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A Persian Journal of Inmim Studies Published by the Foundation foe Iranian Studies

Editorial Board (Vol. XXI): Shahrokh Meskoob Homa Katouzian WaliAhmadi Book Review Editor: Nasrin Rahimieh Managing Editor: Hormoz Hekmat

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ENCYCLOP JEDIA IRANICA ~ . I ,,' , J ~~j'~~ ~ ~-'~

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Volume XII

Fascicles 1-4 Published: HAREM I - HEDAYAT AL-MOTA (ALLEMIN HEDAYAT AL-MOTA(ALLEMIN-HERAT VII HERAT VII - HISTORIOGRAPHY III HISTORIOIGRAPHY III - HOMOSEXUALITY Published by BffiLIOTHECA PERSICA PRESS New York Distributed by ISENBRAUNS INC. Winona Lake, Indiana Please visit our website at www.iranica.com

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Mehdi Khansari, M. Reza Moghtader and Minouch Yavari, The Persian Garden: Echoes

of Paradise, Washington DC., Mage Publications, 1998. De Vilmorin Lacoin, De Paris a Bombay par 1a Perse, Paris, Firmin-Didiot, 1895. Eugene Flandin, Voyage en Perse, 1840-1841, ABMB, Blanc, 1995. Andre Godard, Isfahan (Athar-e Iran) Tom I & II, Haarleme, Enschede, 1937.

THE LION & THE THRONE Stories from the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, Volume I TRANSLATED BY DICK DAVIS ISBN 0-934211-50-7' 272 PAGES' CLOTHBOUND' $75.00 • 1998 170 FULL-COLOR ILLUSTRATIONS

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ENCYCLOPlEDIA IRANICA ~ . I "f , J ~~j'~~ ~ ~j~ U ~ I.S~"'::';~

Volume XII

Fascicles 1-4 Published: HAREM I-HEDAYAT AL-MOTAcALLEMIN HEDAYAT AL-MOTAcALLEMIN-HERAT VII HERAT VII - HISTORIOGRAPHY III HISTORIOIGRAPHY III - HOMOSEXUALITY Published by BIBLIOTHECA PERSICA PRESS New York Distributed by ISENBRAUNS INC. Winona Lake, Indiana Please visit our website at www.iranica.com

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One watch had passed, and still sweet slumber shed Its magic power around the hero's head-When forth Tahmineh came --a damsel held An amber taper, which the gloom dispelled, And near his pillow stood; in beauty bright, The monarch's daughter struck his wondering sight. Clear as the moon in glowing charms arrayed, Her winning eyes the light of heaven displayd; Her cypress form entranced the gazer's view, Her waving curls the heart, resistless, drew, Her eyebrows like the Archer's bended bow; Her ringlets, snares; her cheek, the rose's glow, Mixed with the lily - from her ear-tips hung Rings rich and glittering, star-like; and her tongue, And lips, all sugared sweetness - pearls the white Sparkled within a mouth formed to beguile. Her presence dimmed the stars, and breathing round Fragrance and joy, she scarcely touched the ground, So light her step. so graceful- every part Perfect, and suited to her spotless heart. Rustem, surprised, the gentle maid addressed, And asked what lovely stranger broke his rest. "What is thy name?" he said -"what dost thou seek Amidst the gloom of night? Fair vision, speak!" "0 thou," sbe softly sigh'd, 'of matchless fame!

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With pity hear, Tahmineh is my name! The pangs of love my anxious heart employ, And flattering promise long-expected joy; No curious eye has yet these features seen, My voice unheard, beyond the sacred screen. How often have I listened with amaze . v To thy great deeds, enamoured of thy praIse;

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:,-?S.u .1" J. J. Ampere, "Le Schah Nameh," La Science at les Lettres en Orient, Paris, 1865. P. 353.

:,-?S.u .f Charles Augustin Saint Beuve, Causerie du Lundl, Paris, 1850, I, P. 342 :..,.S.0.{)

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Mohammad Tavakoli-Targhi, Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Historiography, New York, Palgrave, 2001; Monica M. Ringer, Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Refonn in Qajar Iran, Costa Mesa, Calif., Mazda Publishers, 2001; Gulfishan Khan, Indian Muslim Perceptions of the West During the Eighteenth Century, Karachi, Oxford University Press, 1998; Partha Chatterjee, "Five Hundred Years of Fear and Love," Economic and Political Weekly, 33, 22 (May 30-June 5, 1998), pp. 1330-36; Kurnkum Chatterjee, "History as Self-Representation," and Michael H. Fisher, "Representations of India, The English East India Company, and Self," Modem Asian Studies, 32, no. 4 (1998), pp. 891-948; and Juan R. I. Cole, "Invisible Occidentalism: Eighteenth-Century Indo-Persian Constructions of the West," Iranian Studies, 25, no. 3-4 (1992), pp. 3-16. ~.)~ ~..s ~I ~"....T~"..> 0L....~.;l..5" r.

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.-::......1 o~ ~.;; ~I ~ 0 1 jl J ~~ 04j ~ I~I Mirza Abutalib Khan, "Masir Talibi fi Bilad Afranji," MS add. pp. 8145-47, BL. ,.."Jib ____

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Public Advertise1, 5 November 1777

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Rozina Visram, Ayabs, Lascars, and Princes, London, Pluto, 1986, p. 63 and Asians in

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Memorandum on the present state of the Oriental Department at the College, Extract Public Letter to Bengal 7 September 1808, J/l/35, f. p. 267, BL. :~.s

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Sir George Read to James Cobb, 8 Augustl814, J/l/29, ff. pp. 478-82; Letter of Charles Steward and A. Hamilton 26 November 1813, J/l/27, ff. pp. 376-8; Parliamentary Papers (Sessions) Lords, 1852-53 (41) 30, 5738. :~ . s

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Scott, Observations, ii, 7. Memorial of Meer Hasan Ali, J/1/27, ff. pp. 218-19, BL. :~ .s .0 ".,..... <s1.r. . YA Committee of the College, Minutes, 24 September 1813, L/MIL/l/lO, no. 146, BL. :J~ j)U ~IJ:>jl

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Memorandum of N. B. Edmonstone and J. Baillie to College Committee, received 19 July 1836,1/2/5, ff. pp. 279-85, BL. :'-1 .S ·0 . f'l"

Edmonstone and Baillie, Memorandum, ff. 279-85 and Reports of Committee of College

1826, J/2/5, ff. 279-85, BL. Minutes of Court, 2 August! &26 and 1 August 1827, B/180, BL.

Hertford Mercury, 7 November 1857.

:<-:.S.0. ff

:,,-:.S.0·fO :,,-:.S·0· fr

Sir M. Monier-Williams, "Reminiscences," in Memorials of Old Hailey-bury, Frederick Charles Danvers, et al., Westminster, A. Constable and Company, 1894, pp. 73-74.

:,,-:.S·0. fY James Michael, Persian Fables from the Aswari Sooheyly of Hussein Vaiz KashiJ, London, the author, 1827.

:,,-:.S·0. fA Meerza Mohammad Ibraheem, A Grammar of the Perisan Language. To which are subjoined, Several Dialogues; with a Alphabetical List of the English and Persian Terms of Grammar; and an Appendix, on the Use of Arabic Words, London Wm. H. Allen, 1841 ; Gramatik der Lebenden Persische Sprache nach Mirza Mohammed Ibrahims

Grammar of the Persian Language, tr. H. L. Fleischer, Leipzig, F A. Brockhaus, 1875.

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Minutes of Court, 14 November 1838, 21 November 1838, B/198, BL ,~ J y..)\ ~.Jb\ ,ul1.~ ~l.!.\ ~ '.Jy.'i. '40~t".- '0l> ~,.,5

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James Billie Fraser, Narrative of the Residence of the Persian Princes in London, in 1835 and 1836, 2 vols., London, Richard Bentley, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 93ff, 109, 155, 172 and 303-4; Mahomed Ibraheem Letter, 23 April 1841, BL; Dyce Sombre to Solaoli, 2 June 1839, Dyce Sombre against Troup, Solaroli and Prinsep and the Hon. East India Company in the Goods of David Octerlony Dyce Sombre, Esq., Deceased, in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, London, Henry Hansard, n.d., p. 867. Mirza Ibrahim, Grammar, Preface, pp. i-ii :,,-:.S.0. 0 \ .~u... : ,,-:.S.0

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Hertford Mercury, 7 November 1857 :"-: .S .0.01" :,,-:.S·0· 0f Mirza Ibrahim Memorial, J/2n, fols 226-31; Memorandom of N. B. Edmonstone and J. Baillie to College Committee, 31 July 1826, J/2/5, fol. 286-09, BL.

Pigot's Directory Hertfordshire for 1839, 184Otford Mercur :,,-: .S .0. 0 0 Danvers, Memorials, pp. 186-88

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Court Minutes, 5 July 1843, 12 July 1843, 13 Semptember 1843, B/206, ff. 294, 328, 552; Court Minutes, 7 August 1844, B/208, ff. 472-73; Officiating Secretary to H. U. Addington, approved 7 August 1844, Finance and Home Papers, Z/L/F/2/13, BL. :'-! .S·0· r •

H. Hale Bellot, University College London, 1826-1926, London, University of London Press, 1929, Chart 2; Visram, Ayabs, p. 63; Rakhal Das Halder, English Diary of an

Indian Student, 1861-62, Dacca, Asutosh Library, 1903, p. 32; Syed Ameer Ali, Memoirs and Writings of Syed Ameer Ali Sasti, ed. Syed Razi, Lahore, Peoples's Publishing House, 1968, pp. 118-119. Monica Ringer, Education. . ., pp. 67 ff. :'-! .S .0

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Memorandom of Justin Sheil, 12 April 1848, FO 60/139, Public Record Office, Britain. :'-!.S·0· rl"

Letter from Sir G. Clerk, 19 September 1857: Forwarding dispatch from H. M. Minister in Persia and reply, 30 Semptember 1857, B/234, ff., 2004-05, 2191-92, 1003-4; Report of Finance and Home Committee, 6 April 1858 and Resolution 14 April 1858, B.235, ff. 1642-43, 1723, BL. :'-!.S·0· H

Denis Wright, The Persians amongst the English, London, I. B. Tauris, 1985, p. 92, note 81.

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Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial MascuJinily, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1995.

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ENCYCLOP IEDIA IRANICA

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Fascicles 1-4 Published: HAREM I - HEDAYAT AL-MOTA cALLEMIN HEDAYAT AL-MOTAcALLEMIN-HERAT VII HERAT VII - HISTORIOGRAPHY III HISTORIOIGRAPHY III - HOMOSEXUALITY Published by BIBLIOTHECA PERSICA PRESS New York Distributed by ISENBRAUNS INC. Winona Lake, Indiana .. Please visit our website at

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ENCYCLOPiEDIA IRANICA ~ ., IJ ,,, ~~j'~~ ~ r"'~

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Voluine XII

Fascicles 1-4 Published: HAREM I - HEDAYAT AL-MOTA cALLEMIN HEDAYAT AL-MOTA cALLEMIN-HERAT VII HERAT VII - HISTORIOGRAPHY III HISTORIOIGRAPHY III - HOMOSEXUALITY Published by BffiLIOTHECA PERSICA PRESS New York Distributed by ISENBRAUNS INC. Winona Lake, Indiana Please visit our website at www.iranica.com

Iraj Parsinejad A History ofLiterary Criticism in Iran (1866-1951) Literary Criticism in the Works of Enlightened Thinkers of Iran: Akhundzade, Kennani, Malkom, TaJebof, Maraghe'i, Kasravi and Hedayat. Bethesda MD, Ibex Publishers, 2003

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A History of Literary Criticism in Iran Literary Criticism in the Works of Enlightened Thinkers ofIran: Akhundzade, Kermani, Malkom, Taleboj Maraghe 1, Kasravi & Hedayat

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Contents Iran Nameh Vol. XXI, No.3 Fal12003

PersianArticles Book Reviews English Abstracts: Kingship and Divine Order in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh Shahrokh Meskoob Isfahan's "Chahar Bagh": A Schematic Sketch Reza Moghtadel Political Ideology and Social Identity in Iran Hossein Bashiriyeh Iranian Intellectuals and Economic Thought Kamran Dadkhah Mathiew Arnold and His Rendition of Rostam-o-Sohrab Hasan Javadi Persian Professor in Britain: Mirza Mohammad Ebrahim Michael H Fisher

ENCYCLOP/EDIA IRANICA Edited by Ehsan Yarshater Center for Iranian Studies Columbia University

Volume XII

Fascicles 1-4 Published: HAREM I - HEDAYAT AL-MOTA cALLEMIN HEDAYAT AL-MOTAcALLEMIN-HERAT VII HERAT VII - HISTORIOGRAPHY III HISTORIOIGRAPHY III - HOMOSEXUALITY Published by ENCYCLOPtEDIA IRANICA FOUNDAnON New York Distributed by ISENBRAUNS INC. Winona Lake, Indiana

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Kingship and Divine Order in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh Shahrokh Meskoob

The relationship between the king's just rule over his subjects and Ahuramazda's conception and stewardship of the cosmos and its creatures has been repeatedly elaborated in Shahnameh. Thus, to know what the king's duties are, and how best he can rule, one must know the manner in which Ahuramazda rules the world. Zaratushtra, whose mission is to materialize Ahuramazda's wishes, assures the salvation of man through application of reason in recognizing good from evil and opting for the former over the latter. God offers himself to man through reason and its most salient attributes, i.e., truth and justice that is the essence of law. To rule with justice in the earthly kingdom, is to emulate Ahumramazda's rule over the cosmos and to rule unjustly is to thread the path of Ahriman. The king's injustice does not only diminish and destroy the lives of his subjects. It also corrupts nature itself and lays to waste all animate and inanimate objects. From injustice are born mendacity, chaos, corruption and sedition. Since kingship is the repository of the divine charisma and earthly forces, the king is the all-powerful shepherd of his subjects whose acts, whether good or ill, are ultimately a reflection of his conduct. In Shahnameh, history is the mirror of the Iranians' social ideals. The ideal kings who were imbued with reason and justice, cared most about the fate and fortune of people, and the continuous battle between good and evil. Archetypal of such kings are Kaykhosrow and Anushirvan, who were inspired by divine glory, endowed with reason and ever vigilant in their search for justice. ensuring justice dispenser of justice. They were ideal kings and examples of Shahnameh's perfect man, one from the heroic and mythological past, timeless, ahistoric and the other, Anushirvan, ephemeral and time-bound and yet in quest of eternal soul. Each were the archetypes of perfection in their own specific eras, their differences a reflection of their times, of reality and ideal.

14 Isfahan's "Chahar Bagh": A Schematic Sketch Reza Moghtader The designs of Persian gardens, etched on ancient artifacts, echo the yearning of the Iranians for the imagined natural features of the Garden of Eden: flowers, shrubs, trees, and streams. These earthly paradises, that have been traced to 6th century BC, have been most evident in Isfahan which was designated as Iran's capital city by Shah Abbas. He initiated the renovation and expansion of this city with the aim of creating vast gardens on the axis of the cities main river, Zayandehrud. According to the tourists and travelers who visited this city in 7th century, described it as a vast vista of greenery that encompassed and at times dwarfed the city's gleaming mosques and minarets and magnificent royal palaces. No less an architect than Jean Chardin describes "Chahar Bagh", the main tree-lined boulevard cutting across the city, as "the most beautiful" boulevard that I have ever seen." Of Isfahan's fifteen noted gardens most have been ravaged by the passage of time. Only two, Bagh-e Chehel Sotun and Bagh-e Hasht Behesht are still standing. Shah Abbas had personally supervised the design of Bagh-e Chehel Sotun and its palace structure. Some of the decorations of the palace, which was damaged by a fire, were done during the reign of the last Safavid king, Shah Soltan Hossein. The garden is now in the shape of a rectangle that abuts Bagh-e Hasht Behesht on its southern flank. A reflective pool, measuring 110 by 16 meters, fully reflects the whole fayade of the palace whose first floor rises two meters above the garden level and is featured by a square marbled pool adorned by a water fountain in its center. The multi-levered palace, surrounded by reflective pools, streams and fountains, is considered one of the most successful of Iranian architectures. The Hasht Behesht palace which was constructed, during Shah Suleyman's era, in the Bagh-e Bolbol, features an octagonal central hall with a dome punctuated by a skylight and an air shaft. A marbled pool whose water is provided with a central fountain lies beneath the dome and in the center of the building. Column-supported balconies on all four sides of the palace overlook the garden and the surrounding stream. According to Jean Chardin "It is difficult to imagine the beauty of this building which, despite its less than sturdy structure, is more fascinating and majestic than European palaces."

15 Political Ideology and Social Identity in Iran Hossein Bashiriyeh The article is an elaboration of the idea, rooted in post-structuralist school of thought, that societal identities are the by-products of political ideological discourses and not "essential" and permanent phenomena. Indeed they are rather ephemeral "constructs" of a hegemonic discourse in a particular historical era. In more technical terms, these identities should be construed as "discursive practices". In the application of this view to the case of twentieth-century Iran, one is faced with three major discourses that have competed for hegemony and have sought to construct the Iranian social identity according to their own concepts of "self' and "other". In the Pahlavi era, an authoritarian discourse of Persian Nationalism, sought to create an all-encompassing universal social identity by an emphasis on concepts such as modernization, development, modem rationality and secularism. The resulting discourse gave preeminent status to Iran's pre-Islamic cultural, social values, religious traditions and political institutions. The revival of Iran's historic identity was the ultimate objective of the discourse. With the establishment of the Islamic republic, however, fundamentalist Islamic discourse replaced the modernist and secularist ideology of the Pahlavi period. This discourse has attempted to pose Islamic identity of the nation as the antidote to the western secular way of life that is now considered as the most threatening "other." It has further strove to mold a unified social identity for all Iranians based on the anti-liberal, Islamist traditions. These attempts, however, have been rendered ineffective in the face of social, cultural and political realities of Iran's contemporary society. In fact, the attempts to create a unified Islamic identity have resulted in the re-emergence of particularistic social identities based on class, ethnic, religious, gender and cultural consciousness. One can not, therefor, escape the conclusion that social identity is a contradictory, unfinished, multifaceted and synthetic entity. It seems clear that Pahlavi era's authoritarian discourse was not successful in creating a one-dimensional nationalist identity for Iranian society. In a much more vivid manner the discourse of Islamic traditionalism seems to have also courted failure. It has not been able to construct its own pure Islamic man as an obedient subject of a theocratic governance.

Iranian Intellectuals and Economic Thought Kamran Dadkhah The early stages of the development of Iranian economic thought began in the second half of the 19th century. This development may be traced to the seminal writings of a number of Iranian intellectuals and writers whose familiarity with the modem economic thought prompted them to introduce their compatriots to European concepts in the field of economics in three different phases. In the first phase, which began in the latter part if the Qajar period and lasted until the onset of the constitutionalist movement, the concepts of open market and access to foreign capital were stressed, particularly by the author of Osu/-e Taraqqi [The Principles of Progress], Mirza Malkom khan-e Nazem alDowleh. The next stage began at the turn of the century and lasted until the rise of Reza shah to power. The salient concepts set forth in this period emphasized the necessity of accumulating domestic capital, creating Iranian trade companies, and economic self-sufficiency. Lebas al-taqva [Piety's Garb], authored by Seyyed Jamal-addin Va'ez Esfahani, must be considered the pioneering work in introducing these concepts. In the same period, Morteza Qoli Khan Sani'al-Dowleh published his essay titled Rah-e Nejat [The Path to Salvation] in which he emphasized the state's role in creating the necessary infrastructure for economic development. The period in which the state assumed a preponderant role in the management of Iran's national economy began in the 1920's and has in fact continued until now. Ali Akbar Davar, perhaps the foremost innovative Iranian thinker and administrator of the period, elaborated on the role of a central and powerful government for the implementation of a progressive economic plan. His article "Bohran" [The Crisis] was a synopsis of his thoughts on the subject. Mohammad Ali Forughi, by his translation of a treatise on economics, and Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh who published the first compilation of statistical data in Iran's national economy, must be included in the list of Iran's early contributors to the field.

Mathew Arnold and His Rendition of "Rostam-o-Sohrab" Hasan Javadi

In a number of ways, Mathew Arnold was not typical of his contemporary literary figures in England. In his breadth of literary taste and outlook, for example, he was more akin to his European contemporaries. His considerable interest in Oriental literature is a case in point. If a fascination with Oriental literature was common to both England and the Continent in the nineteenth century, the subject was pursued more seriously on the Continent. Among the Persian literary works that attracted Arnold's attention was Ferdowsi's Shahnameh which was introduced to Europe by the great English orientalist, Sir William Jones in the eighteenth century. Joseph Champion and James Atkinson too had translated parts of Ferdowsi's masterpiece into English. But it was left to Jules Mohl to translate it in its entirety into French. The earlier translators had compared Ferdowsi to Homer despite the prejudices that existed against Eastern literature in Europe. It was in a review of Mohl's work by the great French critic, Sainte Beuve, that Arnold came to know and appreciate the tragic story of "Rostam va Sohrab." An ardent admirer of Sainte Beuve, he had similar views on the literature of the East. His orientalism was part of an ever-broadening cultural cosmopolitanism. It is clear from Sainte Beauve's article that he was attracted by the pathos, moral force, and fatalistic cast of the narrative rather than by its heroic spirit. However, the main difference between the two renditions of the story lie in the degree to which Arnold represents his characters as helpless victims of fate. Arnold's version of "Rostam va Sohrab ," like most of his other poems, is illustrative of his characteristic outlook and literary taste. While he expressly declared his admiration for the Persian original, his poem bears an unmistakable personal stamp. The Hellenistic element in his background intermingled with his interests in things Persian and ultimately triumphed over them. Despite some obvious flaws, this symbiosis represents an important stage in the evolution of the European interest in the Orient and its literature. For the first time, the literary masterpieces of the Orient had been accorded a distinguished place side by side with those of classical antiquity.

Persian Professor in Britain: Mirza Mohammad Ebrahim

Michael H Fisher Education in Persian, long the predominant language of empire in South Asia, became a powerful and disputed subject within early British imperialism. From the mid-eighteenth century onward, as Indian regional kingdoms gave way before British military and political aggressions, official educational policies and personnel reflected this shifting balance of power. Asian scholar-administrators in India and Britain taught British officials Persian as well as the cultural and administrative forms conveyed by that language. By the early nineteenth century, however, competing British cultural assertions of Orientalism and Anglicization rallied to largely displace and degrade Indian professors of Persian. Still, an Iranian educator, Mirza Muhammed Ibrahim (c. 1800-1857), ventured to Britain in 1826 and earned a pennanent appointment at the East India Company's College at Haileybwy, where he remained until 1844. He had left Iran, reportedly due to personal conflicts with Shi'ite mullahs there This article analyzes the career of Mirza Muhammed Ibrahim. During his nearly two decades on the faculty at the East India Company's college at Haileybwy, he taught Persian to thousands of young British officials who were being trained to rule over India. He also took a prominent and empowered position within British society. After his retirement to Iran in 1844, he taught English and Western knowledge generally to the Qajar royal family for a dozen years. He remained intermediary between Iranian and British cultures there as well. In the context of early British imperialism, his career and those of Indian professors of Persian thus reveal numerous clashes over Persian education in England as well as in Asia. British society expected the Asian professors living among them to adopt Anglican Christianity, British-style clothing and diet, the English language, and Western modes of pedagogy. Only Mirza Ibrahim, an Iranian faculty member who anglicized himself, seems to have retained an honored position in British society until his graceful retirement. His appointment had proved a way to obtain some access to Persian and its intricacies without empowering Indian faculty. Yet, he faced conflicting pressures back in Iran between his British and Qajar patrons. The careers of these Asian professors reveal patterns over control of Persian education in Britain within the context of British imperialism in Asia.

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*** - Jahanbegloo, Ramin, ed. Iran: Between Tradition and Modemity. New York, Lexington Books, 2004. xxiii, 216 p. - Faghfoory, Mohammad H. (ed). Beacon of Knowledge; Essays in Homor

of Seyyed Hossein NasI. Louisville, Fons Vitae, 2003. liv, 365 p. - Foltz, Richard C. Spirituality in the Land of the Noble; How Iran Shaped

the World's Religions. Oxford, One World, 2004. xix, 204 p. - Noyon, Jennifer. Islam, Politics and Pluralism; Theory and Practice in

Turkey, Jordan, Tunisia and Algeria. London, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2003. 134p. - Parsinejad, Iraj. A History of Literary Criticism in Iran (1866-1951).

,..v,.. Bethesda, MD, Ibex Publishers, 2003. 350 p. - Amuzegar, Hooshang & Farideh. How to Speak, Read & Write Persian. Bethesda, MD, Ibex publishers, 2003. 285 p. - Aghai Diba, Bahman. The Law & Politics of the Caspian Sea in the

Twenty-First Century. Bethesda, MD, Ibex Publishers, 2003. 182 p.

*** - Iranian Studies. Vol. 36, Nos. 1-3, March-September 2003. - Islamic Books QuarterlJt. Vol. 2, No.5, Summer 2001.

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