicegerent of the Twelfth (hidden) Imam. In the course of time, this claim evolved from a simple stratagem for collecting khums into a full-fledged representation of the authority of the Imam. Gradually, the claim to Imam's vicegerency, coupled with the institution of ijlihad (religious interpretation) led the ularna to regard themselves as the locus of mass following . Hereafter, they began to formalize laqlid (emulation) as a basic obligation of every Shi'ite muslim to be bound by the rulings of a specific mujlahid (religious expert) in all matters pertaining to his or her religious duties . The enhancement of the status of ularna paved the way for the rise of the institution of marja' laqlid (source of emulation) in early Qajar era. Nevertheless, this office did not emerge fully until the middle of 19th century when Shaykh Muhammad Hasan Najafi Isfahani was singled out as the sole marja'. On their part, Qajar rulers regarded ulama as one of their major sources

of authority and political legitimacy. The founder of Qajar dynasty, Aqa Muhammad Khan, and his successor, Fath Ali Shah, actively engaged the ularna in a process of reciprocal legitimacy . It was, however, Fath Ali shah who allowed ularnas' widespread involvement in political and governmental affairs. By the end of Qajar period, the role of supreme mujlahid had increased to such a level that he had assumed the leadership of religious andlor political movements as they had managed to win the support of both the masses and the intellectuals.

Social Sciences, Ideologies and the Problem of Development: The Case of Iran (1958-1978)

Jamshid Behnam The article discusses the development of the social sciences in Iran during 1950's and 60's where, on the one hand, Iran had embarked on a rapid course of economic growth and, on the other, new schools of political and social thoughts regarding the problem of social and economic development were under intense scrutiny by Iranian intellectuals and opposition forces . Following a discussion on the emergence of social issues in Iran, in the latter part of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth centuries, through publication and dissemination of books , treatises and periodicals both in Iran and abroad, the article reviews the development of social sciences and the establishment of social science research and teaching institutes and departtnents in Iranian university system in the post World War II period. In this section, the author discusses the nature of social science research in Iran with particular emphasis on various research methodologies and schools of thought prevalent among the teaching and research staffs in Iranian universities, as well as Iranian intellectuals at large. In the second part of the article, the author discusses the nature and variety of political and ideological tendencies in Iranian society, including Marxism, Islamism and oriental ism. Furthermore, he elaborates on a number of popular schools of thought regarding Iran's path toward social and economic progress relative to such topics as national identity and western cultural and economic domination. The interface between the government technocracy . essentially bent on rapid economic growth, and its intellectual critics who were more concerned with the cultural and political dimensions of development, is also discussed in some detail. The author concludes by an analysis of the various approaches to the adaptation of western science, technology and value systems by non-western societies. He suggests that while no society can realistically hope to create and develop its own independent version of social sciences, the universally-accepted tools, methodology and theories of these sciences may be utilized in better understanding the ingrained cultural mores of each society.

Faith and Freedom Women's Human Rights in the Muslim World

Edited by

Mahnaz Mkhami

I.B.TAURIS PUBLISHERS LONDON 路 NEW YORK

1995

Contents Iran Nameh

Vol. XV, No. 2 Spring 1997 . Persian: Articles Book Reviews English

Social Sciences, Ideologies and the Problem of Development: The Case of Iran (1958-1978) Jamshid Behnam

The Basis and Nature of Ulama's Authority in Qajar Iran Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

A Survey of Memoirs on the Iranian Religious Movement Cyrus Mir

Glimpses of History in Persian Classical Poetry Manouchehr Kashef[

Cinematic Identity in Iran, Egypt and Turkey HormuzKay