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Microbial Biomass Process Technologies and Management
Functionalized Nanomaterials for the Management of Microbial Infection. A Strategy to Address Microbial Drug Resistance. A volume in Micro and Nano Technologies Rabah Boukherroub
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Preface vii
Acknowledgments
Editors
Contributors xiii
1. Impressive Potential of Microorganisms to Achieve the Transition from Fossil Fuels to Biofuels 1 Farshad Darvishi and Serge Hiligsmann
SeC tion i Gaseous Biofuels
2. Bioenergy Production from Waste Substrates 27 Amit Kumar, Anish Ghimire, Bo H. Svensson, and Piet N.L. Lens
3. Biomethane from Industrial and Municipal Wastewater 47 Miriam H.A. van Eekert and Grietje Zeeman
4. Microbial Biomethane from Solid Wastes: Principles and Biotechnogical Processes 77 Antoine P. Trzcinski and David C. Stuckey
5. Microbial Biomethane Production from Municipal Solid Waste Using High Soilds Anaerobic Digestion 153 Gregory R. Hinds, Piet N.L. Lens, Qiong Zhang, and Sarina J. Ergas
6. Microbial Biomethane Production from Agricultural Solid Wastes 189 Rémy Bayard and Pierre Buffière
7. Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production: From Concepts to a Sustainable Production 219 Patrícia Madeira da Silva Moura, Joana Resende Ortigueira, Idania Valdez-Vazquez, Ganesh Dattatray Saratale, Rijuta Ganesh Saratale, and Carla Alexandra Monteiro da Silva
8. Engineering Strategies for Enhancing Photofermentative Biohydrogen Production by Purple Nonsulfur Bacteria Using Dark Fermentation Effluents 275 Anish Ghimire, Giovanni Esposito, Vincenzo Luongo, Francesco Pirozzi, Luigi Frunzo, and Piet N.L. Lens
9. Hydrogen Photoproduction by Oxygenic Photosynthetic Microorganisms 315 Fabrice Franck, Bart Ghysels, and Damien Godaux
SeC tion ii Liquid Biofuels
10. Microbial Production of Liquid Biofuels through Metabolic Engineering 353 Wei Ning Chen and Jiahua Shi
11. Designing a Plant for Bioethanol Production from Different Raw Materials: The Biowanze Ethanol Plant as a Case Study 379 Olivier Janssens
12. Microbial Lipids as Diesel Replacement: Current Challenges and Recent Advances 393 Hatim Machrafi, Christophe Minetti, and Carlo Saverio Iorio
SeC tion iii Prospects for Future Development of Biofuels
13. New Tools for Bioprocess Analysis and Optimization of Microbial Fuel Production 427 Isabelle France George, Philippe Bogaerts, Dimitri Gilis, Marianne Rooman, and Jean-François Flot
14. Industrial Integration of Biotechnological Processes from Raw Material to Energy Integration: Study by Modeling Approach 495 Grégoire Léonard, Andreas Pfennig, Ayse Dilan Celebi, Shivom Sharma, and François Maréchal
15. Perspectives of Microbial Fuels for Low-Income and Emerging Countries: Biogas Production 513 Puhulwella G. Rathnasiri
Microbial fuels are renewable sources of energy produced by microorganisms growing on different substrates. Microbial fuels can supplement or even replace fossil fuels and significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
There are different classifications for biofuels. The microbial fuels are mainly classified based on the source (substrate) and state of the product (product). Microbial fuels are obtained from a wide range of substrates and can be divided roughly into three generations. First-generation, or conventional, biofuels are produced from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil, which are found in arable crops and can be easily extracted using conventional technology. Second-generation biofuels are obtained from nonfood products, such as lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues, or waste. However, a series of physical, chemical, and biological treatments are required to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuels. Third-generation biofuels are derived from algal biomass. Alternatively, some microorganisms can convert the CO, H2 , and CO2 of syngas to different types of fuels. All the substrates may be converted to gaseous and liquid biofuels by microorganisms.
Successful development in the biofuel field requires major contributions in a wide range of disciplines, particularly microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, chemistry, biochemical engineering, and bioprocess engineering. Recently, new methods of metabolic engineering, industrial systems biology, synthetic biology, and X-omics science have been used to modify microorganisms involved in biofuel production.
Microbial Fuels: Technologies and Applications covers recent developments in technologies and applications of microbial fuels. Chapter 1 reviews microbial fuels from their historical roots to their different processes. Section I (Chapters 2 through 9) discusses the available technologies and the promising bioprocesses to produce microbial gaseous biofuels, such as biomethane and biohydrogen. Section II (Chapters 10 through 12) considers microbial liquid biofuel production from bioethanol to biodiesel and many derivatives. Section III (Chapters 13 through 15) argues about the prospects for the future development of microbial biofuels. The book is written in simple and clear text, and we also used many figures and tables to make it easier to understand. Furthermore, case studies are included at the end of some chapters. This book highlights major trends and developments in the field of microbial fuels and is written by experienced researchers in their respective fields.
Overall, this book will serve as a suitable reference for students, scientists, and researchers at universities, industries, corporations, and government agencies interested
in bioenergy and clean technology, environmental and waste management, biotechnology, applied microbiology, bioprocess or fermentation technology, and all disciplines related to biofuel technologies and industries.
Farshad Darvishi Harzevili Harzevil, Gilan, Iran
Serge Hiligsmann Brussels, Belgium
Acknowledgments
We thank the experienced authors for their sound and enlightening contributions. We are extremely grateful to Michael Slaughter (acquiring editor) for his continued interest, critical evaluation, constructive criticism, and support.
On behalf of the authors, we would like to thank Scott Oakley (editorial assistant), the project coordinator, the production editor, the cover designer, and their respective teams at CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group for their valuable efforts to develop our manuscript into a high-quality book.
The Editors
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Editors
Farshad Darvishi Harzevili earned a BSc in biology at the University of Guilan, Iran. He earned his MSc and PhD in industrial microbiology and microbial biotechnology from the University of Isfahan, Iran. He is currently a faculty member and head of the microbial biotechnology and bioprocess engineering group at the University of Maragheh, Iran. His main interest is in the biotechnological and environmental applications of yeasts, especially the use of agro-industrial wastes and renewable low-cost substrates in the production of biotechnologically valuable products such as microbial enzymes and biofuels. He is also interested in the expression of heterologous proteins, metabolic engineering and synthetic biology of yeasts.
Serge Hiligsmann earned a master of chemical engineering and a PhD degree in engineering sciences at the University of Liège, Belgium. He is currently head of the 3BIO-BioTech unit at the Brussels Polytechnic School of Université Libre de Bruxelles. His researches are situated in the field of biotechnology and bioprocesses. More precisely, he investigates and develops biotechnological processes for the production of cell biomass, metabolites, and bioenergies based on aerobic or anaerobic fermentation and/or valorization of residual organic materials.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contributors
Rémy Bayard
Université de Lyon
INSA Lyon
Research Group on Wastes, Water, Environment and Pollutions (DEEP)
Lyon, France
Philippe Bogaerts
3BIO–Biomodeling, Bioinformatics and Bioprocesses
Brussels School of Engineering
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
Pierre Buffière
Université de Lyon
INSA Lyon
Research Group on Wastes, Water, Environment and Pollutions (DEEP)
Lyon, France
Ayse Dilan Celebi
Industrial Process and Energy Systems Engineering
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
EPFL Valais-Wallis
Sion, Switzerland
Wei Ning Chen
School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
Farshad Darvishi
Microbial Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering Group Division of Microbiology Department of Biology University of Maragheh Maragheh, Iran
Sarina J. Ergas
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of South Florida Tampa, Florida
Giovanni Esposito
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering University of Cassino and Southern Lazio Cassino (FR), Italy
Jean-François Flot
Laboratory of Evolutionary Biology and Ecology Department of Organismal Biology Université Libre de Bruxelles Brussels, Belgium
Fabrice Franck
InBios-Phytosystems
Laboratory of Bioenergetics
University of Liège Liège, Belgium
Luigi Frunzo
Department of Mathematics and Applications Renato Caccioppoli
University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy
Isabelle France George
Laboratory of Ecology of Aquatic Systems School of Bioengineering Université Libre de Bruxelles Brussels, Belgium
Anish Ghimire
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering University of Cassino and Southern Lazio Cassino (FR), Italy and
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering Kathmandu University Dhulikhel, Nepal
Bart Ghysels
InBios-Phytosystems
Laboratory of Bioenergetics University of Liège Liège, Belgium
Dimitri Gilis
3BIO–Biomodeling, Bioinformatics and Bioprocesses
Brussels School of Engineering
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
Damien Godaux
InBios-Phytosystems
Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae University of Liège Liège, Belgium
Serge Hiligsmann
3BIO-Biotechnology and Bioprocess Department
Brussels School of Engineering
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
Gregory R. Hinds
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of South Florida Tampa, Florida
Carlo Saverio Iorio
Department of Chemical Physics
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
Olivier Janssens
High School of Agro-Industries and Biotechnologies HELHa Fleurus, Belgium
Amit Kumar
Environmental Biotechnology Center University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts and
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education Delft, the Netherlands
Piet N.L. Lens
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education Delft, the Netherlands
Grégoire Léonard
Products, Environment, and Processes (PEPs) Department of Chemical Engineering University of Liège Liège, Belgium
Vincenzo Luongo Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy
Hatim Machrafi
Department of Chemical Physics
Université Libre de Bruxelles
Brussels, Belgium
François Maréchal
Industrial Process and Energy Systems Engineering
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
EPFL Valais-Wallis Sion, Switzerland
Christophe Minetti
Department of Chemical Physics
Université Libre de Bruxelles Brussels, Belgium
Patrícia Madeira da Silva Moura
Bioenergy Unit
National Laboratory of Energy and Geology (LNEG) Lisbon, Portugal
Joana Resende Ortigueira
Bioenergy Unit
National Laboratory of Energy and Geology (LNEG) Lisbon, Portugal
Andreas Pfennig
Products, Environment, and Processes (PEPs) Department of Chemical Engineering University of Liège Liège, Belgium
Francesco Pirozzi
Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy
Puhulwella G. Rathnasiri Department of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Moratuwa Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Marianne Rooman
3BIO–Biomodeling, Bioinformatics and Bioprocesses Brussels School of Engineering Université Libre de Bruxelles Brussels, Belgium
Ganesh Dattatray Saratale Department of Food Science and Biotechnology Dongguk University Seoul, Republic of Korea
Rijuta Ganesh Saratale
Research Institute of Biotechnology and Medical Converged Science
Dongguk University
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Shivom Sharma
Industrial Process and Energy Systems Engineering
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
EPFL Valais-Wallis
Sion, Switzerland
Jiahua Shi
School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
Carla Alexandra Monteiro da Silva
Department of Geographic, Geophysics and Energy Engineering
Faculty of Sciences
Lisbon University
Lisbon, Portugal
David C. Stuckey
Department of Chemical Engineering
Imperial College London
London, United Kingdom
Bo H. Svensson
Department of Thematic Studies
Environmental Change
Biogas Research Center
Linköping University
Linköping, Sweden
Antoine P. Trzcinski
School of Civil Engineering and Surveying Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences University of Southern Queensland Queensland, Australia
Idania Valdez-Vazquez
Unidad Académica Juriquilla Instituto de Ingeniería Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Querétaro, Mexico
Miriam H.A. van Eekert
LeAF BV
and
Subdepartment of Environmental Technology
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, the Netherlands
Grietje Zeeman
Subdepartment of Environmental Technology Wageningen University and Research and LeAF BV
Wageningen, the Netherlands
Qiong Zhang
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of South Florida Tampa, Florida
1
Impressive Potential of Microorganisms to Achieve the Transition from Fossil Fuels to Biofuels
Farshad Darvishi and Serge Hiligsmann
Contents
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Brief History
1.3 Classification of Microbial Fuels
1.3.1 Gaseous Microbial Fuels
1.3.2 Liquid Microbial Fuels
1.3.3 Other Types of Microbial Fuels 10
1.4 From Domestication of Microbial Processes to Biofuel Production: A Sustainable Synergy to Promote with Organic Waste Treatment 10
1.4.1 Biodegradation Processes of Organic Matter and Energy Recovery 10
1.4.2 Biodegradation Mechanisms from Complex Organic Matter 12
1.4.3 Physicochemical Conditions and Environmental Impact Associated with Anaerobic Biodegradation 14
1.4.4 Valorization of Organic Matter and Life Cycle Assessment 18
1.5 Conclusion
1.1 Introduction
Fuel is a substance that under chemical reaction with oxygen (burning) converts into heat energy and other types of energies. Wood combustion is the first use of fuel by humans.
Later, coal was extracted and used as a fuel from around 1000 BC in China. However, it became more common as a power source after development of the steam engine. In the nineteenth century, gas extracted from coal was used for street lighting in London. After the discovery of petroleum and natural gas, these materials replaced coal. Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, and natural gas formed from the fossilized remains of plants and animals at high temperature and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the earth’s crust over millions of years (Karim 2012). According to International Energy Outlook (IEO) 2016, provided by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), fossil fuels will account for 78% of the total world energy consumption up to 2040 and remain the largest source of energy (Figure 1.1).
However, the total world marketed energy consumption share of fossil fuels should decline from 33% in 2012 to 30% in 2040 (www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo). Fossil fuels are
Figure 1.1 Total world energy consumption by energy source, 1990–2040 (quadrillion Btu). Dotted lines for coal and renewables show projected effects of the U.S. Clean Power Plan (CPP). (From U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2016, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 2016, www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo.)
nonrenewable resources since they formed over millions of years ago. This is a major drawback regarding the use of these fuels. Furthermore, the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) during fossil fuel combustion is another problem. Indeed, the greenhouse gases contribute to global warming and the temperature increase of the earth’s surface. On the basis of IEO 2016, the world energy-related CO2 emissions will rise from 32.2 billion metric tons in 2012 to 35.6 billion metric tons in 2020 and to 43.2 billion metric tons in 2040 (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 World energy-related carbon dioxide emissions by fuel type, 1990–2040 (billion metric tons). (From U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Outlook 2016, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 2016, www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo.)
Since the replacement and conversion of energy type to another type is difficult, the use of new energy sources is necessary to avoid environmental pollution. New energy resources should be renewable and carbon-free in the future, because their consumption does not release pollutant greenhouse gases and has no destructive effects on weather and the environment. Renewable energies naturally replenish on a human timescale, for example, sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, geothermal heat, fuel cells, and biomass. They are expected to be the world’s fastest-growing energy source, with their consumption increasing an average 2.6% per year between 2012 and 2040 (Figure 1.1).
Among the renewable energies, biomass considers any biological material derived from living or recently living organisms. Biofuels derived from biomass cover solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. Microbial fuels are one of the biofuel types with renewable energy found from microorganisms and their derivatives. Microbial fuels can supplement or even replace fossil fuels. Their use could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. All renewable energy sources are almost available periodically and not portable or storable; therefore, they cannot be used for fuel, especially in transportation. Microbial fuels, unlike other renewable energy sources, are usable without interruption and not limited to the season, time, and certain conditions. The cost of microbial fuels is competitive and cheaper than that of other types of renewable energy sources (Singh et al. 2016).
1.2 Brief History
Ethanol was the first man-made fuel. It is a liquid fuel with microbial origin. The history of ethanol is very long, that is, since humans learned to carry out the fermentation of sugar into ethanol as one of the earliest organic reactions. Dried ethanol residues found on 9000-year-old pottery in China suggest that Neolithic people may have consumed alcoholic beverages. Iranian pioneer scholar Zakariya Razi (854–930 AD), known in the West as Rhazes, discovered and purified alcohol (ethanol) and pioneered its use in medicine (Modanlou 2008) (Figure 1.3).
In the eighteenth century, alcohol-burning stoves were used for cooking and the warming of homes, and vegetable oils and fats lit up streets in Europe and America. In 1860, German inventor Nicholas Otto used ethanol as fuel in engines. Some decades later, in 1896, Henry Ford built the first automobile equipped with an engine designed to run on pure ethanol. Recently, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 in the United States defined ethanol blends with at least 85% ethanol to be an alternative fuel.
Louis Pasteur produced butanol by biological means in 1861, and Auguste Fernbach developed a bacterial fermentation process to produce butanol using potato starch in 1910. During World War I, the chemist Chaim Weizmann developed acetone-butanolethanol (ABE) fermentation by Clostridium acetobutylicum. After World War II, industrial ABE fermentation declined rapidly because of the cheaper petrochemical production of butanol. In 2006, the DuPont and British Petrol companies announced that they reconstituted the industrial-scale ABE fermentation in the United Kingdom. Now, butanol is generating interest as a renewable biofuel for scientists and companies.
Figure 1.3 Iranian pioneer scholar Zakariya Razi (854–930 AD), who discovered and identified ethanol by distillation. (The statue of Razi in the United Nations office in Vienna is part of the Scholars Pavilion.)
Microbial gaseous fuels too have long historical roots as liquid fuels. Biogas as a gaseous fuel typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter by microbial fermentation or anaerobic digestion in the absence of oxygen. It comprises primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (Ayadi et al. 2016).
Ancient Persians understood that rotting vegetable matter gives off a flammable gas, and Marco Polo mentioned the use of covered sewage tanks in China. In the sixteenth century, scholar and architect Sheikh Bahai designed and constructed a public bathroom known as Sheikh Bahai’s bathroom in Isfahan, Iran (Figure 1.4). It ran and provided hot water to the public by a single candle (a small flame) with
an automatic flame ignition system for a long time. In fact, Sheikh Bahai used the flammable gas or biogas that was naturally produced in a nearby cesspool for heating the bathwater.
The first sewage plant was built in Bombay in 1859, and the idea for the manufacturing of gas was brought to the United Kingdom, for gas lighting in street lamps and homes, in 1895.
Louis Pasteur tried to produce biogas from horse droppings, and he explained that the rate of production was sufficient to cover the energy needs for street lighting in Paris. In the early 1900s, systems for the treatment of sewage were developed in the United Kingdom and Germany. Centralized drainage systems were further installed in many towns in Europe, and anaerobic digestion was seen as a means to reduce the volume of solid matter in sewage. However, the resulting gas was occasionally used as a source of energy.
In the 1930s, the use of farm manure to generate methane was developed, again in Bombay. Indian villagers by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) developed it for use in the early 1960s. China started a similar program in the 1960s and claimed that 5 million plants had been built by the early 1980s (Deublein and Steinhauser 2010).
Besides, Michael Potter, a professor at the University of Durham, used microbes to produce electricity in 1911 (Potter 1911). In fact, he established microbial fuel cells (MFCs),
Figure 1.4 Sheikh Bahai’s public bathroom, where biogas was used to heat water in sixteenth-century Isfahan, Iran.
A , e cell.
B, Galvanometer.
C , Condenser
D, Mercury cups to facilitate conne ctions with different cells
E , Morse key.
or biological fuel cells, and generated electricity from microorganisms for the first time (Figure 1.5). In the twenty-first century, researchers have been trying to use MFCs for electricity generation on a commercial scale, simultaneously with wastewater treatment.
1.3 Classification of Microbial Fuels
There are different classifications for biofuels. The microbial fuels are mainly classified based on the source (substrate) and state of the product (product) (Figure 1.6) (Hollinshead et al. 2014).
Microbial fuels are obtained from a wide range of substrates and can be divided roughly into three generations: First-generation, or conventional biofuels, are produced from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil, which are found in arable crops and can be easily extracted using conventional technology. Second-generation biofuels are obtained from nonfood products, such as lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues, or waste. However, a series of physical, chemical, and biological treatments are required to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuels. Third-generation biofuels are derived from algal biomass (Mousdale 2010).
Direct hydrolysis and fermentation of these materials to biofuels can be challenging by microorganisms. A promising approach for the production of fuel is indirect fermentation, after plant material pyrolysis, to produce synthesis gas, or syngas.
Figure 1.5 First plan of MFC. (From Potter, M.C., Proc. R. Soc. B, 84, 260–276, 1911.)
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MARCH 1904.
O the mighty steeds of illustrious riders, from the Bucephalus of Alexander down to the famous chargers of our present-day Generals, much has been written and even sung. Favourites of fortune, their lives were mostly cast in pleasant places; and after a brilliant career, more or less useful, permitted to end their days in secluded luxury—a privilege, by the way, not always extended to their riders. The subject of these remarks is in no way connected with the glorious achievement of arms, nor is it recorded that he ever scented the battle even from afar; yet, though compelled to wear, so to speak, the hodden grey of equine society, his claim to distinction may none the less be justified.
In July 1810, a somewhat queer procession might have been seen wending its way through Edinburgh towards the Port of Leith. Upon a cart, drawn by a powerful horse, decorated with bows and streamers of various colours, and driven by James Craw, the famous Bell Rock carter, similarly bedecked, lay the last principal stone of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. From the centre of the stone rose a flagstaff, carrying the national flag, while seamen and stonecutters— a strange combination—gaily bedecked with variegated ribbons—the latter donning brand new aprons for the occasion—marched in joyful procession. When abreast of the Trinity House of Leith, they were joined by the Officer of that Corporation, resplendent in full uniform, and bearing his staff of office; and on arriving at the harbour, where the Smeaton—engaged in transporting material to the Bell Rock— lay, the entire shipping hoisted their colours in salute, thus indicating the amount of public interest evinced in the progress of the Lighthouse.
An item of interest, at this time, was a visit by Mrs Dickson, a daughter of Smeaton of Eddystone fame—whose principles were largely taken advantage of in the construction of the Bell Rock
Lighthouse—to inspect the vessel, named in honour of her distinguished father. “In stepping on board,” writes Mr Stevenson in his ‘Bell Rock Lighthouse,’ “Mrs Dickson seemed quite overcome by so many concurrent circumstances tending in a peculiar manner to revive and enliven the memory of her departed father; and, on leaving the vessel, she would not be restrained from presenting the crew with a piece of money.”
Though the site of the workyard in connection with the building was situated in Arbroath, from its contiguity to the Rock, it was found necessary, owing to the liability of the stones procured from Mylnefield Quarry, near Dundee, to injury from frost—from which cause many valuable stones had already been lost—to procure stones for the cornice of the building and parapet wall of the lightroom which would admit of being wrought with safety during the winter months. The desired qualities of durability and immunity from injury by frost were ultimately found in the famous Liver-rock of the Craigleith Quarry. At Greenside, Edinburgh, a vacant piece of ground was procured; and here the cornice and parapet wall were hewn and built in position for the fitting of the huge cast-iron lantern.
The horse in question had, with his driver, been employed in the workyard at Arbroath, and was computed to have drawn the materials of the lighthouse, extending to upwards of two thousand tons in its finished state, three or four times—in removing the blocks of stone from the ship to the workyard, again to the platform upon which each course was temporarily built, from the workyard to where they were shipped for the Rock, besides occasional movements to and from the hands of the stonecutters. Deciding that “Bassey” and his driver should have the honour of participating in the closing scene of the undertaking, they were accordingly transported by sea to Leith.
In the course of their passage in the Smeaton, the vessel narrowly escaped shipwreck. Under orders to call at the Rock for lumber, they had apparently lost their bearings through fog; for, suddenly startled by the sound of the smith’s hammer and anvil, they had just time to put the ship about and escape running full tilt on the
north-west portion of the Rock, which, from this incident, still bears the name of “James Craw’s Horse.”
On the completion of operations at the Rock, the horse “Bassey,” failing somewhat from age, was pensioned off by the Commissioners, and allowed to roam at liberty on the island of Inchkeith till his death in 1813. “The fame of this animal’s labours,” writes Mr Stevenson, “together with his strength and excellent proportions as a draught-horse, having attracted the attention of Dr John Barclay, that eminent anatomist procured the bones and set them up in his museum. This valuable collection, it is understood, is to be bequeathed to the College of Surgeons of Edinburgh; so that the bones of the Bell Rock horse” (to use the doctor’s own language) “will be seen and admired as a useful skeleton and a source of instruction when those of his employers lie mingled with the dust.”
With the exception of a few days, the weather this month has been extremely favourable; indeed, for the greater part, summer-like—a pleasant change from what we have experienced of late. The peculiar white rubber-like folds of ribbon which have been adhering to the Rock surface for the past two months, and which we erroneously supposed to be the ova of some fish, turn out to be the spawn of the slugs I have already described, and with which the Rock has been freely invested of late—proof of which several have been seen in the act of extrusion. These shell-less molluscs have been much in evidence this season; and representatives of three distinct families are to be met with, namely, the Onchidoridæ, Tritoniidæ, and Eolididæ. Cannibals, they attack their own species without compunction, and devour each other’s spawn. Darwin computed that some “ribbons” contained as many as six hundred thousand eggs. The acorn barnacles which have escaped the voracity of the white whelks have in some places attained a height of two inches. On examination, each shelly casement is seen charged with spawn, which, later on, will be liberated as free swimmers, totally unlike the parent form, to enjoy a brief period of unrestricted
freedom before settling down on the Rock surface, or, for that matter, any immersed object that comes handy, and ultimately assuming the adult form. The young swimmer, feeling itself gradually becoming invested with a shelly covering, casts about for a suitable site to pass the remainder of its existence. Selecting the Rock surface, it attaches itself by its head, the antennæ become cemented to the surface, the eyes remain in a rudimentary form, the shelly plates which latterly form the door of its domicile appear, a few more pairs of legs are developed, and by a series of frequent moultings (like other crustaceans) arrives at the perfect state. The bunches of “fingers” which we see this animal protrude and withdraw when under water are in reality its feet, of which there are twelve pairs, the rhythmic expansion and contraction of which induce a current in the water attracting to its mouth the minute objects upon which it feeds, thus giving rise to the saying that this animal stands on its head and literally kicks its food into its mouth. In all other crustacea the sexes are distinct, the barnacles alone having the peculiarity of being bisexual, or having both sexes united in the same individual. The general tendency throughout nature—the evolution from a lower to a higher order, from the simple to the complex—appears in the case of the barnacle to be reversed. Gifted in the initial stage of its existence with all the functions of a free-swimming animal, and possessing organs which ultimately become rudimentary, the final phase in which all power of volition is lost, certainly does not appear one of progression.
Hermit crabs are at present abundant, and also demonstrate their wonderful fecundity. Starfishes—principally the five-rayed variety— are now numerous, and garnish each shallow pool. Sea-urchins, though never plentiful here, are occasionally met with, some having been found recently no larger than a pea. On the 20th the advent of the paidle-fish was announced by a small patch of ova underneath a projecting ledge of rock, and, on the same date, by a reconnoitring “cock.” The young of last summer are met with adhering to stones in the shallow pools; and, contrary to our expectations, though only two inches long, were found to contain spawn. The spring migratory movement has sent but few birds our way this year. A few thrushes, blackbirds, larks, starlings, and a couple of pied wagtails composed
our list. By the middle of the month, the longtailed ducks had gone north to nest, and but four pairs of eiders now remain.
APRIL 1904.
A of Stevenson’s “Bell Rock Lighthouse” reveals many interesting episodes of that period in connection with the undertaking. The following facts are from this source, and may be of sufficient general interest to warrant repeating. The facts mentioned have reference to another providential escape from serious disaster recorded during the earlier stages of the operations. The workmen at this period had their quarters on board the lightship, anchored a mile from the Rock, as the beacon-house, on which they were latterly housed on the Rock, had not yet been erected. As was customary, whenever the tide admitted of a footing on the Rock, all hands were landed, and the boats retained in one of the creeks till the rising tide suspended operations. On this particular occasion, besides the usual two boats from the lightship, they were reinforced by an additional boat from the Smeaton, which had arrived from Arbroath with a fresh consignment of workmen. The wind freshening in the course of the work, the seamen of the Smeaton, fearing for their vessel’s moorings, left the Rock in their own boat with the intention of taking some extra precautions, and returning. Scarcely had they boarded her, however, when, to Mr Stevenson’s consternation, she was seen to break adrift and drive helplessly away before the wind. The danger of the situation at once flashed through his mind. Thirty-two men—three boat-loads—on a rock which would shortly be fathoms under water, with only two boats at their disposal! What was to be done? The workmen, engrossed in their labours, had failed to notice the departure of the boat, and were as yet ignorant of their dangerous position. The Smeaton, now far to leeward, was seen to have made sail, and making every effort to beat up to the Rock, but with the wind still freshening and the flood tide dead against her, it was utterly hopeless to expect any assistance in that direction. Save the deserted lightship no other sail was in sight. Taking the landingmaster cautiously aside, to avoid alarming the men, he explained
their dangerous situation. After consultation, it was decided that everything of weight should be abandoned, the men to strip their upper clothing, the two boats to be manned to their utmost capacity, and the remainder of the men to support themselves in the water by clinging to the gunwales. By this means they hoped to drift down on the Smeaton, a perilous journey under such circumstances, even in quiet weather, but in the now disturbed state of the sea, a forlorn hope. The workings being now awash with the flowing tide—the usual signal for ceasing work—the workmen were in the act of retiring to the boats to don their shoes and stockings when they noticed the absence of the boat, and realised their danger. On attempting to address them with his proposal, Mr Stevenson found his mouth so parched that he was totally unable to articulate a single word. Stooping to moisten his lips with sea water, he was suddenly startled by the gladsome shout of “A boat! A boat!” and looking around, there, sure enough, a large boat was seen through the haze making straight for the Rock. This opportune arrival proved to be James Spink, the Bell Rock pilot, employed in carrying letters between Arbroath and the Rock. For his services on this occasion it is gratifying to learn that in after years Spink was in receipt of a pension from the Board, and permitted to wear the uniform and badge of the Lighthouse Service.
Paidle-fish are now fairly numerous, their nests, with attendant cocks, being met with on every hand. While observing one of these nests the other day, at low water, I had an interesting experience of the necessity for the surveillance exercised by the cock. Stretched along the rock, my face close to the surface of the pool, I had an excellent view of the nest and its guardian, two feet below. Speculating as to the reason for so close attendance on the ova—his nose being thrust into an orifice in the mass, his mouth opening and shutting energetically, evidently forcing a stream of water through the opening—I carelessly dropped a few whelks on his back. This mild form of bombardment did not in the slightest disconcert him; for, though they struck and rolled off on either side, he appeared to take no notice of them. Suddenly, a white whelk (not one of those I had dropped) made its appearance on the outer margin of the ova, and settled down with the apparent intention of dining. This impertinence,
however, was not to be tolerated; for, with a swirling rush that plainly betokened anger, the red-coated sentry seized the offender in his teeth—and here follows the surprising part of it. Instead of dropping the whelk to the bottom there and then, as I expected, he mounted rapidly through the intervening two feet of water, and when near the surface, to my astonishment, spat the whelk almost into my face! That his intention was retaliatory I do not presume to say, but the action certainly appeared an intelligent attempt to “return fire.” Since then, I have repeatedly seen them remove predatory starfishes and whelks in a somewhat similar manner
The wheat-like ova of the white whelks is also largely in evidence this month, though somewhat later than last year. Exposed at every fall of the tide, it appears to require no attention, each capsule, pendant or upright, firmly adhering to the Rock surface by means of its flattened foot-stalk. The whelks themselves appear in every conceivable corner where food is to be found.
A shallow pit cut into the Rock, measuring two feet by one, and one foot deep—originally the socket of the central support of the beacon-house in which the workmen were lodged during the construction of the lighthouse—serves as a receptacle for anything of interest we may pick up during our rambles round the rocks. Fitted with a grated iron cover, it was at one time used for the purpose of soaking salt junk; but, as every marine organism appeared to consider this a special provision for their needs, it was ultimately abandoned. At present a repulsive-looking “poach” or “cobbler,” some ten inches long, shares this prison with a couple of large starfishes, an unusually large hermit crab, and a derelict mass of “paidle” spawn. The spawn daily decreases in inverse ratio to the “poach’s” liveliness. Apart from this, however, the spawn shows signs of deterioration, a proof that the attention of the cock is necessary for its well-being.
On the 17th, the remaining four pairs of eiders took their departure, and only a few gulls now remain.
Owing to my transference to another station, it now becomes necessary for me to conclude these random jottings. To the patient
reader who has cared to follow me through these notes I bid farewell. Written without any pretensions to literary skill or scientific accuracy, they have nevertheless, in my case, served to enliven many a weary hour in an isolated calling, and have—may I hope?— proved not altogether void of interest to the reader.
THE END.
Edinburgh: George Waterston & Sons, Printers.
Transcriber’s Note:
Words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text. These have been left unchanged. Obsolete and alternative spellings were left unchanged. Misspelled words were corrected.
Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the end of the chapter. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were added.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BELL ROCK ***
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