Architectural Encounters of the East and West by Maham Neha Ansari

ARCHITECTURAL ENCOUNTERS BETWEEN THE EAST & WEST: THE EFFECTS OF THE BRITISH RAJ ON THE SEARCH FOR LAHORE’S OWN IDENTITY AR597 - DISSERTATION KENT SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF KENT 27TH FEBRUARY 2015

MAHAM NEHA ANDALEEB ANSARI SUPERVISOR NIKOLAOS KARYDIS WORD COUNT: 8751

ABSTRACT This dissertation aims to explore how architectural elements of the East and West synthesized in the new architectural typologies introduced to Lahore by the British imperialists during their interaction with the local culture from the 1700s to the 1940s. A study of the influences of the West on the typically Eastern architecture of Lahore makes apparent the increasing under-current of Western influence on the culture of the city. These Western influences were imposed on Lahore by the British rule and added to the city’s complex civilized nature which had developed as a result of its strategic importance to previous empires. With the imposition of British governance (the “British Raj”), however, for the first time, new building typologies were introduced to Lahore. These were isolated buildings that had been given a new purpose, a new significance and wider appreciation in the city. From the study of the concept of ‘East meets West’ in architecture and its effect on Lahore’s architectural identity, the aim of my research was to realize where exactly we see the amalgamation of the two. This was done by tracing architectural details of examples of these new typologies to existing architecture in the East and West. The research realization was the result of examining the architecture of Aitchison College, The Lahore High Court and The General Post Office. We see how this fusion of concepts was used to stitch together two disjointed cultures, leading to a rapid change in Lahore’s architectural language.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Lahore’s complexity is a constant source of inspiration, despite its apparent imperfections. It is a never-ending experience for which I would like to thank; my parents, for their undying love and belief in my abilities – without which I would be nothing; and my siblings, for always challenging me with their inquisitive minds. To Nikolaos Karydis, my advisor, who guided me and helped me with the technicalities of my dissertation, and who helped me realize how important it is to study one’s roots. To Kamil Mumtaz, for being my mentor and guiding me with his infinite wisdom. To Pervaiz Vandal who helped me in trying understand the complexities of my own culture. To Omar Hassan, for helping me develop a unique perspective with which to approach my research. To my friends and extended family, for supporting me and being there when I needed them most. Special thanks to Mujtaba Jamal, Justice Farrukh Irfan Khan, Mrs. Shamim from the Punjab archives and Asad Ibrar, for opening doors I never thought possible. And lastly, to my chaperone, Shafqat, for accompanying me on my adventures, in Lahore’s scorching heat!

CONTENTS 1.0

INTRODUCTION

2.0

AITCHISON COLLEGE

3.0

THE LAHORE HIGH COURT

4.0

GENERAL POST OFFICE

5.0

CONCLUSION

6.0

SOURCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.0 INTRODUCTION The use of architecture is key in establishing an image and consolidating power. The strength of an empire lies in not only how it runs its affairs, but also on how it chooses to portray itself to the locals and to the world. Each empire leaves its mark on a place, not only physically but also on its culture and its socio-economic state. Hindustan – modern day Pakistan, Bangladesh and India, was subject to many such invasions throughout the years where each empire had a unique impact on the local architecture and culture. One of these was the British Raj, which introduced to Hindustan, as in other numerous British colonies around the world, the immense social, intellectual and technological changes brought about by the enlightenment & industrialisation in Europe. Although the British had been around in India since the 1600s, the British ‘Raj’1 formally began when the colony was handed over to the Crown in 1858, ending with the India-Pakistan Partition in 1947. During this time, these new ideas brought about a demand for new building typologies which shook the very foundations of local culture. In the narrow, colourful streets of what is now known as ‘old’ Lahore, Pakistan, one can clearly see the layers of history and the effects of influences which have come and gone, especially those from the British Raj, leaving Lahore in a continuous search for its own identity. FIG 1.1 An aerial view of the Lahore Fort, Badshahi Mosque (R) & dense development of Mughal Walled City can be seen in the background; a contrast to the public park (L) added in the 1900s.

The ‘Raj’ – literally meaning the ‘Rule’ – is the name given to the period of British Rule.

The synthesis of the Eastern and Western influences has played a significant role in this never-ending pursuit of Lahore’s own architectural identity. Where previously the house, the religious institutions, and the palaces were the only types of institutions that required an architect to think about their form and functionality, the introduction of these new typologies—which included educational institutes, and recreational public facilities like museums and exhibition buildings—influenced the locals deeply. Apart from the affecting the physical features of local architecture, these typologies challenged the local lifestyle by introducing independent institutions, exclusive to the British and selected locals, allowing for a divide to be created within the society. This growing divide allowed the British to take the opportunity to establish themselves as the most advanced imperialists of the time and opened up the possibility of questioning the traditions, selecting which ones to critique and reform, which to keep, and which to eradicate. The phrase, ‘East meets West’ can be interpreted in many different ways, with respect to the architecture of public institutions. It can be taken in a very literal sense – the physical appearance of a building and how two different architectural styles are combined. Or, it could be seen as a fusion of two contrasting concepts which give us a more nuanced understanding of the architecture of the time. The amalgamation of these concepts, however, is a complex matter that goes beyond just the physical elements of architecture. It takes into account its possible effects on the native culture and community, while making an effort to establish a relationship with the existing context. This dissertation aims to explore how the new public building typologies, seen in the architecture of the British Raj, influenced the existing cultural context and transformed the built environment, while synthesizing elements from the East and West. In particular, this dissertation aims to examine how the Eastern and Western elements—in this case, European and Indian—amalgamated to convey different meanings and create different symbolisms for an assortment of public institutions that transformed the local way of life. To study this synthesis deeply, this dissertation aims to investigate a building of each typology. It looks at (1)

an educational institute, Aitchison College; (2) an authoritative institution, the Lahore High Court; and (3) an office for government services, the General Post Office, all of which are still used for the tasks they were originally built for. The aim is to make an in depth analysis of the architectural elements, classification as eastern or western elements and of the influence this had on the social environment of Lahore, through a literature review of research on the subject by academics, interviews with local architects, experts and first-hand accounts from current users of the building. Furthermore, the dissertation uses detailed sketches and photography to aid the analysis of the physical elements of architecture and to portray the essence of these architectural jewels.

FIG 1.2 – (Top Left)

FIG 1.3 – (Above)

FIG 1.4 –

Aitchison College, Lahore

The General Post Office, Lahore

The Lahore High Court

Examples of new building typologies introduced to Lahore – showing a fusion of architectural styles

1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW The architectural history of Hindustan – more specifically, Lahore – is a story of constant experimentation with different features and styles that reflected the imperial impulse of the Raj. The diversity of opinion about the effects of this impulse on the search for Lahore’s architectural identity makes it challenging to analyse the architecture of the time objectively. However, it also provides us with contrasting perspectives that make it easier for us to understand the underlying complexities of the amalgamation of the Eastern and Western architectural elements. In their book, Stones of Empire, Simon Winchester and Jan Morris, have analysed the complexities of this fusion architecture by exploring the major cities of the British Raj “as a testimony to a great architectural adventure”2. They claim that as the Raj grew older, the cultures of the east and west both became increasingly blurred and the barriers between them started to fade. Their thematic studies of the buildings of the Raj, and analysis according to the intention of their use (public, education, civic, spiritual and domestic) look at the development of the ‘style’ for the Raj. They describe cities and particular projects that were mainly built during the peak of colonial accomplishments, when the soldiers of the Raj were triumphing across Hindustan. Stones of Empire mentions Lahore as ‘the best example of the half reconciled maturity’3 brought about by the amalgamation of the eastern and western elements in the course of developing a ‘style’ for the era. Many Anglo-Indians thought Lahore to be the finest city in Hindustan – and according to Morris and Winchester, the British countered the Muslim ambience and architecture enthusiastically, as the presence of the Moguls ‘tempered their insularity’4 and contributed to their illusion of power. They had managed to introduce new vernaculars and construct a grand range of structures, in a foreign land which, according to 2

(Morris & Winchester, 1983) p. 226 (Morris & Winchester, 1983) p. 203 4 (Morris & Winchester, 1983) p. 205 3

‘Stones of Empire’, showed that the British were not only there to ‘exploit, rule and evangelize’5; they had to adapt themselves to entirely alien circumstances, landscapes and climate. These new vernaculars were developed as a result of the British imperial approach. Although there was more stylish architecture elsewhere in the Empire, the range of construction in India over the three centuries remained unparalleled due to the regeneration of different styles. However, the British and Indians alike were deeply influenced by each other across the three centuries of the Raj, and the East and the West constantly exchanged ideas which trickled down, often unintentionally, to architecture. This is the argument Kamil Mumtaz provides in his book The Architecture of Pakistan, in which he points out that the architecture of the British Raj was in essence, a result of European developments in ideologies and technology6. He claims that the attempts at combining eastern architectural elements must be viewed critically. They should not be seen as an addition to local traditions but instead as “a part of that particularly European phenomenon which produced Chinese pagodas in Kew Gardens, Indian pavilions at Brighton and Gothic Steeples in Karachi, with equal felicity”7. The detachment of these buildings from their immediate cultural and urban context symbolized, according to Mumtaz, the attitude of the British towards establishing their image as the most advanced imperialists of the time. As Philip Davies suggests in Splendours of the Raj, that the new building typologies, however, provided Lahore with the framework of a modern culture, in which the society continues to grow. The resolution of the amalgamation of the East and West, in his opinion, was in a completely original architectural style that was “neither Indian nor European, but a complete fusion of the two traditions”.8 These attempts at creating a new local vernacular mark the dramatic transformation of Lahore’s architecture and social environment.

(Morris & Winchester, 1983) p. 11 (Mumtaz, 1989) p. 124 7 (Mumtaz, 1989) p. 124 8 (Davies, 1985) p. 15 6

Pervaiz and Sajida Vandal give an insight to this transformation of Lahore in their book The Raj, Lahore and Bhai Ram Singh, and attempt to trace the architectural debates in India that resulted in a new architectural style incorporating eastern and western elements. They look into how the cultural exchanges ‘with the will to dominate or exploit’9 such as the British Imperialism dictated the architectural style of the Raj. By studying this, they also analyse the initial impact of the British on the local social environment and suggest that they have ‘left an indelible mark on Lahore’10 that cannot be undone. However, Vandal and Vandal, in The Raj, Lahore and Bhai Ram Singh, acknowledge that the British engaged in a debate on a suitable architecture for the Raj, which resulted in two extremes. One advocated the use of purely European styles, and the other, an adaptation of the local motifs for decoration. Eventually it was decided by the officials of the Raj, that the buildings that were solely for the use of the Europeans, would be built in the classically European style, while the spaces that the Europeans and the locals would be using jointly, ‘efforts’ were to be made to fuse local architectural elements together to appear sensitive to the cultural context.

(Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 13 (Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 10

1.2 METHODOLOGY To study this fusion, this dissertation analyses three aspects of the design of newly introduced typologies in the built environment of Lahore. The case studies chosen are examples from each typology, an educational institute, law courts, and post office headquarters – Aitchison College, Lahore High Court and The General Post Office. These are discussed thematically and, with the use of analytical sketches, parallels are drawn, identifying the influences of elements of eastern and western architecture in the course of searching for an appropriate style for the Raj. The aspects of design analysed are categorised as: ornamentation; planning, massing & ‘parti’11; and the social implications of these newly introduced typologies. To analyse the ornamentation, details of the columns, brackets, domes and arches are compared with those found in existing local and western architecture. The modifications of these details are then traced through the use of sketches, showing clearly the influences. The ‘parti’ and the massing is analysed similarly by tracing general forms of the case studies back to existing architecture around Europe and Hindustan. It also identifies architectural styles that were popular in England during that time and were being revived due to popular demand. The effects on the social environment are also studied briefly by discussing how each case study acted as a prototype for future institutions, which ones are still being used and how they were used purposely to transform the local lifestyle. The society was affected deeply by this interaction of the colonials with the locals on multiple levels, which led to ‘a fusion of architectural idioms’12 in the rapidly developing environment of Lahore.

11 12

‘Parti’ – basic scheme or concept of architectural design (Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 98

1.3 LAHORE FIG 1.6

The new public institutions brought into view new forces that resulted in changes in the built

(Left) Aerial View of Charing Cross on the Mall c. 1920s.

FIG 1.7 (Top Right) Queen Victoria’s statue at Charing Cross

environment of Lahore, an ancient city and an important capital for the preceding conquerors, as it sat on the major trade route to Afghanistan. The majority of the existing architectural splendour of Lahore was due to the Mughals who, much like the British, believed that the infrastructure reflected the power of the empire or ruler. Over the course of their threehundred-year rule of India, they transformed Lahore into a major trading centre and built the iconic Walled City and Fort. By the time the British arrived, the city had already trickled far beyond the walls, but was still pretty much set within its ancient mould – a ‘honeycomb’-like settlement with a maze of narrow streets, opening up occasionally into a square, usually a courtyard of a mosque, ‘bazaar’ or a palace. As in most other Anglo-Indian cities, the British Raj brought with it a new settlement to Lahore, detached from the walled city, stretching out far into the countryside. To mimic the lifestyle of the European elite, spaciously arranged bungalows with lots of greens were set up along with a military Cantonment – a community of its own with separate bazaars, churches, clubs and recreational facilities. The Mall, again, like in many other major colonial cities, was the main boulevard connecting the Cantonment to old Lahore, along which, the British built a ‘New Lahore’, sentimentally naming its central square ‘Charing Cross’.

It is in this area along the Mall (Fig 1.8), lined with trees and gardens connecting the old and new, where we really begin to see the amalgamation of the East and West. The Mall provides a grand display of the new building typologies previously merged into the affairs of the mosque or church – powerful brick structures, revealing themselves one after another. These new public buildings, according to Simon Winchester, managed to achieve ‘a remarkably harmonious balance with the medieval city, looming always in the background’13, even though some of them were built as exact replicas of European institutions. This was because the material palette used was similar to the existing architecture –restricting them to marble, sandstone and brick. Travelling along the Mall, the assortment of architectural styles is clearly visible. The eclectic architecture of the Town Hall, the purely gothic structure of the Government College, the Palladian styled Lawrence Hall and the fusion of the Lahore Museum, looking into a square where Rudyard Kipling’s14 ‘Kim’s Gun’ is displayed. It is in fact, Kipling’s father, to whom Lahore owes most of its fusion architecture. John Lockwood Kipling was the first curator of the Lahore Museum and the first principal of the Mayo School of Arts (now National College of Arts). These, along with Aitchison College, were designed and constructed under his supervision, by his brightest student, Bhai Ram Singh. Bhai Ram Singh later became known as the pioneer of the architecture of the Raj, and also succeeded Kipling as the principal of the National College of Art. Further down the road, is the primitive structure of the Tollington Market (Exhibition Building before the construction of the Museum), followed by a series of office buildings built in the new local vernacular. The public buildings were more for use by the British themselves, and were located closer to the Cantonment amidst New Lahore. These were functional European structures, such as the Punjab Assembly, the General Post Office and the Catholic Church. They were located around the area of Charing Cross, in the centre of which, an iconic statue of Queen Victoria was displayed. John Lockwood Kipling supervised most of the projects of the new vernacular, in which ‘efforts’ were made to incorporate local architectural elements, to mask the imperial impulse and appear sensitive to the context. 13 14

(Morris & Winchester, 1983) p. 203 Writer Rudyard Kipling lived and worked in Lahore for 5 years.

FIG 1.8 a (Top) Map of Lahore c. 1912, tracing the Mall from the Walled City to the Cantonment.

FIG 1.8b (Center) View along the Mall, showing The Museum in the foreground (right)

FIG 1.8c (Bottom) Map of the Walled City, showing its haphazard urban fabric

FIG 1.9 a

FIG 1.9 b

FIG 1.9 c

FIG 1.9 d

FIG 1.9 e

(Top Left)

(Top Right)

(Bottom Left)

(Bottom Right)

Sacred Heart Cathedral

Tollington Market

(Centre) Lawrence Hall, Gymkhana Club (now Jinnah Library)

Lahore Museum

Punjab Assembly

Through these ‘efforts’, the British Raj introduced urbanism to the Indian subcontinent, which articulated the nature of their imperialism. With the synthesis of Western ideologies and technologies with those of the East that led to a greater demand for public buildings and spaces. Lahore’s built environment gradually became a platform where the society “unfolded its ‘drama’”15 and displayed its unique dynamics that reflected on the social environment. The society that revolved around the religious institutions, the home and the palaces, was seen interacting with the new building typologies, such as the museums, libraries, exhibition buildings, informal public parks such as the Lawrence Gardens and even the Zoo, established in 1872. Instead of being a ‘lifeless product of the social environment’16, Lahore, as put very aptly by Robert Kaplan, became this ‘rich confection of a city, whose great buildings and street life evoke the deep hues and sensuality of a miniature painting’17 that even provided Rudyard Kipling with a perfect setting for his greatest stories, including Kim. However, Lahore is still a colonial city at heart, informed by the colonial approach of the Imperial administration. Just like it had been set in a ‘mould’ as a result of the three hundred year-long Mughal rule – Hindustan’s interaction with the British for almost the same span of time, had a similar impact on Lahore’s environment. Apart from the walled city and the Mughal monuments, ninety percent of the city is colonial in origin and continues to grow, ‘in the moulds set during the century of British rule’18. From the symmetrical street pattern instead of the honeycomb-like arrangement of streets of the old city, to the replacement of the mosques as the main education centres with formal institutes, to the introduction of new institutions such as courts and post offices replacing the kings’ ‘darbars’19, we see how the West begins to influence the Eastern culture through the use of space and architecture.

(Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 5 (Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 4 17 (Kaplan, 1989) p.1 18 (Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 5 19 The court where the King addresses all discussions and matters regarding the state 16

2.0 AITCHISON COLLEGE

2.0 AITCHISON COLLEGE Bridging the gap between the East – the mass of locals and the West – required the English speaking ruling system as essential for the future of British imperialism in Hindustan. The locals collectively ‘spoke more languages than the British Isles had dialects’,20 therefore, it was decided by the government, that an educational institution would be set up for the children of the feudal lords, princes and heirs, to form a class of ‘interpreters’ between the ruling British and the locals. As Vandal puts it, ‘the genesis of the College lay in the British experience of transforming the leading rulers and particularly their children into loyal subjects rather than disaffected opponents, through an education that extolled the British as rulers’. 21 Aitchison College, entirely devoted to education exemplifies the fusion of eastern and western elements. This fusion is observed in the following aspects of design: the ornamentation; the planning, the massing & ‘parti’ and the social implications, as shown in the following sketches.

FIG 2.1 (a) (Left) Elevation of Old Building verandahs, lined with arches c. 1920s

FIG 2.1 (b) (Top Right) View of the Old Building from the main gate. c. 1920s

FIG 2.1 (c) 20 21

(Aijazuddin, 2011) p. 11 (Vandal & Vandal, 2006) p. 169

(Bottom Right) Central dome of the Old Building

Aitchison College, founded in 1886, was intended to be a boarding school on the lines of existing educational institutes in Britain and two similar schools set up in Hindustan – Rajkumar College, Kathiawar and the Mayo College, Ajmer. After the collection of funds and acquisition of land for setting up the institution, the Board of Directors reviewed anonymous submissions for the design of the new building. They eventually chose two proposals, one for its elegant façade and the other for its pragmatic layout and construction. The first was revealed to belong to John L. Kipling’s student, Bhai Ram Singh, who later became the pioneer of British Colonial architecture in India, and the second belonged to Colonel Swinton Jacobs. Both parties were asked to combine their proposals, which is where the initial consolidation of the eastern and western elements becomes visible in the architectural features. Jacobs’s practical layout of a school building with a large central hall being its main focus (Fig 2.6) was combined skilfully with the architectural features and elevations of traditional nature suggested by Bhai Ram Singh. This resulted in the creation of one of Lahore’s most beautiful structures from the colonial era: Aitchison College’s Old Building, home to one of Pakistan’s most distinguished educational institutes. Furthermore, this concept of the synthesis of two very different elements played a significant role in the creation of a new architectural style for educational institutes where the fusion of eastern and western architectural elements is seen very clearly, as illustrated below.

FIG 2.2 View of the Old Building while approaching from the boarding houses

ORNAMENTATION The ornamentation and decorative features of the Old Building, designed by Bhai Ram Singh, seem to have been more influenced by eastern architectural elements that can be traced back to Mughal and Islamic architecture. The central block has octagonal minaret-like towers that mark its corners and are crowned with ‘chatris’22 and cupolas. The central dome has a cluster of smaller domes (Fig. 2.3) around it to balance the composition and accentuate the visual effect of the building, while the brickwork reflects intricate wood carving designs. The occasional use of red sandstone in the eaves, red marble for cladding columns & arches and the use of intricately detailed white marble jharokas23 (Fig 2.3a) help this new building tie in with the existing context of Mughal Lahore. The source of inspiration for the ornamentation of the projecting balconies or the ‘jharokas’ and the columns in the Old Building is can be traced back directly to the ‘Jharoka-eDarshan’24 (Fig, 2.3b) at the Lahore Fort where the Mughal emperors used to address the public. Fig.1 shows the similarities between the columns and brackets of the Old Building and the ones found in Jehangir’s Quadrangle at the Lahore Fort, used to decorate the structure of the pavilions added to the Fort during Emperor Jehangir’s rule (Fig 2.4). The brackets and columns were modified with additional carvings for use in the Old building with the additional floral carvings. FIG 2.3

(a) Jharoka of Old Building (b) Jharoka-edarshan, Lahore Fort (c) Influence of the bracket of Jehangirs quadrangle (top) are seen in the two types of brackets seen at Aitchison 22

‘Chatris’ - Literal meaning: umbrellas ‘Jharokas’ are projecting windows from the façade of a building. 24 ‘Jharoka-e-Darshan’ - The projected balcony in the Kings’s court where the king used to sit and address his subjects. 23

FIG 2.4 (a) The two columns of the Old Building are compared to the one found at Jehangir’s quadrangle (middle sketch) (b) & (c) details of Jehangir’s Quadrangle

Details that were picked up from the existing buildings were adorned further with carvings, such as in the domes of the Old Building, to create elaborate facades. The domes that top the minaret-like towers terminating each recess in the massing are, reminiscent of the ones found at the minaret-like towers of the main gate of the Lahore Fort with the ‘chatris’, the only difference being the addition of the engraved detail of the cupolas. The verandas that the classrooms open into are lined with inter-lacing arches that incorporate an intricate red marble ‘jaali’ 25 , mimicking the arches of the Mosque of Cordoba, in Spain (Fig 2.5c). This created a unique composition against the highly textured façades of the building, providing a grand display of the synthesis of different eastern architectural features into the ornamentation of a building constructed for an essentially western concept. FIG 2.5 (a) Engraved cupola of the Old Building is compared to (b) Pavilion found at the entrance of the Lahore Fort (c) The influence of the arches at the Mosque of Cordoba can be seen in (d) the arches of the Old building 25

‘Jaalis’ – a mesh made of stone, metal or wood in an intricate pattern

PLANNING, MASSING & ‘PARTI’ The incorporation of the western elements, however, is more evident in the massing, planning and ‘parti’. The plan is like that of a church nave, with its central hall (Fig.2.6) and the composition of the three tiered Old Building, is in fact reminiscent of the layout of the Villa Barbaro, in Maser. The Villa Barbaro, situated in Northern Italy, was designed by the architectural master Andrea Palladio in 1560 for the Barbaro family, the ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I. Even if the architects had not intended for it to resemble Villa Barbaro in particular, while attempting to fuse two diverse concepts together, the symmetrical elevation of the Old Building with a dominant dome structure in the centre became instinctively similar to Villa Barbaro’s central block. The central block houses the main reception room and two symmetrical wings fronted with an arcade with repetitive double-storey arches, as shown in Fig2.7 (c), which is a common feature of classical buildings by Palladio. The Old Building also seems to draw its inspiration for the three-tiered structure from the elevation and massing of the Baroque Church Karlskirche in Vienna by Johann Fischer von Erlach, completed in 1737 in the name of the Karl Borromeo, the patron saint of the then ruling Holy Roman Emperor. It has a similar tiered structure with a central portico and two symmetrical wings, two minaret-like columns reminiscent of Italian Trajan columns and a central dome. Its similarity in massing is illustrated in Fig 2.7, showing the undercurrent of western influences in the massing of the Old Building, although Erlach’s concept behind placing the Trajan columns at Karlskirche can be seen as a derivative from the minarets at Hagia Sophia and the Blue Mosque at Istanbul. Therefore, it is seen that the architecture of the east and west is engaged in a constant dialogue – resulting in features of the east, influencing the west, and then eventually a more informed version of its seeps back into the architecture of the east, creating an entirely new architectural language.

FIG 2.6 Plan of the Old Building

(a)

(b)

(c) FIG 2.7 (a) The massing of the Old Building can be compared to structures of (b) Karlskirche & the Blue Mosque, and to the symmetry of (c) Villa Barbaro

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS This concept of the amalgamation of eastern and western elements through the establishment of educational institutes with their own architectural language eventually deeply impacted the built and social environment of Lahore. Prior to the setting up of institutions like Aitchison College in Lahore, the mosques located within the walls of the old city were the main source of university and schooling. The Wazir Khan Mosque was one such institution and its inward-looking quadrangular planning allowed for it to be a multi-purpose space other than solely functioning as a place of worship, with room for a library and classrooms on the first floor. The concept behind replacing this sort of traditional education system with a new culture of custom-built educational institutions and Aitchison College in particular, was to influence the students’ approach independently by separating education from religion. Lord Macaulay admitted in his Minute on Education, that the aim of Aitchison College was to create a class of students who would be groomed to be ‘Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, morals and in intellect. As English is likely to become the language of commerce throughout the seas of the East, we shall see the strongest reason to think that, of all foreign tongues, English is that which would be most useful to our native subjects.’26 This had far-reaching social implications. These continue to impact the locals of the subcontinent and most former colonial states, as they continue to develop according to the pattern set by the British imperialists. The current education system still functions in the same framework, and under the supervision of the education system in Britain. The imperialists took it upon themselves to attempt to educate the Indians through the form of knowledge the administrators considered superior, and to develop this through specialized educational institutes. Therefore, we see that the synthesis of the East and West is more than just skin-deep and were intentionally used in Aitchison College to make an impact on the locals of Hindustan. This further permitted the British to portray themselves as the most powerful and progressive imperialists of the time.

(Macaulay, 1835)

3.0 LAHORE HIGH COURT

3.0 LAHORE HIGH COURT To portray the British Raj as a powerful and progressive force, another important institution needed to be set up to implement rules and regulations to maintain law and order throughout the state. This, along with the ‘daunting expansion of industry, trade and government bureaucracy’27 in Britain, where the Law Courts in the Strand had just been completed in 1882, led to the setting up of an institution dedicated to ensuring the enforcement of laws. Therefore, a little further up on the Mall, Lahore’s ‘commercial spine’28, from Aitchison College, a new architectural typology emerged in 1889 – the Punjab Chief Courts, now known as the Lahore High Court. The incorporation of eastern and western elements in its architectural features was mainly visible in the ornamentation, planning and massing of the High Court building. However, the concept of independent courts was purely Western, as these matters were previously dealt with at the King’s court. The influence of the west and its amalgamation with the east is, therefore, also seen in the impact this new typology had on the built and socio-political environment of Lahore. FIG 3.1 (a) (Top) Panoramic view of the Lahore High Court main quadrangle (b) (Left) Arches of the main portico (c) (Right) Perforated brick screen in the inner courtyard

27 28

(Bergdoll, 2000) p. 173 (Mumtaz, 1989) p. 117

This new addition to the assortment of new public buildings was mainly a result of a letter written by the Officiating Registrar of the Chief Courts to the Secretary to the Government in 1868. He formally requested a new customized space for the proceedings of the Law Courts, as the existing building proved to be inadequate in terms of space and equipment. Within a few months, the need for a new building was realised and the details of the super structure for a new law court were designed by Mr. Brossington, supervised by an engineer named J. E. Hilton. Since there was no previous precedent to a building dedicated to the practice of law, Brossington looked towards Britain, where the Law Courts had just been completed in a popular style in Britain around the 1850s – the Gothic Revival. It was praised for its ability to adapt to a range of uses such as – religious and civic. George Gilbert Scott, architect of the Midlands Hotel at St. Pancras, by 1857, had called for a modern Gothic style to be developed which would be ’free, comprehensive and practical, ready to adapt itself to every change in the habits of society, to embrace every material or system of construction, and to adopt implicitly and natural every invention and improvement.’29 With the construction of the Law Courts at the Strand in London from 1874-82, as the last national monument in the Gothic Revival style, it seemed evident that this type of architecture was indisputably powerful. Its symmetrical silhouette was a prime example of how a monumental building could be successfully orientated and designed to be impactful. Even though according to David Watkin the internal planning of the London Law Courts was ‘inept and sacrificed convenience to a vast vaulted hall’30 that had little symbolical or practical function, The Lahore High Court seems reminiscent of this idea of a ‘free’ and ‘adaptable’ Gothic style that could successfully allow for the combination of elements from the East and West into architectural features.

FIG 3.2 The Royal Courts of Justice, Strand , London 29 30

(Bergdoll, 2000) p. 200 (Watkin, 1986) p. 471

ORNAMENTATION The combination of eastern and western elements is seen primarily in the ornamentation and physical features of the main block of the High Court building. It is built in the form of a quadrangle with red bricks using customised red bricks forming cornices, projections and ornamental features such as the terracotta trellis or intricate screens used to fill the gothic style arches. The pointed arches give a ‘Saracenic’31 appearance to the gable ends which results in a curve in the elevation with a serrated or stepped silhouette. It also gives a similar language to the naqqar khanaa32 gallery in the central block that is flanked by two towers, fluted at the top to bear a resemblance to the Qutub Minar in Delhi (Fig 3.2). The Qutub Minar was constructed by Delhi’s first Muslim ruler, Qutubuddin Aibak, in 1193 to celebrate his victory against the last Hindu empire of Delhi. These two Qutub Minar-like towers were surmounted with projected balconies and are placed over the central pavilion where the white marble domes are reminiscent of those of the Badshahi Mosque, opposite the Lahore Fort built in the 1700s. The use of such features from buildings of the Mughal Era and existing Islamic architecture shows the synthesis of the eastern elements into the ornamentation of the Lahore High Court building.

FIG 3.3 (a) (Left) Details of the Qutub Minar, Delhi are seen used in: (b) (Centre) Tower of the inner courtyard (c) (Right) Tower of the central portico 31 32

‘Saracenic’ – architectural style using a combination of gothic and Indian elements ‘Naqqar Khaana’ gallery – the entrance between the inner and outer courts

FIG 3.4 (Left) Arches of the Rheims Cathedral Analytical sketches of the arches (center) at the High Court and Moorish arch (c) at Sintra, Portugal

The synthesis of the Western elements is mainly seen in the arches, columns of the porticos and pavilions that seem to draw their inspiration from the Gothic Revival architecture. Gothic revival architecture was very popular in England during this time period, especially after the construction of St. Pancras Hotel by George Gilbert Scott (Fig. 3.4 b). The details of the High Court can be seen as inspired by the hotel – which was, however, a mere revival of the Gothic experiment that took place between the 12th and 14th centuries. Constant references are made to original Gothic buildings, such as the arches of the front portico could be seen as a combination of the details of the main arches seen in the Rheims Cathedral in France, Westminster Abbey and the Ely Cathedral. References were also made to Moorish horseshoe or keyhole arches with the use of the ‘jaali’ and floral ornamentation on the along the edges. A ‘muqarnas’ or honeycombed cornice runs along the arcaded verandahs on the main elevations of the building. The elevations of the inner courtyard of the quadrangular plan, however, has a classical cornice reminiscent of the one seen at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, edging a continuous screen of perforated brickwork resembling a honeycomb (Fig 3.1c). The combination of these details in different ways on the inner and outer elevations, makes it clear to see the synthesis of the eastern and western elements in the decorative features of the building. FIG 3.5 (a) (left) Muqarnas (b) (centre) Cornice of the Ashmolean Museum (c) (right) Cornice of the inner courtyard.

PLANNING, MASSING AND ‘PARTI’ In massing and in plan, the High Court building is very symmetrical, a style that parallels many classical buildings of the west such as Villa Barbaro in Maser, Italy and the Palace of Versailles in France. The construction of The Lahore High Court took place in stages -The main building was built by 1887; the western and eastern wings were added later and by 1923, forming an inward-looking quadrangular courtyard with two L-shaped wings on either side of the central block. The phases of construction resulted in a plan similar to that of the Villa Barabaro, the Palace of Versailles and can even be compared the proposed plan of the ‘Phalanstère’. The massing of the main elevation of the High Court building is clearly reminiscent of the idea of the central block with two symmetrical wings of Palladio’s Villa Barbaro in Maser, described earlier in the chapter on Aitchison College. The planning of the completed form of the High Court, in retrospect, seems similar to the plan of the Palace of Versailles, France, where the central block contains the main courtyard and has similar Lshaped wings on each side, forming smaller, more intimate courtyards. A similar kind of planning, inspired by the Palace of Versailles, was used as framework for the ‘Phalanstère’ (Fig. 3.6). This was an idea of a utopian complex designed to create a perfect self-contained society based on theories about harmonising the diversity of human activities in 1834. The plan was to have a central block with two lateral wings, where the central block consisted of conference rooms and libraries, and the wings were used for activities like balls, meetings with foreigners, or even work like carpentry. The similarities of these buildings in plan are illustrated in Fig-. This takes us deeper into the study of the impact of the ideologies of the West subtly making its way into the Eastern culture. Even the Palace of Versailles and the Phalanstère were much larger in scale than the High Court quadrangle and the uses completely different, the intent to have a semi-enclosed space to impact the users and create an area to bring together diverse concepts and ideas, seemed to influence the design of the High Court greatly and the social environment of Lahore.

FIG 3.6 - Massing of the Lahore High Court (a), can be compared to:

(b) the symmetrical elevation of Villa Barbaro

Is similar to the plan of the Palace of Versailles (d)

And of the Phalanstere (e)

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS The fusion of the eastern and western concepts in the matters of the state and the law began in 1830, when Ranjit Singh, the famous Sikh ruler of Punjab, merged the smaller states ruled by independent heads of state, into the province. Prior to this merger, there were no formal judicial Courts, no written laws or independent established authority to enforce them. The state’s administrative and judicial affairs were taken care of at the King’s ‘durbar’ with the help of the royal advisors. In 1866, the Chief Court of the Punjab, now known as the Lahore High Court, was established by the British imperialists as the final Court of Appeal from the Civil and Criminal Courts in the province. The introduction of this new typology of institutions – the law courts – as a separate building meant that the affairs of the legal system could be carried out independently, with more efficiency. However, the imposing structure of the Lahore High Court was also intended to intimidate and impress the locals, and to portray the British imperialists to be powerful and influential. The attempts to combine eastern and western architectural elements, aided this typically imperialist cause, while simultaneously depicting a false sense of sensitivity to the cultural and urban context of Lahore.

FIG 3.7 – The first phase of the High Court Building c. 1906

4.0 GENERAL POST OFFICE

4.0 GENERAL POST OFFICE The architecture of the newly introduced public buildings were meant for use by both the locals and Europeans, and followed the general lines of the ‘Indo-Saracenic’ style, which took shape under the influence of British management. The GPO, completed in 1887, was one of the structures which were built to house newly instituted functions the local population was not familiar with. Buildings of this type followed the patterns of planning and architectural features, typically western, set by the British in other parts of India, with rooms around a courtyard and verandas to provide relief from the strong summer sun. The surface treatment incorporated European versions of local features as they developed in the hands of European architects over the years. This displayed clearly the synthesis of the eastern and western elements that merged in well with the existing context, in massing, ornamentation and the social environment of Lahore.

FIG 4.1 – (a) (Top Right) Old postcard image of the GPO (b) (Bottom right) Elevation of the leftwing (c) (left) Central Dome and portico

PLANNING, MASSING & ‘PARTI’ The GPO’s triangular, winged form looking into a courtyard, is located at an intersection of key boulevards converging towards it. In plan, the GPO has a central block with two angled wings that have a continuous row of offices and rooms running from one end to the other, witch corridors on each side. One side looks out towards the High Court and the Mall, while the other looks into the courtyard space created as a result of the wings. Recently a new block was added to the courtyard, completing its form of massing as a quadrangle, but keeping the original inner courtyard space open for the existing building to look into. The plan of the GPO was very functional and symmetrical, which is a typical characteristic of institutions in European architecture. However, the use of the quadrangular courtyard and corridors with arches preceding the rooms was also a feature typically associated with the architecture of the Mughal Empire, as we can see from most of the buildings in the Lahore Fort. The Mughals had realised that this was a mechanism that created a micro-climate to keep a continuous flow of air through the building and to keep the buildings cool during the harsh summers of Lahore. Furthermore, to provide shelter and relief from the scorching heat of the area, local techniques were also incorporated to in the design of the building, such as the introduction of arched ceilings in the corridors that ran along the front of the rooms. It is seen that the plans of the different pavilions of the Lahore Fort and the local techniques, therefore, influenced the design and planning of the GPO greatly. The massing of central block of the GPO is further influenced by the architecture of the West such as the Baroque Church Karlskirche in Vienna by Johann Fischer von Erlach, completed in 1737. As seen in the chapter on Aitchison College, it had a tiered structure with a central block and two symmetrical wings, two minaret-like columns and a central dome that surmounted the central portico. The central block of the GPO can also be compared to the façade and central dome of the Sant’Agnese in Agone at the Piazza Navona in Rome, where the central dome was preceded by a triangular pediment. This design by Borromini for the Sant’Agnese had in fact, been inspired by the central dome and bell towers designed by Bernini for St. Peter’s Basilica at the Vatican. The domes of the GPO are varied in style and it is believed that these were made to look like crowns to symbolize

the British Monarchy, as the GPO was built to commemorate Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee. The central block of the GPO faced the intersection of the roads and acted as a clock tower, while being one of the newly introduced imposing structures portraying the British as the advanced imperialists with a refined culture and taste for architecture.

(a)

FIG 4.2 – The massing of the GPO (a) can be compared to that of the Karlskirche (b) and of the Sant Agnese in Agone (c)

FIG 4.3 – (b)

(Top right) Sketch plan of the GPO

FIG 4.4 – (Centre Right) As study of the smaller crownlike domes

FIG 4.5 – (Bottom right) A view of the dome from the inner courtyard

(c)

A ve

ORNAMENTATION The details of the elevations and inner courtyard space created by the symmetrical wings on either side of the central portico were also mostly derived from Western architecture. The elements semi-circular arches and the rustication on the ground floor possessed a similarity to the details of classical architecture seen in Inigo Jones’s Somerset House, despite the material palette being completely different. The rustication on the ground floor acted as an element separating the ground from the building itself. This detail is seen in most classical houses across Europe, as it mimicked the Palladian concept of providing all the services on the ground floor and the entrance of the house or building would be stepped up to the first floor. The incorporation of round elements in the spandrels or the space created between the arches seems to be most similar to the ornamentation of the arches and elevations of the cathedral church Tempelo Malastestiano, Italy designed by Leon Batista Alberti in 1450. However, Alberti’s incorporation of the rounded elements in the spandrel was inspired by the use of the round elements at the Ospedale degli Innocenti by Filippo Brunelleschi in Florence, a children’s orphanage. It was the revival of the classical style, the façade of the inward-looking courtyard was made by a series of semi-circular arches, and was the first instance of rounded elements being introduced to the spandrel, with reliefs of babies carved into blue terracotta. The influence of western elements, therefore, is clearly visible in the architectural features of the GPO and can be traced back to classical buildings of the West, as well as to the technology and planning of existing Mughal architecture.

(b)

(c)

(a)

FIG 4.6 – (a) The elevation of the GPOs inner courtyard; (b) Ospedale degli Innocenti, with reliefs introduced into the spandrels; (c) Tempelo Malastestiano, with round elements introduced to its elevations; (d) rustication detail from the GPO, traces back to (e) the entrance of the Somerset House

(d)

(e)

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS The GPO, built to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, was set up to manage the functions of the postal system and the telecommunications carrier. It was one of the first examples of a utilitarian structure that symbolized an entirely new, western concept of building typologies for managing services such as a post office and telegraphs. This led to the construction of purpose-built buildings for other public services such as the Lahore Museum, the Lawrence Hall (Gymkhana Club, now the Jinnah Library), and the Punjab Assembly built in the 1930s at Charing Cross. The introduction of these services had far-reaching implications on the lifestyle of the locals of Lahore, as these institutions continue to function using the same buildings that the British imperialists had built such as the General Post Office. The introduction of these new typologies and institutions provided Lahore with, as Philip Davies suggested, the “framework of a modern state”, in which they continue to expand. New technologies and ideas were introduced to improve communications, effectively rule over the locality and opportunities for recreation were provided such as the Museums, the Zoo, and picturesque public parks. This gives us an idea of the magnitude of British imperialism’s impact on Lahore’s social environment and of the amalgamation of western and eastern concepts through the provision of customised architecture and spaces.

FIG 4.7 – The central dome of the GPO is seen past the Victorian street lamps in the inner courtyard

CONCLUSION

4.0 CONCLUSION A closer look at the architecture of the new building typologies introduced to Lahore, makes it clear to see that the British were very careful of how they used architecture to convey certain meanings and symbolisms. British architects and administrators were aware of the power architecture possesses and the tremendous influence it can have on an administration’s success. The industrialisation and the enlightenment in Europe had far-reaching effects on the colonies. The introduction of new ideologies and developments in technology seeped into the local culture of Lahore resulting in a demand for new building typologies, such as the Lahore High Court, Aitchison College and the General Post Office. In the face of contradictory demands of architects’ ambitions and the requirements of these new types of buildings, the architecture of the Raj saw the amalgamation of eastern and western elements in the ornamentation and massing. The continuous battle of styles in search for an architectural identity for Lahore, however, did not only reproduce western architecture, but also attempted to merge with the existing social and built environment. The architecture of the Raj, especially in Lahore, therefore, ranged from copies of the European Baroque to ‘Saracenic’ architecture or Mughal inspired architecture. This varied range of styles also reflected the type of architectural style that was in demand or in fashion at the time. Since the architects could not find any precedents of these building typologies in the cultural context, they looked at existing buildings in Europe and decided to create their own style. As Mumtaz says, this style produced structures that “would later be wrapped to taste with the appropriate trimmings and accessories from any period on demand”33. The new buildings were made, therefore, without reference to a particular style – they were more embellished and decorated versions of elements of Mughal architecture, trying to appear sensitive to the context and community.

(Mumtaz, 1989) p. 117

In the case of Aitchison College, an institution to educate sons of the local elite, the synthesis of the eastern and western styles was seen in the elevations and its ornamentation. Since the concept of a building devoted to education was new, there were no precedents of this typology in local sources; the planning and massing, therefore, were both purely European. The Lahore High Court, however, seemed more integrated into the context, with a massing similar to the quadrangular buildings in the east and west, bringing together domes and floral patterns of the East, with the gothic details of the West. The GPO, on the other hand seemed to be mostly of Western influence, where only the quadrangular form with an inward looking courtyard and continuous corridor wrapping around the entire building can be compared to the Lahore Fort’s quadrangles. These newly introduced institutions were meant to bridge the gap between the Eastern and Western cultures. By studying the architecture of Aitchison College, the Lahore High Court and the General Post Office, it is seen that the amalgamation of east and west is seen firstly, with the mere introduction of these institutions. Secondly, it is seen in the elevations and ornamentation of the buildings, drawing inspirations from the details of local and western buildings. Thirdly, it is seen in the planning and massing of the buildings, which, in their symmetry and use of corridors, bring together elements of existing Mughal architecture and of the classical Palladian planning. Ultimately, the fusion of the eastern and western elements in the newly introduced institutions shows the magnitude of the impact imperialism had on the architecture of Lahore. It also shows us how this architecture and introduction of new ideas left an undeniable mark on the built and social environment of Lahore. The fusion of various contrasting elements and details to create different symbolisms and convey certain messages proved that the British used architecture to further their imperial gain. They tried to ‘consider’ the urban context in the surface treatment of their architecture to try and appease the local population and win their approval, which is where initially, ‘east meets west’. However, the introduction of new institutions is actually where the eastern and western architectural styles meet, which the British, in their imperialist fervour, were trying to conceal under

the mask of ornamentation and fusion of physical features. The British had intended to impress the locals through a series of imposing structures and had brought with them a new vernacular with its own unique symbolisms and concepts. These were technologically advanced buildings that they then modified to fit existing urban and cultural contexts and as Mumtaz suggests, “were no more Mughal or Indian than the Houses of Parliament are “Gothic”34. The British both subconsciously and intentionally introduced new theories, philosophies and architectural features to the Indians, which fundamentally changed the perspective of the Indians of how they view architecture. These new ideas changed not only the appearance of the architectural language of Lahore, but also gave a new meaning and function to its built and social environment. It introduced a new lifestyle and a new system of management to the city that forms the ‘mould’ it continues to develop in. We see that the amalgamation of Eastern and Western architectural elements stitched together two disjointed concepts, achieving “its most eloquent expression in the buildings of the Raj”35, whilst simultaneously imposing the western culture onto the eastern settlement.

34 35

(Mumtaz, 1989) p. 117 (Davies, 1985) p. 16

6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

aboutvienna.org, n.d. Karlskirche. [Online] Available at: http://www.aboutvienna.org/sights/karlskirche.php [Accessed 7 February 2015]. Ackerman, J., 1966. Palladio. London: Penguin Group. Aijazuddin, F. S., 2011. Commanding Success - Aitchison College. Lahore: Aitchison College. Anon., 2015. L'encyclopĂŠdie libre - The Free Encyclopedia. [Online] Available at: http://monindependancefinanciere.com/lenciclopedie/seccionp/phalanstere.php [Accessed 19 February 2015]. Bergdoll, B., 2000. European Architecture 1750-1890. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bergdoll, B., 2000. European Architecture 1750-1980. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chaudhry, N. A., 1998. Lahore - Glimpses of A Glorious Heritage. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. Daud, N., 2007. Who Built Lahore?. Humsafar, January. Davies, P., 1985. Splendours of the Raj. London: John Murray. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. Ospedale degli Innocenti. [Online] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434124/Ospedale-degliInnocenti [Accessed February 2015]. Goulding, H. R., 1924. Old Lahore - Reminiscences of a Resident. Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press. Jenkins, S., 2008. Here in the city of Kim, Pakistan's magnificent history is being left to rot. The Guardian. Kaplan, R. D., 1989. Lahore as Kipling Knew It. The New York Times. Latif, S. M., 1892. Lahore - Its History, Architectural Remains and Antiquities. Lahore: New Imperial Press. Macaulay, T. B., 1835. Minutes on Education. s.l.:s.n. Morris, J. & Winchester, S., 1983. Stones of Empire - The Buildings of the Raj. New York: Oxford University Press. Mumtaz, K. K., 1989. Architecture in Pakistan. Singapore: Concept Media. Pakistan Environmental Planning & Architectural Consultants Ltd., 1993. The Walled City Lahore. Lahore: Lahore Development Authority.

Punjab Archives - Civil Secretariat Library, n.d. Aitchison College. Lahore: Punjab Archives Civil Secretariat Library. Punjab District Gazetteers, 1916. Lahore District, Lahore: Punjab Government. Schmithe, S., 2010. British Imperialistic Impact on Indian Architecture, s.l.: Sean Schmithe. Scott, G. G., 1857. Remarks on Secular and Domestic Architecture, Present and Future. s.l.:Kessinger Publishing. Smyth, T., 1868. (Extract) Letter requesting a new Court building. Lahore: Punjab Archives. Summerson, J., 1980. The Classical Language Of Architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. Tadgell, C., 1990. The History of Archtiecture in India. London: Archietcture Design and Technology Press. UNESCO, 2015. Villa di Maser - World Heritage UNESCO. [Online] Available at: http://www.villadimaser.it/en [Accessed 9 February 2015]. Vandal, P., 2014. [Interview] (8 September 2014). Vandal, P. & Vandal, S., 2006. The Raj, Lahore and Bhai Ram Singh. Lahore: NCA. Visit Rimini, 2004. Tempelo Malatestiano. [Online] Available at: http://www.visit-rimini.com/general-sightseeing/tempio-malatestiano/ [Accessed 8 February 2015]. Watkin, D., 1986. History of Western Architecture. London: Laurence King Publishing.

Images and Illustrations: All sketches, covers and photography are the Author’s own work, except: Figs.: 1.1, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8(a,b,c), 1.9 (a,c,d,e); 2.1(b), 2.4(b,c), 2.5(b,c); 3.2(a), 3.4(a), 3.5(b), (3.6 c,d,e), 3.7; 4.1(a), 4.2 (c) and 4.6(b,c,e) All historical photos, maps and aerial photography are taken from: the online archive of ‘Project Lahore’ http://lahore.city-history.com and www.flickr.com/photos/jzakariya http://www.panoramio.com/ http://historicalpakistan.blogspot.co.uk/ "Phalanstère" by Victor Considérant http://www.walledcitylahore.gop.pk/ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ www.flickr.com