The Beaten Path Designed and written by Neil Uhl. Set in Whitney and Ziggurat, two modern classics by Tobias Frere-Jones. Both typefaces are crisp, contemporary adaptations of 19th-century styles. Printed on Fabriano paper. San Francisco, California December 2009
Neil Uhl
The Impacts of Tourism on the Developing World
I can stay on my land with my wife and children, support our family, and help our village. I have
—Anonymous commenter “Going Local” travel blog
He hawks the only thing he owns… He becomes a
—Arundhati Roy The God of Small Things
My interest in tourism comes from personal experience. For the last 15 years I’ve lived in tourist towns—Santa Barbara, San Francisco, Budapest— except for one year when I packed up and traveled around the world, mainly via developing countries. As a frequent tourist, from well-touristed cities, I have been sensitized to the experience of having one’s hometown inundated with tourists. When I travel, I often switch my gaze from tourist to local—an impossible pretence, of course, but a habit nonetheless, trying to discern what it’s like to live in a place, and what it might be like without tourism… in other words, without me there. Tourists can be obnoxious. I know this well. I’ve dealt with them, and I’ve been one of them. I’ve seen what tourism can do to a small town, what it looks like in a major American city, and how it can reinvent a once-crumbling metropolis. I have been frustrated at the lack of hotel rooms in Dakar, Senegal, and been repelled by their abundance in Bangkok. I have been delighted at the genuine hospitality of local residents and dismayed at its corruption into cynicism. I have stood amazed at the tenacious haggling skills of children selling trinkets, and wondered what it means about their life and future. I’ve seen both sides of the tourism dilemma. I’ve been immersed in tourism in many ways, and have not yet resolved the question of whether it does more harm or good. This book is part of my own attempt to reconcile and understand its consequences. —Neil Uhl
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The Beaten Path
The Beaten Path
1 Taking Off
4
Mr. Cook’s Idea
8
Third Place
10
A Question of Development
12
Why Focus on the Developing World?
14
Maslow’s Hierarchy
16
Whose Idea is It?
18
Growing Impact
20 Touching Down
24
Tribal Tourism
29
Bali: A Case Study
31
The Burmese Question
34
Women’s Status
36
Natural Benefits
36 Checking In
40
Off the Beaten Path
47
Sustainable Tourism
Taking
Off
Origins of Tourism
Third world tourism has been set up by foreign image makers, investors and local elites. There has been no participation by, and consultation of, the people of the host country in shaping the phenomenon.� —Twan Huybers
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The Beaten Path
One may as well begin with the obvious: without tourists, there would be no tourism. The great social exchange that is modern tourism depends entirely on the people who step out of their own homes in order to explore someone else’s. Like the Caribbean islanders who one afternoon discovered Columbus dropping anchor on their shores, ordinary people in the developing world never invited tourists to come to their countries. The tourists decided to visit, curious to discover exotic new lands, and the residents had to deal with it. Today, few societies are unaffected by tourism; even fewer are unaware of it. Many people now actively seek out tourists to visit their countries, in the hope of benefitting from their presence. However, the major decisions about how and where tourism occurs are still made by outside groups: tourists, businesses, and governments. And those who make the rules tend to win the game.
Taking Off
3
Mr. Cook’s Idea
The teetotalers were coming to Loughborough. The English town was hosting a meeting of teetotalers— who hoped to prohibit alcohol—in April 1841. Concerned citizens in the nearby city of Liecester were eager to attend but nervous about the eleven-mile journey (a long way in those days). Who knew what hazards they would encounter? Enter an ambitious Baptist minister
encouraged the minister to expand his
named Thomas Cook. With the newly
offerings. For three years he organized
built railroad criss-crossing the English
trips for temperance societies and sunday
countryside, Cook developed a formal
school children to attend meetings of
excursion to the temperance rally. He
moral and spiritual quality.
arranged a special price with the railway company including round-trip tickets and food, and sold the package to over five
Scotland, Europe, the Middle East, and
hundred people.
America. He opened a shop in London
The excursion was organized and
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The Beaten Path
Cook soon branched out into nonsectarian “Cook’s Tours” to the seaside,
where he sold pre-arranged tours and
promoted as a way for guests—good
individual itineraries, as well as a selection
Christians all—to attend the meeting
of traveling supplies like luggage, shoes,
without fear of meeting any drunks
maps and guidebooks.
or unsavory characters on the way.
Cook’s successful new business
The success of this organized outing
became the standard for modern mass
tourism. It was made possible by new modes of transportation— the early British Rail network being the equivalent of jet liners today—and added to the rail companies’ profits. The tourist industry today is still a “Frankenstein” industry that depends on and mutually supports parts of many industries, from trains and airplanes to hotel construction and food service. Thomas Cook didn’t run a factory, but he launched an industry. He sold convenience and security. He created an experience that brought together existing services into a single easy package. The appeal of Cook’s packaged temperance excursions is the same basic appeal of mass tourism as we know it today: to travel without fear, trusting someone else to provide an experience that is safe and somewhat controlled, free of headaches and stress. Cook allowed ordinary people a way to visit a new place without being bothered by the undesirable parts of it. This is tourism in a nutshell: a pleasantly mediated adventure. The Grand Tour Of course, Thomas Cook didn’t invent the idea of traveling. Our early ancestors were nomadic; our own wanderlust may be an ingrained urge harkening back to our prehistoric
Thomas Cook, Baptist minister and pioneer in mass tourism
roots, wandering the plains in search of food and shelter. In more recent times, religious pilgrimages were one of the first manifestations of tourism as voluntary travel. Every ancient culture from Europe to India has shrines and cities that have received visitors for centuries. In Europe after the Renaissance, the upper classes of England decided that their education wasn’t complete until they had seen the glories of the Continent for themselves.
Taking Off
5
The question is not whether we should travel, but how we should travel. Becoming worldly and well-rounded was a great virtue and point of pride among young men who set off to become “Renaissance Men” in the home of the Renaissance. Their route was well established and still persists today: to Rome and back by way of Paris, Geneva, Milan, and Florence. This motivation is strong: the desire to travel for personal fulfillment ranks up there with pure escapist relaxation. Today, thanks to cheap international flights, we can jaunt off to India to see the Taj Mahal or hike the Great Wall of China—to say nothing of the high-speed trains that run the old Grand Tour route from Paris to Rome in less than a day. The Grand Tour manifests itself in the 21st century as the backpacking trip through Europe, the “gap year” trip around the world, the spiritual retreat to India or Nepal, the road trip to the Rome was the ultimate destination for young Englishmen in the 18th century
tip of South America. The Grand Tour today is global, the checklist longer, and of such a magnitude that an entire library could be filled with books suggesting the “must-see” wonders of the world. But the desire is the same. Curiosity, exploration, and discovery are part of our human nature. A tourist is by definition a consumer—of services, souvenirs, culture. Tourism makes a place into a product, and the tourist industry, governments, and individuals seek to profit from that product. The question before us is not whether we should travel, but how we should travel. If culture becomes a commodity, maintained for consumption as much as participation, it risks becoming merely a manufactured entertainment.
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the Grand Tour.�
Third Place
Back in the Cold War, there were three worlds. First was the “free world,” the democratic West and a few Asian countries like Japan. The second world was the Communist world, which wasn’t quite up to par (although they could still send missiles into space). The third world was the politically unaligned countries, the ones that weren’t important enough to matter. No wonder they objected to the phrase! Today “developing country” is common parlance, but many people still find it objectionable, preferring the neutral “less developed country” or avoiding the distinction altogether. The International Monetary Fund uses three levels: developed, developing, and least developed.
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Developed Countries Developing Countries Least Developed Countries (ldcs)
Taking Off
9
A Question of Development Cultures don’t develop. When we talk about developing a photo or a developing news story, we mean it’s becoming more complete, reaching a final wholeness. Cultures don’t do that. Every culture is what it is, regardless of anybody’s imaginary goals. Some argue that the idea of development itself comes from a linear, Western way of thinking.
On the other hand, all cultures are developing. They are always changing and becoming something new. It’s in the nature of culture to be dynamic, to constantly change and interact with external influences. Just think of Italian food: noodles from China, tomatoes from America, espresso beans from Africa. Cultural mixing produces rich new hybrid forms in new locations, as the people make the influence their own. Most of the time, while it’s happening, there’s no knowing what kind of effect such interactions may have. The risk of tourism isn’t that it will change a culture. For better or worse, change is inevitable. it’s that a culture may stop developing, held in a bubble of a picturesque past, turned into a hollow but profitable performance of itself; or that it will change so radically and quickly with the promise of modernism that it loses its connection to its past, and is no longer the same thing at
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The term “developing country” is essentially economic. all. Change itself is neither good nor bad.
their well and modern tools for their work,
The question is, what kind of change? This
not to mention medicine and education for
is the question everyone faces when they
their families.
participate in tourism. When you travel, you will have an
If such things are so far off the horizon that they’re unimaginable, is the country
impact on the people you meet. In a
really “developing”? Is it growing and
highly touristed place, you will either
changing, or is it simply not developed?
reinforce or counteract the actions of the
And if it’s not, who is assuming that it
tourist mass. In a more remote place, you
should be? Some of the oldest cities in the
are a leaf floating on the surface of a still
world are still considered “developing”—
pond, sending out endless ripples around
so what exactly does developing mean?
yourself for as long as you’re there.
The United Nations doesn’t recognize any distinction between developed
Developing countries
and developing, but the International
As you might expect, the idea of the
Monetary Fund does. This is revealing: the
developing world itself is controversial, as
term “developing country” is essentially
it implies that developed countries are
economic. The idea of development is all
somehow better (or at least better off)
about money.
than developing ones. Many people in developing countries are perfectly content with their life as it
So why limit our concept to a disparity of wealth? After all, tourism has many of the same effects anywhere. Tourism will
is, and feel no need to pursue a modern
bring money and social change, no matter
Western standard of wealth. In fact, they
what. Culture becomes commodified,
might even resist it as being as idea from
new economies arise, traditions adapt to
a foreign, materialistic society. Others see
the new reality. It doesn’t matter who is
the benefit to having a motorized pump for
traveling where.
Taking Off
11
Why Focus on the Developing World? If the impact of tourism works the same way for an American in Paris as for an Indian in Kenya, why are we so concerned with tourism in the developing world? Three reasons… Tourism is new Tourism between developed countries has been going on for a lot longer than tourism to the developing world. Paris and Rome have been receiving tourists since at least the rise of the “Grand Tour.” Tourism is a known quantity there, a given, already woven deeply into the reality of life in those cities. If we’re concerned about how tourism may change a place, those places are already changed. They are still changing, as tourism increases and threatens to overrun certain cities or neighborhoods completely, but for the most part, where tourism is already established, its impact has already been felt. In a sense, what’s done is done. We can count on tourist Paris being basically the same in 100 years, as it was 100 years ago. Tourist Marrakesh, on the other hand, is changing rapidly and will be quite a different place as its tourist industry really takes root. In the developing world, tourism is a fairly new phenomenon. It’s still in its formative stages; it’s less established and still finding its role in the culture. Nobody knows from place to place what form it will finally take or what effects it will have. This unknown quality presents us with a choice and a challenge that’s not present on the beaten path of Europe and North America. We can actually see the changes happening, if we pay attention—and we can decide what to do based on that. Whatever damage comes from tourism has not yet been done, and the rewards have not been reaped. The balance remains to be seen.
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The developing world has more to lose, and more to gain, from tourism. Tourism is an industry
Developing counties are vulnerable
By some estimates, tourism will be the world’s
The very nature of developing countries is that their
largest industry in 2020. Like many industries, it
economic base is weak. They don’t have much of a
has globalized. International travel is much easier
foundation. As a rowboat is much easier to tip over
and more popular than it was a generation ago. This
than a cruise ship, developing countries feel the
has set up new relationships between places that
effects of tourism—good and bad—much more
previously had no connection to each other.
acutely than countries with many other industries
These relationships are neither accidental nor simple. As an industry, tourism is promoted and
already established. The developing world has more to lose, and
supported by businesses and governments. Their
potentially more to gain, from the onset of tourism.
interests lie more with the tourists than with the local
Already, developing countries are more likely to be
people, since that’s where the money is coming from.
economically dependent on tourism as a source of
The contact between tourists and locals is mediated
income. This is sometimes by coincidence or luck;
by these interests. When a national government
more often it’s the result of deliberate efforts on
promotes itself as a tourist destination, it does so
the part of local governments and international
without the input or consent of the people who will be
companies. The promise is so great that a country
affected by it.
will place all its bets on tourism, considering only the
Everyone needs money to survive. When comparatively wealthy people (as they must be to take such trips) visit poorer countries, the local residents don’t necessarily have the option of avoiding or ignoring the tourists: they need the money. The tourist made the decision from a position of
potential economic gain without thought to the less tangible cultural impacts. For the tourist on vacation, with leisure time and open horizons to explore, it’s easy to assume the same freedom exists for everyone. The people in a developing country may find themselves pushed into a
complete freedom to relax and seek entertainment in
life in the tourist industry because they have no other
this destination. The locals receiving the tourists into
options, and they will have to adapt to that—whether
their hometowns don’t have such a choice.
it’s their preference not.
Taking Off
13
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Psychologist Abraham Maslow described human potential in a hierarchy of essential needs.
Once the basic needs are met, a person can fulfill the more complex needs. The imbalance between residents of a developing country and tourists with the luxury to travel can be understood in light of Maslow’s hierarchy. Most international tourists have freedom of movement, disposable income, and are seeking to fulfill their needs of self-actualization. The people they are interacting with may be concerned more with physiological, security, and social needs. The tourist is thus in a position of power over the local resident.
Physiological needs Food, sleep, sex. These are necessary for physical survival. Many developing world residents are at this level
Security needs Health, housing, security. These are the essential comforts.
Social needs Friendship, family, love. These are the basic psychological needs. Most international tourists are at this level
Esteem needs Respect, admiration. These give a sense of value and importance.
Self-actualization needs Ambition and dreams. These allow us to become more than we are.
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Unemployment and poverty are rife. Parents have been driven by poverty to overlook crime and abuse against their children by tourists.� —Maureen Seneviratne Protecting Environment and Children Everywhere (peace), Sri Lanka
Whose Idea is It?
Forty years ago, the tip of Mexico’s Yucatan peninsula was home to a tiny Mayan village and coconut plantation. About 100 residents worked the dry land and pulled fish from the Caribbean. Surrounded by sand dunes and marshes, it was truly a backwater. In Mexico City, officials at the Banco de
increasingly, hotels. Cancun attracts 3.4
México were hard at work researching
million tourists every year, and another 3
locations for new tourist development.
million visit from cruise ships
The Mexican government recognized the importance of tourism in the country’s
The Tourist Industry
economy. They needed a location with
Tourism is not just something that tourists
all the ingredients of the classic holiday
do. Tourism is a strategic system, a
resort: sun, sand, and sea. They found
machine, that all tourists participate in
the perfect combination in the sparsely
when they travel.
populated Mayan country of the Yucatan. The first hotels at Cancun were built in 1970. There was no infrastructure; not even
and governments. Tourism products from
roads. Today there are 25,000 hotel rooms,
mountain treks to red-light districts are
and almost 1,000 restaurants, bars and
invented, manufactured and sold. Airports
clubs in the “Hotel Zone.” Cancun is the
and hotels are built in strategic locations
hub of what is billed as the Riviera Maya,
according to national development plans.
a hundred miles of coastline dotted with fishing villages, coconut plantations, and
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The Beaten Path
The industrial machinations of tourism are created and regulated by companies
As the demand seems inexhaustible, developing countries now treat tourism
as an easy shortcut to development and wealth. With no real industry, it’s a way to
India
Thailand
Caribbean
African ldcs
40%
70%
80%
85%
make the most of what you have. Tourism’s potential to lessen poverty is the main benefit that recommends it to developing countries. Any cultural changes, educational opportunities, or international understanding are cited as secondary to its power as a source of income and poverty reduction. Leakage Even if one accepts this value structure
Trickle-down or leakage?
(and it’s not clear that one should), for many developing countries, the desired
Some countries make efforts to reduce
benefits of a tourism industry are
leakage by limiting how much of the
undermined by financial “leakage.”
tourist industry can be owned by foreign
Leakage occurs when foreign investors
investors. Thailand currently prohibits
and companies take most of the profits,
any foreign investor from owning more
removing them from the local economy.
than half of any Thai tourism business.
Money that does stay in the country often
Nevertheless, Thailand loses 70% of its
goes to the political elite and stays there.
tourist income to leakage.
The amount of money spent on importing
Because of leakage to foreign countries, some regions never see the economic benefits that could come from tourism
According to Nirit Ben-Ari of the
goods and services to support the industry
Global Policy Forum, “without strong links
also limits the economic benefits that
with the local population, tourism typically
reach the local population.
contributes little to poverty reduction.”
Taking Off
17
Growing Impact 800,000
International arrivals per year
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
1965
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1970
1975
1980
94%
increase since 1990
45%
Developing world
55%
Developed world
39%
increase since 1990
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
International tourism has been growing steadily for decades, most dramatically in the developing world. Developing countries now receive almost half of all international tourists. In 1973, developing countries’ share of international arrivals was only 20%. By 2000, the crowds had more than doubled. The urgency to understand and possibly alter the effects tourism will have is much greater in the developing world. As the rate of tourist expansion is so much greater, the impacts of tourism will be felt much more strongly there than in developed countries.
Taking Off
19
Touching
Down
What Tourism Is
There is rarely an acknowledgement of indigenous people’s struggle for
cultural survival, self-determination, freedom of cultural expression, rights to ancestral lands, and control over land use and resource management.� —Ole Kamuaro
Some people call tourism an “industry without smokestacks.� It is promoted as a way for poor countries to develop and modernize without the negative side effects of traditional heavy industry. The promise of tourism is that it allows communities to support themselves in ways that were impossible before. Countries without natural resources and an industrial base can turn their intangible resources like traditional culture and dramatic scenery into a viable source of income. This is an idealized dream. Tourism does have smokestacks, both literal and invisible—like any industry, it pollutes and damages the same resources it exploits. Tourism brings many benefits, but it also has costs.
Touching Down
23
Tribal tourism
Minority groups in developing countries are targeted by the tourist industry and exploited by governments looking for tourist profits. The benefit to the people is difficult to discern. Sometimes the tribes are actively involved
unusual customs, and catch a glimpse of
in the development of their villages for
their way of life.
tourism. More often, the tourist ministry
Kayan and Paduang women are known
of the national government selects a
for the brass rings they wear around their
region that is ripe for tourism and begins
necks. Every year they add another ring,
promoting it on the international market.
stacking them higher so their necks appear
Tour companies, airlines, and hotels
elongated. Promoted as the “Long Necks,”
attract tourists to this newly revealed
these tribes’ villages have become a major
corner of the world. With the influx of
destination on the Thai tourist circuit.
tourism, tribes will see some benefits in
Some critics argue that the custom has
infrastructure, but little direct impact on
become distorted and exploited by tourism
their income or well-being.
as bus loads are encouraged to come and look at the women, take pictures and leave
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The Beaten Path
Thailand
without giving any benefits to the women
In northern Thailand, there are six major
or their communities. This is largely true,
ethnic minorities known as “hill tribes.”
since the tourists’ money goes to the tour
Many tribes have traditional practices
companies and not to the people. Most of
that are exotic and colorful, making them
the hill tribes still work as farmers.
a lucrative tourist attraction. They have
In one “hill tribe” village, research
maintained their distinctive cultures and
found that the impacts of tourism are not
tourists trek to their villages to admire their
as deeply felt as outsiders may think.
Poor residents don’t often have the right to refuse tourism. An economic survey revealed that
Tourism lets women continue these
only 18 of the 120 households in the village
activities of everyday life, but with the
made more than half of their income from
chance of earning money at the same
tourism. For the village as a whole, tourism
time—provided they don’t mind being
contributed an average of only 25% of total
photographed and treated as a specimen in
income. Most of that income came from
a kind of “human zoo.”
men hired by the tour companies to drive tourist buses. One third of village households did not
Poor residents of developing countries don’t often have the right to refuse tourism. Many of the hill tribes are refugees
earn any money from tourism. The most
from neighboring countries, further
important source of income in the village
diminishing their rights. A cultural museum
came from agriculture.
set up by Burmese Kayan refugees in
Villagers explained that those who
northern Thailand was forced to close
adopted tourism needed to have the spare
in 2008 and the women running it were
time to attend market stalls, and also
forced to move to a local “tourist village.”
needed the cash to buy souvenirs to resell.
The museum was an attempt to benefit
Many villagers did not have time for
more directly from visitors to the three
tourist work because they were too busy in
Kayan tourist villages, which are tightly
their fields. Usually, the people who looked
controlled by Thai business interests. It
after the stalls were elderly women too old
would have allowed visitors to learn about
to work in the fields, or young mothers who
Kayan culture and history and to have a
were busy with their children.
more equal exchange with the community.
Before the arrival of tourism, many
The indigenous hill tribes who seem untouched by the modern world are often political refugees from nearby countries such as Burma.
The museum was reportedly ordered
of these women stayed at home all
to close by other Burmese community
day looking after children, cooking and
leaders under pressure from the tourist
embroidering clothes.
village business interests.
Touching Down
25
“A Masai is good for a tourist’s photograph…
Denied freedom of movement and the
cats have flourished, and often prey on the
right to operate their own businesses, the
Masai’s cattle. It is illegal for the Masai to
Kayan have little choice but to remain in
kill a lion to protect their herd.
the villages. As hundreds of other Burmese
Restricted from their ancestral land
refugees have already left for other
and forbidden to protect their livestock,
countries, many Kayan believe that their
many Masai no longer find cattle a viable
applications are being delayed because
source of income and have turned to the
they are a valuable tourism asset.
steady flow of tourists for jobs. With their bright red tunics, colorful jewelry, and
East Africa
shaved heads, the Masai have become the
The Serengeti plain, on the border of
human element of the safari experience.
Kenya and Tanzania, is ground zero for
They are stationed at the entrances of
East Africa’s lucrative safari business.
grand hotels for a touch of “authentic”
The Masai people, a traditionally nomadic
regional flavor. They fulfill the tourist’s
society of cattle herders and hunters on
desire to encounter the exotic African.
the Serengeti, are residents of the Masai
They are treated as another item in the
Mara Game Reserve, a Kenyan national
safari trade.
park that overlaps their hunting grounds. The park is one of the biggest draws in African tourism, protecting lions, leopards,
the camp, or even to guide you to see the
giraffes, and other exotic animals. With
animals,” said Moringe Ole Parkipuny,
the creation of the Game Reserve, the
the first Masai in Tanzania’s parliament.
Masai were restricted from much of the
“But in the end the animals are far more
former grazing land, since the land was
valuable than people.”
set aside exclusively for wild animals and safari tours—not for the residents. The big
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The Beaten Path
“A Masai is good for a tourist’s photograph, useful to carry your bags to
In a few cases the Masai have become true partners in the tourist trade, rather
but animals are more valuable than people.”
than another species in the safari. Campi ya Kanzi is a ranch turned hotel, built under the direction of foreign investors but owned and run by the Masai people. While it departs from the traditional Masai way of life, the Masai agreed to
$550
room night at Campi ya Kanzi
establish the hotel as a way to improve their lives. Profits from the hotel are channeled back into the Masai who operate it and live in the village or on the grounds. First, the money is used
$30
$215
annual income in Kenya
to compensate the Masai who have lost livestock to wildlife from the Game Reserve. The rest is spent on community projects focusing on: •
Education, through scholarships and grants to those who are too poor to afford schooling. The funds also pay for school supplies and help pay teachers’ salaries.
•
Health, by providing basic medical facilities and medicines.
•
Infrastructure, such as school rooms,
What’s it worth to you?
For each guest at Campi ya Kanzi, $30 per night is set aside for the Masai. (The nightly rate $550.) The cynical will note that $30 out of $550 isn’t a lot. Tourists spending thousands of dollars to vacation in Africa are only applying a band-aid with a $30 allowance to their hosts. This may be true. But is it relevant? Thirty dollars is still a lot to the Masai. In a single day, a tourist can provide 14% of an average Kenyan income.
toilets, and pharmacies.
Touching Down
27
Bali Tourism in Bali has largely been planned
Balinese people is that it made them
in Jakarta) and by foreigners. Few Balinese
self-consciously aware of their unique
have been involved in its planning and
“Balinese-ness.” Anthropologist Michel
management. Instead, they have become
Picard explains, “the focus on ‘cultural’
the tourist attraction.
tourism convinced the Balinese people that
The Balinese had very little role in
and perishable that they perceive as a
the tourist destination it is today. Some
capital to be exploited and as a heritage to
Balinese are now trying to make tourism a
be protected.”
The Village Ecotourism Network
The Beaten Path
In the grips of this dilemma, Balinese culture often becomes a self-conscious
was founded in 2002 in response to
performance and loses its meaning. The
international and government-sponsored
sacredness of many rituals are abused
resorts. It was designed and is owned by
for the consumption of tourists. Religious
the communities of four Balinese villages.
festivals are made more ostentatious
Inviting tourists to their villages is not
specifically to impress outsiders. Buildings
only a way to raise their standard of living,
created for tourists often ignore the
but also to increase their own community’s
Balinese philosophies that guide traditional
appreciation for their natural and cultural
architecture and planning.
heritage. The Village Ecotourism Network
28
they have a ‘culture,’ something precious
the transformation of their island into
positive force in their communities.
The performance of cultural practices as tourist s has been called “staged authenticity.”
The main effect of tourism on the
by the Indonesian government (far away
The paradox of Balinese tourism is that
also embodies a political statement that
as a means of modernization, it depends
the people of Bali want to decide for
on traditional culture. The Balinese
themselves the future of their culture and
must maintain their traditions in order to
their environment.
modernize via tourism.
Touching Down
29
West Bali National Park The entire peninsula of West Bali National Park has been set aside as a nature reserve to provide an ecotourist experience. Tourism has discouraged wildlife poaching and illegal logging, but has also seen the government build resorts and roads through virgin forest and coastal areas.
Despite the fact that most of Bali’s population lives far from the tourist center of Kuta and does not work in tourism, the industry is so lucrative it provides 80% of the island’s income. However, the Balinese remain mired in poverty, since most residents never see much of the tourist money. The profits end up going to the Indonesian government or to private companies and investors from other countries.
40%
tourism
$7.1
80%
all of Indonesia
tourism
50%
$2.5 Bali
agriculture
Employment
Water consumed by a village of 1,000
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The Beaten Path
$0.5 stays in Bali
15% agriculture
Income Source
Water consumed by a single golf course
Income from Tourism ($ billions)
Pelaga This member of the Village Ecotourism Network is owned and managed by Balinese villagers. Pelaga is an agricultural community on a coffee plantation. Without becoming a tourist village, the farmers supplement their everyday income by promoting tourism.
Two tourist bars were bombed in Kuta by Islamic extremists in 2002. They deliberately targeted the bars as symbols and outposts of Western culture. The tourists were innocent victims, but to the bombers, it was a political act. Tourism is inherently political in that it expresses the balance of power between cultures. Sexual exploitation and trafficking of children are growing problems in Bali. Young sex workers are common in the streets, bars and hotels of Kuta and other tourist areas. International child traffickers prey on poor, uneducated children without job opportunities, to meet the demand of pedophiles and sex tourists. Kuta
Nusa Dua
Pristine coral reefs were dredged up to harvest limestone for hotel construction in Candidasa. With the barrier reefs gone, the sandy beach began to wash away. The resorts responded by building a series of concrete breakwaters criss-crossing the beach. Candidasa
Nusa Cenigan The residents of Nusa Cenigan organized to prevent major resort developments being built on their island. However, tourism offered a way to boost their meager seaweed-farming economy, using their only other natural asset, the island itself. They now welcome tourists under their own development terms.
A golf resort like Nusa Dua uses as much water per year as 60,000 rural villagers. In times of drought, rural wells often dry up, as most of Bali’s water is diverted to irrigate golf courses.
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The Beaten Path
The Burmese Question
Burmese pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi has been under house arrest for 14 of the last 20 years. In 2003, over 100 of her supporters were killed in a government crackdown on dissent. She sees tourism as a political and economic force for change. Suu Kyi has called for tourists to boycott travel to Burma, saying that tourism to Burma condones and supports the oppressive regime far more than it helps the local people. Others believe that traveling to Burma has a positive impact, not only in putting money in the hands of the impoverished population, but also by exposing them to the outside world and reducing the isolation imposed on them by the state. The Burmese government actively uses tourism as a source of income. The total
Aung San Suu Kyi is convinced of the power of tourism to change her country’s government.
income from tourism is relatively small. Burma, also known as Myanmar, is not a major tourist destination, although this helps to give it the exotic sheen of an “undiscovered� destination for adventurous travelers. The dilemma of whether one ought to travel there exposes a major question of how tourism impacts a country: is tourism a diplomatic effort to bring people of the world together, or is it a centralized industry that enriches those with power to decide the fate of others? The Shan Women Action Network (swan), a Thai organization devoted to the rights of Burmese women, released a guidebook in November 2009 called Forbidden Glimpses
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33
of Shan State. It gives potential tourists
to wage resistance against the regime”
ethnic minority Burma.
and that “troops are licensed to arrest,
By exposing the deliberate neglect, destruction and reinvention of cultural and historical sites in Shan State, swan reveals the real meanings concealed behind the tourist experience. Tourism in Burma is tightly controlled
from British domination. The Burmese promptly imprisoned the entire Shan royal family. Since that time, the Burmese government has undertaken a project of
only through special arrangements
destroying Shan’s physical heritage, under
through official tour agencies. In Shan
the auspices of tourism and development.
three areas. Shan State is in the midst of an
The Myanmar Ministry of Hotels and Tourism demolished the historic royal
ongoing civil rebellion by the local people,
palace in 1991 and built a Modernist hotel
making it both unsafe for tourists and
on the site. The rubble of the former palace
highly undesirable for the government to
was strewn over the city streets, to be
allow outsiders to witnesses the violence
trampled underfoot.
and its causes. number of things that the junta does not
The Beaten Path
Shan State had its own native rulers until 1962, when it joined Burma to escape
by the government. Many locations are
The “forbidden” guidebook lists a
34
torture, rape and kill villagers suspected of supporting the resistance.”
strictly off-limits and others are accessible
State, tourists are allowed to visit only Shan, in northern Burma, is home to the same “hill tribes” of Thailand examined on page 24. It is also a neighbor of Yunnan province in China, discussed on page 35.
that “various ethnic groups continue
an enlightening perspective on life as an
“We have not only been robbed of our rights, lands and resources but the regime is also robbing us of our culture and
want tourists to see, including “over 150
history,” says swan spokesperson Moan
Burmese infantry battalions … confiscation
Kaein. “We want visitors to open their eyes
of farms, extortion and taxing villagers,
to the repression going on around them,
and requisitioning free labour.” They reveal
even in the cultural sites they are visiting.”
Tourism in Burma is tightly controlled by the government. The Burmese government continues
Despite the efforts of groups like swan
to use tourism as a means of establishing
to expose the political reality of Burma,
their historical revision. Projects of
some 750,000 curious tourists continue to
beautification, restoration, and the
visit the country per year, lured by tropical
outright construction of new landmark
beaches, golden temples, and the very
sights in national Burmese style, establish
isolation the government has imposed.
Burmese authority over Shan State and
The general oppression of the Burmese
reinforce the image of a unified Burmese
people is well known and most Western
culture to the world.
tourists consider the ethical side of their
Many old Shan palaces lie just off the
trip. They reason that their presence will
main tourist road but are unmarked and
expand the Burmese people’s knowledge
unpromoted. The few palaces that have
of the outside world and make them
been restored and maintained for tourism
hungrier for political change. By carefully
are now “cultural museums” celebrating
using only locally-owned services, tourists
Burmese achievements, with no mention
contribute to the opening of Burma’s
of their former use as Shan residences.
economy, which also prompts reform.
Ironically, the Burmese government points to these restored buildings as
Even Suu Kyi has softened her stance against tourism, seeing that years of
evidence of their respect for their national
boycott have done nothing to weaken
heritage, when they were abandoned in
the junta. She now supports responsible
the first place because the government
tourism that brings the benefits of
evicted their occupants. Some villages
exposure, awareness, and commerce, but
have been wholly evacuated and their
still diligently boycotts state and military-
temples left derelict, eventually to be
run companies.
replaced by pro-Burmese monuments added to the authorized tourist route.
Many of Burma’s new tourist structures are built using forced labor by members of minority tribes.
Whether that balance is possible to achieve remains unclear.
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Women’s Status
Tourism gives women the chance to earn wages, bringing money for their family and village, and increasing their status in the social hierarchy. However, the income women earn is often
says Juana Camargo, unifem Coordinator
found in jobs that are extensions of their
in Panama.
traditional roles: making clothing, cooking in restaurants, cleaning homes or hotel rooms. In this way tourism perpetuates
attain positions of leadership in their
women’s typical status as home-makers
communities, it often provides them with
and care-takers.
greater economic independence.
The un Development Fund for Women
The Beaten Path
How much money women actually
says that “women who work in tourism
keep from their work is another question
in Central America have gained a greater
altogether. Women in certain societies
level of autonomy in terms of their right
may enjoy benefits from tourism, while
to make family and economic decisions.
others do not. Cultural factors affecting a
However, the quality of the jobs available
woman’s general status will still determine
to women in this industry remains low.”
how empowered she may become.
The question of the quality of jobs is
36
While the introduction of tourism rarely changes social roles or helps women
According to minority women in
asked from a position of luxury: “In one
China’s Yunnan province, bordering the
tourist resort… the women workers are
adventure destinations of Burma and Laos,
peasants who have never had a paid job
the impacts of tourism on their community
or a bank account. Through this work they
have been mixed. Some appreciate the
are able to provide for their families, and
contact with the outside world, but others
as a result, their self esteem improves,”
worry about their children’s future.
Women in Yunnan province, China, describe the changes tourism has brought to their villages.
Economic Increased income
Higher prices
Improved standard of living
Increased cost of living
Jobs for unskilled women
Most profits go to outsiders
Cultural Learn about the outside world
Falling in love with outsiders hurts family
Culture is protected
Culture is distorted
People are more open-minded
Increase in crime and prostitution
Less heavy farm work
Less time to raise children properly
Environmental Improved houses and infrastructure
Noise pollution
Better quality vegetables available
Water pollution
More trash
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Natural Benefits
Land and animals that were considered useless can become essential to tourism. Natural bounty itself can benefit a country. Because of their attractiveness, pristine natural sites are identified as valuable and the need to keep the attraction alive can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife preserves.
38
The Beaten Path
Costa Rica Beginning in 1962, Costa Rica has set aside a full quarter of its land in national parks. The country has been able to develop a solid ecotourism industry and capitalize on its natural resources. Through tourist revenue and its reputation for responsible development, Costa Rica has become the most stable, peaceful, and wealthy country in Central America.
East Africa
Indonesia
In the Great Lakes region of Africa, endangered mountain gorillas
Indonesia’s forests are threatened by
play a critical ecological, economic and political role. Their
logging and the fast, easy money available
habitat lies on the borders of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of
from animal poaching. The Orangutan
Congo and Uganda. The UN established the Great Apes Survival
Viewing Center in Bohorok, Sumatra was
Partnership to protect the apes by improving the well-being of the
established to protect orangutans and
countries in which they live. Despite ten years of political crisis
preserve their tropical rainforest habitat.
and civil war in the region, the need for revenue from ape-related
While tourists learn about the jungle
tourism has led all sides in the conflict to cooperate in protecting
ecosystem, tourism also provides a major
the apes and their habitat.
source of income for the local population and land owners, making it a genuine alternative to the timber industry and the exploitation of wildlife.
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Checking
In
What Tourism Can Be
The understanding and promotion of the ethical values common to humanity, with an attitude of tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, philosophical and moral beliefs, are both the foundation and the consequence of responsible tourism.� —UN World Tourism Organization Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
Green is the color of our era. We have been introduced to green cars, green buildings, green energy, green products of every variety. In keeping with the spirit of the times, there is also a spectrum of tourist options that all claim the badge of “green.” Green tourism is an important concept, given the pace at which tourism is growing. Whatever environmental impact it has will be multiplied as tourism increases. However, the complex moral calculus of carbon footprints misses a major part of the equation, since it only deals with the natural world. Truly green tourism must expand its horizons to include its human impact as well. How does tourism affect the places it touches—not the physical or ecological place, but the cultural place? How does it affect people and the way they live? In order for tourism to be green, it must preserve and renew what it consumes: namely, culture.
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43
Off the Beaten Path
Many of the things that make tourism more green are small. Many American hotels only launder sheets and towels by request, in an effort to conserve water. Some airlines now offer “carbon offset” payments on long flights, using the extra fee to support environmental groups. This is the simplest form of green tourism.
preserved at all costs? Are some things
The traveler’s motto, “take only photos,
better if they change? How you answer
leave only footprints” sums up the do-no-
the questions reveals your priorities and
harm attitude of basic green tourism.
provides a guide to how you can make your
This is the same “green” concept of recycling and carpooling, applied to Selling a destructive nature-based product as a real ecological alternative is known as “greenwashing.”
The Beaten Path
For some people, the survival of
tourism. It deals with green issues in the
humanity depends on the health of the
way we’re used to thinking of them: how do
Earth, so clearly ecological issues should
my actions affect the natural environment?
be primary. For others, to address an
How can I continue to do the same things,
actual person’s immediate problems is the
but do them more greenishly, in a way that
highest responsibility. Should we be more
doesn’t hurt the environment as much?
concerned with the health of a forest, a
When you expand this way of
society, or an individual? There are things
thinking to the cultural world of human
tourists can do to engage with any of these
societies—as we have seen in the
issues, depending on their priorities.
preceding pages—the questions multiply
44
own traveling habits more sustainable.
There is much debate on what the
and the answers become complex,
different forms of alternative tourism really
even contradictory. Should a culture be
mean and how they actually differ. They
share many goals, to be sure, and their
education and interpretation of the
methods at achieving them often overlap.
natural environment and is managed to
All of them have the potential to reverse
be ecologically sustainable.”
the negative impacts of traditional mass
Ecotourism is explicitly concerned
tourism. The main distinctions lie in their
with the natural environment and its
motivations, and the particular issues they
preservation. It attends to the natural
make primary.
world first and human needs second, or by extension. Indeed, many ecotourism
Ecotourism
destinations are remote and sparsely
Ecotourism was one of the first alternatives
populated, so the impact on local culture,
to mass tourism to emerge in the 1980s. It
positive and negative, will be minimal.
was pioneered by people who wanted to
There are many paradoxes within
get away from the overdeveloped resorts
ecotourism. For example, international
sold by the package tour agencies.
flights are not very fuel-efficient. Tropical
As a reaction to the large-scale
island nations like the Maldives find
building projects of places like Cancun
themselves threatened by rising sea levels
and Mediterranean Spain, ecotourism
while simultaneously dependent on the
has a strong “back to nature” tendency.
polluting airplanes that bring tourists. Not
The International Ecotourism Society
traveling at all could be the best decision
defines ecotourism as “responsible
for an environmentally conscious person.
travel to natural areas that conserves the
Since ecotourism emphasizes visiting
environment and improves the welfare of
unspoiled natural destinations, it also
local people.”
contains the paradox of encouraging
The Australian Commission on
For examples of how ecotourism can be a force for positive change, see “Natural Benefits” on page 36.
increased tourism in those pristine
National Ecotourism Strategy calls it
locations. Many natural wonders have
“nature-based tourism that involves
fallen victim to their own popularity.
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Pro-poor tourism is tourism that provides net benefits for poor people. These negative impacts are ideally offset by the contribution of money to the local residents and environmental awareness to the community and tourists both. Poaching and illegal logging are major problems born of poverty in remote forests, and tourism provides a viable alternative income that does less harm to the land. While it’s not a perfect solution, in this way ecotourism can be a positive force for change for both the natural environment and human society in a developing country. Pro-Poor Tourism Where ecotourism’s motivation is primarily to avoid harm, whereas pro-poor tourism is more focused on actively doing good, in the form of alleviating the poverty of individuals in the community the tourist is visiting. As such, it’s natural that pro-poor tourism is focused primarily on the developing world, although one could realistically engage in pro-poor tourism in poor areas of a developed country, too. Any number of existing tourist activities and products could be adapted to have a pro-poor impact.
Traveling to New Orleans to help bolster the local economy after hurricane Katrina could be seen as a form of pro-poor tourism, depending on where you spent your money. Even visiting a casino on an Indian reservation could be pro-poor tourism. Despite what the casino’s existence may say about modern Native American culture, pro-poor tourism is about reducing poverty, not on maintaining traditional ways of life. In essence, pro-poor tourism is an overall approach to tourism development and management that aims to give poor people chances to benefit from tourism. Any form of tourism can contribute to poverty reduction. Pro-poor tourism is not a new kind of tourism or a special tourist product. It is an approach that seeks to utilize tourism as strategic tool to alleviate poverty among marginalized communities. For this to happen, specific ways need to be identified in which tourism businesses as well as tourists can generate benefits for the poor, both directly and indirectly. This is what
46
The Beaten Path
International tourism can be an engine of employment creation, poverty eradication, ensuring gender equality, and protection of the natural and cultural heritage.� —Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries
pro-poor tourism is all about. Pro-poor tourism can be defined as tourism which provides net benefits for poor people. Pro-poor tourism is not a specific tourism product or sector, although sometimes new kinds of tourism may be developed with pro-poor goals in mind. Poverty tourism, or “poorism,” is not the same thing as pro-poor tourism but can be an example of it. Pverty tours started in Rio de Janeiro, where people who grew up in the slums started guiding tourists through the streets and alleys of their neighborhood as a new kind of “authentic” experience. Regardless of whether this is a kind of “human safari” exploitation akin to the hill tribes of Thailand, the tour guides channel their profits back into improving the slums. That is pro-poor tourism. There is overlap between pro-poor tourism, ecotourism, and sustainable tourism. Social benefits are just one aspect of sustainability, whereas for pro-poor tourism, reducing poverty is the core focus. Indeed, poverty is a direct cause of many social and The idea of propoor tourism was developed by a group of British ngos, funded by the uk Department for International Development.
environmental problems: the international drug trade, sex tourism, and clear-cutting forests are all born of people’s need for money and willingness to grow drug crops, sell their land, or send their children to brothels in desperation. Reducing poverty would reduce these problems too. Tourism already affects millions of the poor. Even a slight shift to pro-poor policies could generate substantial benefits. Also, tourism has advantages over other industries in relation to poverty reduction. A diverse industry, tourism offers many ways for people to benefit from it—for instance in the informal sector, or as supplementary income. Tourism is labor-intensive, and employs a higher proportion of women and unskilled workers. This is where its promise lies. Tourism can be built on natural and cultural resources which are often some of the only assets that the poor and uneducated have. Pro-poor tourism seeks to find those opportunities.
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The Beaten Path
Sustainable Tourism
Of all the alternatives to typical mass tourism, sustainable tourism is the broadest and least reductive. It refers to tourism that does not deplete the resources it depends on, whether physical, cultural, or personal. Like ecotourism, sustainable tourism avoids damage to the environment, economy and cultures of the tourist destinations. The goal of sustainable tourism is to ensure
But how can sustainable tourism be
that development is a positive experience
achieved? Sustainable tourism isn’t an
for local people, tourism companies, and
all-or-nothing proposal. In fact, tourism
tourists themselves. In this way the tourist
itself may never be truly sustainable in a
system sustains itself: companies continue
cut-and-dried, demonstrable way. There is
to make profits, tourists continue to have
no easy solution to the dilemma. Tourism
enjoyable experiences, and the local
involves a balance between give and take.
people enjoy benefits and do not find their culture threatened. If any of these groups are unhappy,
Most tourist activities can be made more sustainable in small ways, along the lines of recycling and reducing water use.
the system is strained from within. In the
Many aspects of sustainable tourism do
traditional tourism model, tourists and
not have to be advertised as such in order
companies are kept happy but the local
to succeed. A successful resort could
people are ignored. Sustainable tourism
be run by local residents without ever
attempts to correct that imbalance.
advertising its local ownership.
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Physical heritage, once lost, is very difficult to reclaim. To be viable—and therefore self-
own their own heritage; they can do with
sustaining—it requires cooperation
it what they wish. Tourism is a real social
between companies, governments, and
exchange. Culture is flexible and always
the managers of destinations.
moving; over generations, whether from tourism or time, it will change.
Peru’s Success
Despite the financial gains, the people who live near Machu Picchu say they’re unsure whether they’re truly better off than they were before the tourists came.
Peru has had particular success through
Mali’s Potential
government involvement. In the early
The Dogon people of Mali, West Africa,
1990s the Peruvian government decided to
live in a landscape of dramatic canyons,
address the problem of drug trafficking and
with adobe houses creeping up the
violence not only through law enforcement,
cliffsides. Their traditional culture is
but by simultaneously promoting tourism
elaborate and vibrant, with a rich musical
as the country became more secure. By the
heritage, ritual dances and photogenic
end of the decade tourism had doubled.
costumes. Tourists have started to notice.
As a result of this success, Peru’s
decade, and most tours are organized by
city of Machu Picchu, was becoming
residents of the country and operate on
degraded. The government once again
a village level. In Mali we find an example
stepped in and placed quotas on the
of why tourism in the developing world,
number of visitors allowed on the trails
being such a new phenomenon, holds such
each day, and regulated the number and
promise in not repeating the errors of the
type of tourist businesses that serve the
established tourist industry.
area. Physical heritage, once lost, is very difficult to reclaim. The loss of culture by commodification is harder to judge and regulate. People
50
The Beaten Path
Tourism in Mali has doubled in the last
major tourist site, the ancient mountain
While some of the older Dogon regret that their children are would rather be tour guides than train and work at a traditional trade, young people reply that
tourism gives them a reason to stay in their
tourism starts with tourists, tourists alone
hometowns rather than leaving to find
cannot change the way the tourist industry
work in other countries.
affects native people.
The Malian government is aware of
The industry is entrenched and will
tourism’s potential and is committed to
do what it must to maintain its profits.
developing it along sustainable lines that
Ultimately, the constitution of tourism is
involve the local people.
an organic process, shaped by people,
Companies on their own are unlikely to work towards sustainable tourism unless
companies, and governments together. The success of sustainable tourism
they see a clear demand for explicitly
ultimately requires tourists and companies
green or sustainable vacations. Since
to think more about how tourism impacts
tourism is an industry, sustainable tourism
other people’s homes, and for governments
must be profitable. If it can’t sustain itself
to support sustainable projects.
commercially, its positive benefits to the place will be lost. Counter-intuitively, it does not
By seeking more diversity and depth in their travels, tourists can help avoid the negative impacts of tourism on the places
necessarily require any particular interest
they visit, may contribute to the well-being
from tourists themselves. Few tourists
of the people who live there, and also enjoy
care about traveling “green.” If sustainable
a more satisfying experience.
tourism is only a special-interest niche, its positive effects will be negated by the vast impact of mass tourism. Therefore, to achieve sustainable tourism, companies and resort managers must have incentives to reduce the negative impacts of tourism. Although
The key is not to make every vacation a guilt trip, but to make the alternatives as desirable and compelling as the ordinary tourist options.
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For better or worse, tourism will change the culture of any place it touches. In response, we must change the culture of tourism.
52
The Beaten Path
Section
53
Section
55
Section
57
Notes and References ii
Independence quote. Comment on “Going Local” travel blog. http://goinglocaltravel.blogspot.com/2009/02/what-is -authentic-travel.html
iv
Regional flavor quote. Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. New York: Harper Perennial, 1998.
2
Third world tourism quote. Huybers, Twan (Ed.). Tourism in Developing Countries. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2007.
7
Grand Tour quote. Gross, Matt. “Lessons from the Frugal Grand Tour.” New York Times, September 5, 2008.
15 Driven by poverty quote. “Sri Lanka: Tourism—the road to ruin or repair?” Tourism Concern, August 14, 2009. http://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=135&cntnt01returnid=72 16 Growth chart. Page, Stephen & Joanne Connell. Tourism: A Modern Synthesis. London: Thomson Learning, 2006. Pro-Poor Tourism Info Sheet No. 4, “Developing Countries’ Share of the International Tourism Market.” http://www.iztzg.hr/UserFiles/Pdf/sustainable/Pro-poor-tourism-info-sheets.pdf 18 History of Cancun. “Cancún.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancún/
“Cancun.” CancunEasy! http://www.cancuneasy.com/Cancun/
18 Developing countries map. World Economic Outlook Report. International Monetary Fund, October 2009. 19 Leakage quote. Nirit Ben-Ari, “Poverty is Worsening in African ldcs” Global Policy Forum, 2002. 19 Leakage chart. Pleumarom, Anita. “Does Tourism Benefit the Third World?” Third World Network. http://www.twnside.org.sg /tour.htm - http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/takeover.htm 22 Cultural survival quote. Kamuaro, Ole. “Ecotourism: Suicide or Development.” Voices from Africa, No. 6: Sustainable Development, United Nations Non-Governmental Liason Service, August 1996. http://www.unsystem.org/ngls/documents /publications.en/voices.africa/number6/vfa6.12.htm 33 Women in Central America. “Tourism Offers Opportunities for Women Workers but New Problems Emerge.” United Nations Development Fund for Women, October 2, 2009. http://www.unifem.org/news_events/story_detail.php?StoryID=949 35 Women in Yunnan. Morais, Duarte B. “How is Tourism Affecting Ethnic Minority Women?” Asia Pacific Newsletter, The International Ecotourism Society, July 2005. http://www.scribd.com/doc/11395206/How-is-Tourism-Affecting-Ethnic -Minority-Women36 Hill tribes information. Tim Forsyth. “Sustainable Tourism.” The London School of Economics and Political Science. http://www.fathom.com/course/21701788/sessions.html
37 East Africa & Indonesia. “How Tourism Can Contribute to Environmental Conservation.” The Sustainable Tourism Gateway. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/four.html 38 Masai quote. Renton, Alex. “Tourism is a Curse for Us.” The Observer, September 6, 2009. http://www.guardian.co.uk /world/2009/sep/06/masai-tribesman-tanzania-tourism 40 Staged authenticity. Dean MacCannell. The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. 39 Kenya income statistic. “Kenya—Income.” Encyclopedia of the Nations. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa /Kenya-INCOME.html 40 Responsible tourism quote. “Global Code of Ethics for Tourism.” United Nations World Tourism Organization. http://www.unwto.org/code_ethics/eng/global.htm 40 Balinese culture quote. Picard, Michel. “Balinese identity as tourist attraction.” Tourist Studies, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2008. 42 West Bali National Park. “Does Tourism Really Help Revitalise Management of National Parks as Commons? Lessons Learned from West Bali National Park, Indonesia.“ Digital Library of the Commons. http://dlcvm.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/00002031/ 42 Golf water usage. “Golf: Is it as ‘green’ as it looks?” Tourism Concern. http://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/index.php?page=golf-2
Vaessen, Step. “Tourism leaves Bali’s poor facing drought.” Al Jazeera, October 27,2008.
43 Sex tourism. “Child sex abuse growing problem in Bali.” December 6, 2006. http://news.baliwww.com/child-sex-abuse-growing -problem-in-bali/ 44 Pro-Poor Tourism definitions. Pro-Poor Tourism Partnership. http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/ 45 International tourism quote. “Brussels Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the Decade 2001-2010.” Third United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, May 20, 2001. http://www.un-documents.net/ac191-11.htm 45 Burma guidebook. “Forbidden Glimpses of Shan State.” Shan Women’s Action Network, November 2009. www.shanwomen .org/file/Forbidden-Glimpses-of-Shan-State-English.pdf 47 Mali tourism. “Travel And Tourism in Mali.” Euromonitor International, July 2009. http://www.euromonitor.com /Travel_And_Tourism_in_Mali
Schwarz, Naomi. “Behind the Masks.” CNN Traveller. http://www.cnntraveller.com/2007/05/01/behind-the-masks/
Index of Places
26 Kenya & Tanzania 37 Rwanda, Uganda, & Congo 15 Sri Lanka 47 Mali 4 England 28 Bali, Indonesia 48 Peru 34 Panama 36 Costa Rica 16 Cancun, Mexico
37 Sumatra, Indonesia 24 Thailand 31 Burma (Myanmar) 34 Yunnan Province, China