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Handbook of Food Bioengineering Volume 3 Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation 1st Edition Alexandru Grumezescu
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Francisco J. de la Torre-González, José A. Narváez-Zapata, Claudia P. Larralde-Corona
Chapter
Louise C. Candido da Silva, Brenda N. Targino, Marianna M. Furtado, Miriam A. de Oliveira Pinto, Mirian P. Rodarte, Humberto M. Hungaro
List of Contributors
Asif Ahmad Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Zaheer Ahmed Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Gabriela Alves Macedo University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Gülben Avs¸ar Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Ilona Błaszczyk Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Lodz, Poland
Prasandeep Biswal Siksha O Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Eliana F. Camporese Sérvulo Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Louise C. Candido da Silva Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Hasan B. Coban The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
Juliana C. da Cruz Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Alok P. Das Tripura University (A Central University), Suryamaninagar, Tripura, India
Aline M. de Castro Research and Development Center, Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Lívia V. de Castro Reis University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Francisco J. de la Torre-González National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic Biotechnology (Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG), Reynosa, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Miriam A. de Oliveira Pinto Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Ali Demirci The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
Rashmi Dikshit Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Burak Adnan Erkorkmaz Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Marianna M. Furtado University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Pawel Glibowski University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Humberto M. Hungaro Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Jan Iciek Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Lodz, Poland
Onur Kırtel Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Claudia P. Larralde-Corona National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic Biotechnology (Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG), Reynosa, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Danielle B. Lopes University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Paloma López Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain
Karina M. Macena Leão University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
José V. Madeira Júnior University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
List of Contributors
Mª Luz Mohedano Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain
Magdalena Molska Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Lodz, Poland
Montserrat Nácher-Vázquez Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain
José A. Narváez-Zapata National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic Biotechnology (Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG), Reynosa, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Uche O. Ogbodo University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
Ebru T. Öner Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Abhisek Pal Siksha O Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Sharadwata Pan Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ami Patel Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Falguni Patra Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Adrian Pérez-Ramos Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain
Mirian P. Rodarte Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Indira P. Sarethy Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nihir Shah Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Katarzyna Skrzypczak University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Padmavathi Tallapragada Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Brenda N. Targino Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Jerry O. Ugwuanyi University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
Nuria Vieco Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain; Polytech’Lille, University of Lille 1, France
Kenza Zarour Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain; University of Oran 1 Ahmed Ben Bella, Algeria
Foreword
In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.
The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.
The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of
basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although, the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.
Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the “food of the future.”
Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng) Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Series Preface
The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.
Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the amazing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.
While health and well-being are key drivers for the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).
The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:
Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis
Volume 2: Food Bioconversion
Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation
Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food
Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives
Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods
Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes
Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods
Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation
Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation
Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health
Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry
Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease
Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry
Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases
Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity
Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods
Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption
Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering
Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design
The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim
to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry— flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are presented in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in the volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.
All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.
This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.
Alina M. Holban
University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Alexandru M. Grumezescu
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Preface for Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives
Microorganisms possess an impressive role in supporting life and ecology. These microscopic individuals may work as separate entities or multicellular specialized consortia, named biofilms, to produce numerous useful molecules. Their impact in natural processes and also current industry is so important, that life on Earth as we know it today is only possible due to the activities of microorganisms. Numerous industries have exploited the biochemical ability of microbes to synthesize, metabolize, and transform valuable substances. These properties of microorganisms support chemical industries, biotechnology, pharmaceutical industry, and nonetheless, food industry.
Most of the available food ingredients, food nutraceuticals, additives, colorants, and flavoring agents are produced by or with the help of microorganisms. Classical processes, which support current biotechnology and food industry, such as fermentation and enzyme production are exclusively based on microbial activities. They represent a resourceful source of food-related products and are responsible for many of the properties and taste of dairy products, which we daily consume.
The aim of this book was to bring together the most recent progress achieved in the field of microbial production of food-related products and additives, emphasizing the current progress, actual concerns in the biotechnological field, and success of very recent technologies. This volume introduces the reader in the amazing world of industrial microbiology and highlights the recent progress made in the field of microbial food industry. An overview regarding where we are situated in terms of microbial food synthesis and where we are heading to, can be also exploited within this book.
The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Brazil, USA, India, Spain, France, Mexico, Poland, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Turkey.
The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of microbial production of food ingredients and additives.
Preface
Chapter 1, entitled Microbial Production of Added-Value Ingredients: State of Art, written by Lopes et al., describes relevant aspects of the microbial production of various ingredients, such as flavors, esters, and vitamins, and their enzymes used in food and pharmaceutical industries.
Chapter 2, Phytase as a Diet Ingredient: From Microbial Production to Its Applications in Food and Feed Industry, prepared by Coban and Demirci, provides an extensive review about microbial phytase production, characteristics of phytase, various phytase fermentation systems, as well as its application in food and feed industry.
In Chapter 3, Current Trends and Future Prospective of Prebiotics as Therapeutic Food, Biswal et al. debate the current trends and future prospects of prebiotics as therapeutic food, epitomizing cutting-edge research outcomes on prebiotic, novel sources, and their application in human health.
In Chapter 4, Food Ingredients Synthesized by Lactic Acid Bacteria, Zarour et al. give an overview regarding the current status of food products obtained with the help of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The in situ production of vitamins, as well as the use of polyols synthesized by these bacteria as low-calorie sweeteners, is discussed. The dual roles of LAB exopolysaccharides to improve food texture and as component of functional food are also described, as is the contribution to the flavor of fermented food products by aroma compounds generated from citrate metabolism and amino acids catabolism by LAB. Finally, the use of LAB bacteriocins, synthesized in situ, or as additives, for food preservation is presented in this chapter.
In Chapter 5, Microbial Diversity and Flavor Quality of Fermented Beverages, De La TorreGonzález et al. revealed the main production processes and the organoleptic characteristics of the most widely consumed fermented beverages in the world, including wine and tequila, and the impact of microorganisms that are used as inoculants in the aroma and quality of these beverages.
Chapter 6, Prebiotic and Synbiotic Foods, written by Glibowski and Skrzypczak, discusses recent studies concerning the foods in which prebiotic substances, as well as probiotic bacteria were applied. There are many studies describing application of various prebiotics (i.e., galactooligosaccharides, soy oligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharides, pyrodextrins, isomaltooligosaccharides, or lactulose) but the most frequently investigated are fructans— inulin, fructooligosaccharides, and oligofructose. This chapter highlights that symbiotic food, which contain prebiotics and probiotics can be an alternative to traditional foods and this food can positively impact health and can prevent from severe diseases.
In Chapter 7, Production, Use, and Prospects of Microbial Food Colorants, Ogbodo and Ugwuanyi aim at exploring and discussing the current production protocols, as well as the prospects and challenges faced by the industry of colorants obtained through microbial activity.
Chapter 8, Biopolymer Produced by the lactic Acid Bacteria: Production and Practical Application, written by Ahmed and Ahmad, summarizes the production, isolation, and recent characterization approaches for bacteria produced biopolymers, and also their application in health, food additives, food engineering, and nanotechnology.
In Chapter 9, Microbial Production of Low-Calorie Sugars, Patra et al. describe the microbial production of low-calorie sweeteners, which can be categorized into two groups; intense sweetener, such as neotame, acesulfame-K, aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, etc. and naturally occurring reduced calorie bulk sweeteners, for example, erythritol, mannitol, xylitol, sorbitol, isomalt, lactitol, trehalose, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, hydrogenated glucose syrups, etc. Besides foods, these sugars are widely used in pharmaceutical, medicine, and chemical industries.
In Chapter 10, Microbial Production of Itaconic Acid, prepared by da Cruz et al., dissected the industrial production of itaconic acid (IA), which is mainly done by Aspergillus terreus. However, other microorganisms are capable of producing this acid, some of them genetically modified. The exact regulation of IA synthesis is unknown and it is investigated by means of studies of media composition, pH, O2 supply, temperature, presence, or absence of trace elements during fermentation. Recent records indicate that the global market for IA will grow to US $398.3 million in 2017, indicating a great interest in improving IA production.
Chapter 11, Microbial Production of Secondary Metabolites as Food Ingredients, written by Tallapragada and Dikshit, explores the usage of microorganism for the biosynthesis of natural products, such as lovastatin, gama amino butyric acid, etc. and also food coloring, antimicrobial, and anticancer agents. Production of enzymes, such as beta-glucosidase, amylases, organic acids, probiotic cells, and bacteriocins for their usage in foods, nutraceuticals, and medications are also discussed. Additionally, the chapter discusses the challenges associated with the production of these bioproducts and their scaled up production for industrial purpose.
In Chapter 12, Microbial Polysaccharides as Food Ingredients, Kırtel et al. describe the chemical structure, general properties, production strategies, food applications, and future trends of the most widely used microbial polysaccharides, namely curdlan, gellan, levan, pullulan, and xanthan. The chapter also covers cost-effective production techniques for these valuable biopolymers.
In Chapter 13, Xanthan: Biotechnological Production and Applications, Candido da Silva et al. give a general overview of xanthan, including its applications, biotechnological production, and challenges. Xanthan is an exopolysaccharide obtained from a fermentation process using bacteria of the genus Xanthomonas. The rheological properties and stability in a wide range of temperatures and pH make this biopolymer one of the most important commercial ingredients produced by microorganisms.
Preface for Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives
In Chapter 14, Designer Foods: Scope for Enrichment With Microbe-Sourced Antioxidants, written by Sarethy and Pan, focuses on the antioxidants produces by microorganisms, the wide diversity that have been studied, their mode of action, feasibility of adding such microbe-derived antioxidants in conventional foods and the associated regulatory issues.
Chapter 15, entitled Monitoring of Microbial Activity in Real-Time, written by Iciek et al., reveals the methods of detection and identification of microorganisms, with emphasis on the use of redox potential measurement for the individual control of food production processes in various models.
Alina M. Holban University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Alexandru M. Grumezescu
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Microbial Production of Added-Value Ingredients: State of the Art
Danielle B. Lopes, José V. Madeira Júnior, Lívia V. de Castro Reis, Karina M. Macena Leão, Gabriela Alves Macedo
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
1 Introduction
Microorganisms and their enzymes have been used for the scale-up production of a diverse number of biochemicals (e.g., alcohols, esters, antibiotics, and nutraceuticals) and in the processing of feeds and foods (Fig.1.1). The application of microbes to obtain a product or service of economic importance is called microbial biotechnology or bioprocesses (AbdelAziz, 2014). These are defined as a reaction or a set of simultaneous reactions in which a preformed molecule precursor is converted to an interesting economic value product, such as vitamins, flavors, and nucleotides (Sanchez and Demain, 2014). The process should comprise the use of whole cells or enzymes (or combinations thereof) either free or immobilized, and should lead to the production of a fine-chemical or commodity product that can be recovered after the reaction (Straathof et al., 2002). Biotransformation and biocatalysis are bioprocesses characterized by the bioconversion of metabolites (Shaw et al., 2003); in the former, whole cells from microorganisms are used; in the later, isolated enzymes from vegetables, animals, or microorganisms are employed. Biocatalysis is an important tool in organic synthesis, particularly in the production of chiral molecules, which cannot be generated through chemical synthesis (Barreiro and Fraga, 2008).
The use of natural biocatalysts is secular, and both chemistry and biochemistry traveled a long way together; however, in the early 20th century they became independent sciences (Roberts et al., 1995). The utilization of enzymes and microorganisms in organic chemistry progressed relatively slowly until the 1950s; however, since then the exploration of microbial diversity and function has greatly enhanced (Coyotzi et al., 2016; Shaw et al., 2003). Both bioprocesses use current knowledge about live systems to develop new biological agents that can function as biofactories of value-added products (King et al., 2016; Nikel et al., 2016). These bioprocesses have become standard technologies in the fine chemicals industry, and biocatalysts is now more readily accessible at a lower cost. The major advantages for the
Figure 1.1: Schematic Bioprocesses for the Production of Value-Added Ingredients.
application of these bioprocesses in chemical syntheses include their efficiency in performing numerous high-complexity chemical reactions, as well as their broad spectrum of substrates (e.g., agroindustrial by-products), and their mild and environment-friendly conditions (Babson et al., 2014; Mamma and Christakopoulos, 2014).
Selection of microorganisms, plants, or animal cells and their performance evaluation represent traditional methods for the discovery of new biocatalysts. Microorganisms hold the greatest industrial interest since they have a short generation time and harbor a wide variety of enzymes and metabolic processes. In addition, there is a great diversity of microorganisms throughout nature that can be tested for modifying and degrading a range of complex organic molecules (Conti et al., 2001).
The number of bioprocesses that are being executed on an industrial scale have grown rapidly. For this reason, and considering these arguments, this chapter reviews developments regarding processes and products that employ microorganisms or enzymes to produce valueadded ingredients.
2 Microbial Production of Ingredients
Advantages of producing ingredients via chemical approaches include the use of a well-established production platform and low costs; however, this method has severe drawbacks, such as the use of toxic and expensive catalysts, the use of high temperature and pressure, high-energy inputs, the generation of toxic intermediates, and the difficulties in producing stereospecific chemicals ( Lee et al., 2012 ). In comparison, microbial production is now recognized as an industry-applicable technology and has developed into an increasingly viable economical alternative for the production of numerous valueadded ingredients ( Bozell and Petersen, 2010; Sun et al., 2015 ). These achievements
have become feasible due to increased understanding of the metabolism and routes of regulation of industrially relevant organisms. However, metabolic engineering methods frequently represent predetermined applications for one specific product and are not appropriate for other applications. Most products obtained by microbial production (native or not) are derived from central metabolites; therefore engineering the central metabolism pathway becomes very attractive, not just for a determined product, but additionally for a complete class of products derived from the given central metabolite ( Eikmanns and Blombach, 2014 ).
Microorganisms (prokaryotic or eukaryotic) possessing a fast growth rate and a simple genetic background are commonly used as hosts to generate innumerable compounds. This strategy suits both metabolic logic, as well as industrial economic scale processes. Many microbial strains, such as Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lactobacillus spp., and so on, are widely used for the production of these valuable ingredients. Other nonconventional hosts have also been explored for their distinctiveness and future large-scale use (Sun et al., 2015) and are described hereafter.
2.1 Flavors
The popularity of natural products has triggered significant research activity in the production of flavor compounds using biocatalysts (Schrader et al., 2004). The tendency of consumers to choose natural flavors rather than chemosynthetic ones prompted researchers to discover new methods to produce natural aromas. From a scientific and technological point of view, this field is highly exciting since it brings together several different branches of science (Lopes et al., 2016b; Macedo et al., 2010; Romero-Guido et al., 2011). In American and European regulations, “natural” is legally defined as a substance that has a plant, animal, or microbial origin or that is produced by a physical, microbial, or enzymatic process. Therefore biotechnological routes may be a way to obtain natural products if they exclude any chemical steps (Romero-Guido et al., 2011).
Flavor production by microbial processing is gaining attention and support from several food agencies, especially in the United States and Europe. Considering microbial metabolism, sugars and amino acids have been considered the two most important initiators for a desired flavor compound (Etschmann et al., 2002). In addition, identifying one microorganism capable of producing a specific flavor molecule is also gaining attention in the scientific community. These strains can be developed by molecular tools or through selection of a wild strain that comes from an environment suitable for production of the given compound (i.e., yeasts from grape residues in the wine plant industries) (Etschmann et al., 2002; Gombert et al., 2016; Morrissey et al., 2015).
In this section the most important flavor compounds will be discussed, including their strain producers, mode of cultivation, and yield or productivity. Based on knowledge of the
pathways involved in flavor synthesis, metabolic strategies, including engineered strains must be designed to improve production.
2.1.1 Diacetyl
Diacetyl has been used in most dairy industry products to increase acceptance because of its buttery flavor. Lactic acid bacteria usually produces diacetyl by citric acid metabolism; however, diacetyl metabolism is not fully understood and there are often difficulties during the manufacture of dairy products (Hugenholtz et al., 2000). Besides diacetyl producing the desired flavor in butter, buttermilk, and cheeses, it is also an important off-flavor in the wine and brewing industries. During fermentation, some microorganisms react with pyruvate to produce α-acetolactate, which is then oxidized to diacetyl (Hugenholtz et al., 2000). In the past 5 years, 6880 papers have been published on diacetyl production, highlighting its importance. Table 1.1 shows the most cited papers on diacetyl production by microbial cultivation and as can be seen, diacetyl production was up- or downregulated based on the medium, pH, temperature, cofactors, and species.
According to Christensen and Pederson (1958), citric acid has been poorly utilized as a carbon source for growth; however, diacetyl synthesis has stimulated this. Heterofermentative bacteria may develop better diacetyl production than homofermentative, although the reason for this is still not fully understood. Hugenholtz et al. (2000) published an engineered Lactococcus lactis for the conversion of sugar into diacetyl. According to the results, 80% of the carbon source was from NADH-oxidase (NOX) overexpression and α-acetolactate decarboxylase (ALDB) inactivation. The NOX enzyme has been used to reduce intracellular NADH to NAD+ and to force the microorganism to produce acetoin or acetyl by the NAD+dependent pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. However, the ALDB enzyme was inactivated and only turned into diacetyl under the presence of oxygen. Taking all these information into account, aerobic microbial cultivation must be performed to enhance flavor production.
2.1.2 Lactones
Lactones are cyclic compounds that have intramolecular ester bonds and belong to an important flavor class (Adams et al., 1998; Vernin and Vernin, 1982). They are widely distributed in nature and play important roles in organisms due to their antifungal (Wedge et al., 2000), antitumor (Saroglou et al., 2010), antimicrobial (Neerman, 2003), and insecticidal (Szczepanic et al., 2016) activities. They can also be metabolic intermediates; be responsible for the odor of flowers and the odor and taste of fruits and vegetables (Adams et al., 1998; Kitaura et al., 2004); be present in foods, such as cheese, bread, and butter (Alewijn et al., 2007; Peterson and Reineccius, 2003); and alcoholic beverages, such as wine, sherry, and whisky (Moreno et al., 2005). Lactones are also pheromones in the insect world, but some isolated from plants and synthetic ones have good antifeedant activity against them (Grudniewska et al., 2013; Mazur et al., 2013). For many of these substances, a stereocenter is found creating enantiomers with different olfactory properties (Hwang et al., 2000).
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the conditions were worse than those of the present day, and much more so than in the eighth and ninth centuries. According to Rabot, it appears from ancient records that considerable areas cultivated in the tenth century are now covered with ice. The first spread of the glaciers took place in the first half of the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the climate of Iceland ameliorated somewhat, but in the seventeenth there was a readvance, which destroyed several farms about 1640 or 1650. Since then there has been a slight retreat.
The ice-conditions of Greenland are closely related to those of Iceland, and the records of the Norse colonization of Greenland bear out the conclusions drawn from the latter island. Up to the close of the twelfth century ice is hardly ever mentioned in the accounts of voyages, though it is now a great hindrance. Eric, the pioneer explorer of West Greenland, spent three successive winters on the islands in Juliaanehaab Bay (latitude 60° 45′ N.), and explored the country during the summer; “this cannot be explained otherwise than by assuming that the Polar ice did not reach Cape Farewell and the west coast of Greenland in those days.” In the thirteenth century ice is first specifically mentioned as a danger to navigation, and at the end of the fourteenth century the old Norse sailing route was on account of ice definitely abandoned in favour of one further south. Shortly afterwards the Norse colonies were wiped out by a southward migration of the Eskimos. Even in Norway itself the fourteenth century was a time of dearth, short harvests and political troubles, when corn had to be imported from Germany instead of being exported to Iceland as in former years.
It should be noted that Pettersson’s conclusions are considered invalid by H. H. Hildebrandsson[8] on the ground of the incompleteness of the records.
For the southern hemisphere our records are naturally much rarer and of less antiquity than for the northern hemisphere, and until the tree-rings are investigated we cannot carry our study back beyond the sixteenth century. From some researches into the municipal archives of Santiago de Chile, latitude 33½° S., published by B. V. Mackenna in 1877, we can infer, however, that the general course of
variation since 1520 was similar to that of corresponding regions in North America. Santiago lies in a semi-arid region where a temporary shortage of water is severely felt, the average annual rainfall being only 364 mm. (14.3 inches). The early travellers, however, make no specific mention of drought, and in 1540 Pedro de Valdivia crossed the desert of Atacama with a column of troops and cattle without inconvenience—a feat which would be difficult nowadays. In 1544 there were heavy rains and great floods in June. The next record is for the year 1609, recording another heavy flood on the Mapocho, which was repeated nine years later in 1618. The first recorded drought occurred in the years 1637 to 1640; there was another flood in 1647, after which came a series of severe droughts interrupted by occasional floods, which lasted until the close of the eighteenth century. The first half of the nineteenth century was again comparatively rainy. The records thus indicate a wet period centred about 1600, followed by a dry period during the eighteenth century, exactly parallel to the records from the United States and Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Huntington, E “The climatic factor as illustrated in arid America ” Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1914
. “The fluctuating climate of North America.” Geogr. J. 40, 1912, pp. 264, 392.
—— “The pulse of Asia ” Boston and New York, 1907
. “World power and evolution.” New Haven, 1919.
Pettersson, O “Climatic fluctuations in historic and prehistoric time ” Svenska Hydrogr -Biol Komm Skrifter, H 5
Rabot, Ch. “Essai de chronologie des variations glaciaires.” Bull. géogr. historique et descriptive, No. 2, 1902.
Brückner, E. “Klimaschwankungen seit 1700” ... Vienna, 1890.
Hildebrandsson, H. H. “Sur le prétendu changement du climat européen en temps historique ” Upsala, Nova Actae Regiae Soc Sci (4), Vol 4, No 5, 1915
Brooks, C. E. P. “An historical notice of the variations of climate in Chile.” Washington, Dept. Agric., U.S. Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Rev. 47, 1919, p. 637.
CHAPTER XVIII
The origin of man from an ape-like ancestor[9] is generally admitted, but owing to the incompleteness of the palæontological record we are still in ignorance as to the circumstances, while the place is generally put vaguely as somewhere in Asia, and the time as the late Tertiary (Prof. Elliot Smith places it near the Siwalik hills in the Miocene). For this early period we are reduced to speculation, in which we may reasonably utilize the facts which we have gained about climatic variation.
The chief problem to be explained is why man’s arboreal ancestor left the safe shelter and easy food supply of his primæval forest and ventured forth into the plains. An article by Professor J. Barrell,[10] of Yale University, gives a plausible account of the change, putting it down to necessity, and not to choice. His theory is that the human ancestor lived in the forests spread over Asia, then a vast wellwatered plain, during the middle-Tertiary period. Then the gradual uplifting of the Himalayas and other mountain ranges caused a decrease in the rainfall of central Asia, so that ultimately the forests were unable to thrive, and gradually gave place to steppe conditions. The change was slow enough to give the less specialized inhabitants of the forest time to change their habits and evolve into forms suitable to a terrestrial life, and the chief of the animals which took advantage of this period of grace was the pre-human. Forced to live on the ground, with a diminishing food supply, only the most progressive individuals were able to survive, and evolution was rapid. The changing type was saved from being submerged in the great mass of the original type in the forests which continued to exist
further south by the impassable wall of mountains. Major Cherry[11] considers that there is sufficient evidence to prove that a portion of this evolution took place on the seashore, an environment which would have been much more favourable to a small ape-like animal than the open steppe would have been. It is quite likely that the earliest migrations, such as that which carried Pithecanthropus to Java, took place along the shore. But after a time, when increasing brainpower and the use of primitive stone implements enabled man to take the offensive against the larger animals, the centre of activity changed to the steppes. A familiar view of the early development of man was advocated by W. D. Mathew,[12] who writes: “In view of the data obtainable from historical record, from tradition, from the present geographical distribution of higher and lower races of men, from the physical and physiological adaptation of all and especially of the higher races, it seems fair to conclude that the centre of dispersal of mankind in prehistoric times was central Asia, north of the great Himalayan ranges, and that when by progressive aridity that region became desert it was transferred to the regions bordering it to the east, south and west. We may further assume that the environment in which man primarily evolved was not a moist tropical climate, but a temperate and more or less arid one, progressively cold and dry during the course of his evolution. In this region and under these conditions, the race first attained a dominance which enabled it to spread out in successive waves of migration to the most remote parts of the earth.”
We do not know anything of the migrations of the Eolithic and earlier Palæolithic races, except that they spread rapidly over a considerable portion of the earth. Both migration and evolution, especially mental evolution, must have been accelerated by the great changes of climate which were taking place. In the Mindel-Riss interglacial period we know of two types, the Piltdown man (Eoanthropus dawsoni) and the Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis), the latter a true man, though probably not on the direct line of evolution of Homo sapiens. The stress of the succeeding second Glacial period was too great for Eoanthropus, which appears to have died out, but Homo, probably an Asiatic or
African type similar to H. Heidelbergensis, survived. The next form, associated with Mousterian implements, is Neanderthal man (H. neanderthalensis), who closely resembled modern man, and all the remains of races which lived subsequently to the last glaciation are those of modern man (H. sapiens), including the magnificent CroMagnards and the negroid Grimaldi race. Thus each glaciation has been marked by a step upwards in the scale of humanity; does this mean that the coming of the super-man is contingent on another glacial epoch?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrell, J. “Probable relations of climatic change to the origin of the Tertiary Apeman.” Scientific Monthly, New York, 4, 1917, p. 16.
Mathew, W D “Climate and evolution ” Annals New York Acad Sci , 24, 1915, p 212 London, British Museum. “A guide to the fossil remains of man....” London, 1918.
CHAPTER XIX
It is a remarkable fact in human history that civilization began in regions which are at present inhabited chiefly by backward races, and the centres of progress have shifted from one country to another with the passage of time. Many accidental factors—position on trade-routes, possession of special mineral advantages, and so on, have undoubtedly played a part in this, but it will not be difficult to show that climatic fluctuations have also had their share.
A brilliant study of Ellsworth Huntington[13] has shown that there are certain optimum conditions of climate which are most suitable for efficient work. These conditions, which were determined by an analysis of the output of work in American factories, were then found to be just those which prevail in the most progressive regions of the globe, which are located in the temperate storm-belts, and it is shown in certain instances that fluctuations in the position of this storm-belt coincided with fluctuations in the centres of civilization. A few additional examples of this may be given.
The beginnings of civilization may reasonably be placed with the transition from the Palæolithic to the Neolithic type, a transition which involved much more than just the polishing of stone weapons. It involved also the beginnings of agriculture, crude pottery, and later, the domestication of animals. One of the earliest Neolithic cities known is probably that of Anau, near Askabad in Transcaspia, excavated by Pumpelly in 1904. From the thickness of the accumulated debris the date of first settlement is placed at or before 8000 . ., i.e. 10,000 years ago, or during the period which in Europe is assigned to the concluding stages of the Wurm glaciation.
Pumpelly’s time-estimates are based on careful comparison with accumulations in Merv and other cities. At present the mean annual rainfall in that part of Turkestan is below ten inches a year, and the country is practically desert, and is entirely unfitted for agriculture. But with the remains of the ice-sheet still over Scandinavia and depressions following a more southerly course along the Mediterranean basin and into southern Asia, the rainfall was considerably heavier, and the climate in general was more suited to a progressive race. At the outset we find this Neolithic race living in rectangular houses built of uniform sun-dried bricks; they were skilful potters, cultivating cereals, but at first without domestic animals.
The beginning of Neolithic civilization in Crete is placed by Evans at about 12000 . ., while on the basis of excavations by de Morgan at Susa in Persia, Montelius places the origin of Neolithic culture in this part of Asia as early as about 18000 . . At Susa the deposits are 130 feet thick, and of these the upper 40 feet cover a period of 6000 years.
Thus we see that what may be considered as the great step from savagery to civilization took place while the present centres of progress in Europe and America were still in the Ice Age. At this time the climate of southern Asia must have resembled the present climate of north-west Europe in heavier rainfall and the day-to-day fluctuations of weather—in fact, the districts where civilization began probably had at that time the most stimulating climate in the northern hemisphere.
With the vanishing of the ice-sheets and the setting in of the mild climate of the Maritime phase the Neolithic culture spread rapidly to Europe, and by 2000 . . even the Baltic regions were well inhabited, and it is probable that the Aryan race was developing in the Russian steppes. About this time Anau was abandoned owing to increasing aridity.
With the coming of the Bronze Age in western Europe, about 1800 . ., however, the climate again became colder and rainier, corresponding to the Peat-bog phase or “Classical” rainfall maximum, the deterioration culminating in the Early Iron Age. This
period was marked by a great southward spread of the Aryan peoples, and ushered in the Heroic Age of Greece. The races of the Mediterranean, as we have seen, continued to thrive throughout this rainy period, and their power did not diminish until its close, about . . 400. This downfall was accelerated if not caused by the pressure of nomad peoples driven out of Asia by the increasing drought. These Asiatic migrations included the great marches of the Tartar hordes and, aided by religious enthusiasm, the conquests of the Moslems.
The early Middle Ages, after the downfall of Rome, appear to have been characterized by a dry warm climate. This was the age of the Vikings, when the Norse races rose to dominance in western Europe, finally invading and occupying large areas of France and Britain, and even extending their power to Sicily. With the increasing cold and wet of the “Mediæval” rainfall maximum came a final burst of Norse migration, which left the homeland poor and scantily populated, and the centre of activity and progress lay once again with the Mediterranean peoples, and especially with Italy and Spain. The Tartar invasions ceased, and against the increasing power of Europe the Moslem wave broke and receded. At the close of this rainy period political dominance again moved north. From that time the fluctuations of climate have been of minor importance, and correspondingly there have been no great shiftings of political power from latitude to latitude.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tyler, J M “The New Stone Age in Northern Europe ” London, 1921 Huntington, Ellsworth, “World Power and Evolution.” New Haven, 1919. Haddon, A C , “The wanderings of peoples ” Cambridge University Press, 1919
APPENDIX
To calculate the probable temperature of January or July at any point, the following procedure should be adopted:
Draw a circle round the point of angular radius ten degrees (i.e. set the compass to cover ten degrees of latitude) and divide this into two halves by a line passing from north to south through the centre. By means of squared tracing paper, or otherwise, measure: (a) the amount of ice in the whole circle; (b) the amount of land in the western half; (c) the amount of land in the eastern half. (a) is expressed as a percentage of the area of the whole circle; (b) and (c) as percentages of the area of a semicircle.
The term “ice” includes ice-sheets such as that of Greenland or Antarctica, and also frozen sea or sea closely covered by pack-ice; the latter figure may vary in different months.
The temperature in January or July is then calculated from the following formula:
Temperature = basal temperature + ice coeff. x per cent. of ice + land west coeff. x per cent. of land to west + land east coeff. x per cent. of land to east.
The basal temperatures and the appropriate coefficients are given in the following table.
In calculating the effect of a given slight change of land and sea distribution, it is not necessary to employ the basal temperature. Instead the equation can be treated as a differential, and the change of temperature due to the change of land and ice calculated from the
figures in columns 3 to 5. The figures are given in degrees absolute, 273°0 = 32° F. To convert differences to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1°8.
July.
In the case of the calculation of the effect of comparatively slight and irregular changes in land and sea distribution in a limited area, such as those of the Littorina Sea referred to on p. 128, it may be found that a ten-degree circle is too wide an area to employ, the changes from land to sea at one point being nullified by changes from sea to land at another more distant point. In such a case a smaller unit such as a circle of five degrees radius can be employed. As a rough approximation it may be said that the effect of the conversion of a square mile of land into sea, or vice versa, on the temperature of a neighbouring point is inversely proportional to its distance. Since the area of a five-degree circle is one-quarter that of a ten-degree circle, while the average distance of the land composing it is one-half, we have to divide our regression coefficients by two in order to fit the new data.
This method was applied to obtain the probable temperature distribution on the shores of the Littorina Sea at its maximum extension, and gave results which agreed remarkably well with those calculated by geologists from the animal and plant life of the time.
See London Q. F. R. Meteor. Soc., 43, 1917, pp. 169-171.
